P.O. Box 5675, Berkeley, CA 94705 USA

DISCRIMINATION AGAINST WOMEN IN THE WORKPLACE

Contact Information: Ida Florianne Kersten, Edith Coliver Intern

ifkersten@usfca.edu Representing Human Rights Advocates through

University of San Francisco School of Law’s International Human Rights Clinic

Tel: 415-422-6961 Professor Connie de la Vega

delavega@usfca.edu

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I.Introduction

We all expect to be judged on our merits at work and to be recognized for our

accomplishments,uniquetalents,insights,andefforts. Butdoesthatactuallyhappen?Sexorgender

discrimination in employment involves treating someone unfavorably because of the person’s sex,

whether theyareapplying fora joborarea currentemployee.Theessenceof sexdiscrimination is

unequaltreatmentonthebasisofsex.Thetreatmentmustnotsimplybedifferent,butalsounequal,

andthereforeunfair.

Discriminationagainstwomenintheworkplaceisabroad,complicatedandverycontroversial

topicthatreachesmanyfacetsofmodernsocietyandculture.Thisreportwilldefineanddiscussthe

history of the issue, examine the gender gap pay, the discrimination policies and discuss solutions.

Particular focus will be paid to public policies and the legal justification and foundation of such

policies.

Evidenceanddiscussion ispresentedbutacloserexamination is takenofcasestudies inthe

United States, Ivory Coast, Mexico, and India. These cases studies show both the benefits and the

limitationsof a legal framework to addressdiscrimination, aswell asotherpotentialpublicpolicies

thatcanaddressdiscriminationagainstwomenintheworkplace.

This analysiswill also address the specific issues of discrimination treatments inworkplace

thathavebeensuccessfullyaddressedthroughlegalmeans,aswellasthosethataremorechallenging

to address. Lastly, recommendations are suggested for reducing gender discrimination in the

workplace.

II.HistoryofDiscriminationAgainstWomen

Discrimination against women has essentially been around since the beginning of time.1In the

developedworld,womenhavemadegreatstridesintheworkplacebutdiscriminationstillexistseven

inthemostprogressiveofsocieties.Inshort,basedonastudyoftheexistingliteratureeachcountry

andeveneach individual cityor region isuniqueandhasauniquehistoryandsetof circumstances

1“DiscriminationAgainstWomen,”NoBullying.com,(Sept.2016)1-2.

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that has created the statusquo that dictates theprevalenceof discrimination againstwomen in the

workplace.

Furthermore,manycasesillustratethatdiscriminationagainstwomenissomethingthatisdeeply

rootedinmanysocietiesandsomethingthatmostpeoplehavegrowthaccustomedto.Thisacceptance

makes change challenging, but not impossible, albeit change will likely takemany years andmove

slowly. The international community has been working along with governments on the issue of

discriminationagainstwomenintheworkplace.

III.InternationalStandardsontheProhibitionofGenderDiscrimination

Thereexistsasignificantbodyofinternationalstandardsthatcodifywhatdiscrimination

basedongenderisandhowtoaddressitthroughalegalframework.Discriminationonthegroundsof

sexisamajorformofdiscrimination,andhasbeenafocusofattentionfortheinternational

communitysincetheSecondWorldWar.2

TheUnitedNation’sInternationalLaborOrganization(ILO)hasdesignatedeightconventions

asembodyingthefundamentalprincipalsandrightsofwomenwithregardtodiscriminationincluding

workplacediscrimination.3ThesemajorinternationalinstrumentsincludetheUniversalDeclaration

ofHumanRights(1948)4;theInternationalCovenantsonCivilandPoliticalRights(ICCPR)5andthe

InternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights(ICESCR)(1966)6;theConventionon

theEliminationofallFormsofDiscriminationagainstWomen(CEDAW)(1979)7anditsOptional

Protocolof1999);theUNDeclarationontheEliminationofViolenceagainstWomen(1993)8;the

2DevahPagerandHanaShepherd.“TheSociologyofDiscrimination:RacialDiscriminationinEmployment,Housing,Credit,andConsumerMarkets,”AnnualReviewofSociology.January1,2008;34:181-182.3“PaperonInternationalLaborStandardsintheContemporaryGlobalEconomy,”GlobalEmploymentInstitute,May2015,pg.6.4“UniversalDeclarationofHumanRights,”UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly,GeneralAssemblyresolution217A,10December1948.http://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/5“InternationalCovenantsonCivilandPoliticalRights,”UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly,19December1966.https://treaties.un.org/doc/publication/unts/volume%20999/volume-999-i-14668-english.pdf6“InternationalCovenantonEconomic,Social,andCulturalRights,”UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly,16December1966.https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=IND&mtdsg_no=IV-3&chapter=4&clang=_en7“ConventionontheEliminationofallFormsofDiscriminationAgainstWomen,”UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly,18December1979,http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/8“DeclarationontheEliminationofViolenceagainstWomen,”UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly,20December1993.http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/48/a48r104.htm

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BeijingDeclarationandPlatformforAction(1995)9anditsfollow-upandtheMillenniumDevelopment

Goals.10

Perhapsthemostsignificantguidingdocumentisthe“ConventionontheEliminationofAll

FormsofDiscriminationAgainstWomen(CEDAW),”whichoutlinestheinternationalstandard

definingdiscriminationagainstwomenandalso“laysdownacomprehensivesetofrightstowhichall

persons,includingwomen,areentitled.”11“TheConventionwasadoptedbytheGeneralAssemblyin

1979toreinforcetheprovisionsofexistinginternationalinstrumentsdesignedtocombatthe

continuingdiscriminationagainst.”12

Article1providesadefinitionofdiscriminationagainstwomenonthebasisofsex,statingthat

thediscriminationagainstwomenshallmeanany“distinction,exclusionorrestrictionmadeonthe

basisofsex”whichhastheeffectof“impairingornullifyingtherecognition,enjoymentandexerciseby

women…ofhumanrightsandfundamentalfreedoms.”13Inaddition,Article1goesstillfurtherand

definesbothdirect,indirectdiscrimination,requiringstatesto“ensureequalityofopportunityand

result.”14

Article11,onemploymentandlaborrights,furtherdelineatesthatparties“shalltakeall

appropriatemeasurestoeliminatediscriminationagainstwomeninthefieldofemploymentinorder

toensure,onabasisofequalityofmenandwomen,thesamerights”andgoesontodescribeanumber

ofadditionalspecificrightsincludingtherighttoequalpay,maternityleave,andemployment

opportunities.15

9“BeijingDeclarationandPlatformforAction,”FourthWorldConferenceonWomen,September1995.http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/platform/10“MillenniumDevelopmentGoals,”MillenniumSummit,CommissionedbytheUNSecretary,September2000.http://www.unmillenniumproject.org/goals/11“ShortHistoryofCEDAWConvention.”UnitedNationsDepartmentofPublicInformation.1-2.http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/history.htm

12“ShortHistoryofCEDAWConvention,”supraat1-2,n.1113Id.14Id.15Id.

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TheUnitedNationshasadoptedaninternationalstandardforhumanrightslawthatstipulates

whatequalpayforequalworkis.EqualpayforequalworkiscoveredbyArticle7oftheInternational

CovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights,16andArticle15ofAfricanCharteronHumanand

Peoples'Rights.17Specifically,Article7oftheInternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCultural

Rightsstatesthat“eachmembershall,bymeansappropriatetothemethodsinoperationfor

determiningratesofremuneration,promoteand,insofarasisconsistentwithsuchmethods,ensure

theapplicationtoallworkersoftheprincipleofequalremunerationformenandwomenworkersfor

workofequalvalue.”18.

IV.CountryExamplesofDiscriminationAgainstWomen

ThefollowingcountrycasestudiesfromtheUnitedStates,IvoryCoast,India,andMexico

providevaluableinsightintothelegalframeworkandprevalenceofworkplacegenderdiscrimination

againstwomen.

A. UnitedStates

1. LegalFramework

TherearemanystudiesexaminingdiscriminationintheUnitedStates.19Thisdiscriminationexists

despitelawsthatseektoendgenderdiscriminationintheUnitedStates.20Discriminationinthe

workplaceisprohibitedbylawandenforcedbytheEqualEmploymentOpportunityCommission.21

TitleVIIoftheCivilRightsActof1964isafederallawthatrecognizestheprotectionofindividuals

fromdiscriminationbasedonsex.22Thislawmakesitillegalforanemployertodiscriminateagainst

individualsinhiring,firing,andothertermsandconditionsofemployment,suchaspromotions,raises,

16 “InternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights,”UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly,Article7,(Dec.1966).17“AfricanCharteronHumanandPeoples'Rights,”OrganizationofAfricanUnity,1979,Article15.18“InternationalCovenantonSocialEconomic,andCulturalRights,”UnitedNationsHumanRights,OfficeoftheHighCommissioner.Article7.http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CESCR.aspx 19“USMakesStridesTowardEquality,ButWorkRemains,”byMiaBush,VOANews,March8,2016,1-5.http://www.voanews.com/a/international-womens-day-us-women-gender-equality-work-remains/3223162.html20“Idat6.21“USEqualEmploymentCommission,”website,Statuessection.https://www.eeoc.gov/laws/statutes/22“TitleVIIoftheCivilRightsActof1964,”Preamble.https://www.eeoc.gov/laws/statutes/titlevii.cfm

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andotherjobopportunitiesbecauseoftheirsex.23Thelawsofmoststatesalsomakeitillegalto

discriminateonthebasisofsex.24TheEqualEmploymentOpportunityCommission(EEOC)isthe

agencyofthefederalgovernmentresponsibleforinvestigatingchargesofjobdiscriminationrelatedto

sexdiscriminationinworkplacesof15ormoreemployees.Moststatesalsohavetheirownagencies

thatenforcestatelawsagainstdiscrimination.25

Womenwhoarediscriminatedagainstunderthelawsofthestatesandfederalgovernmenthave

recoursetothecourts,butthisrequireshiringalawyerandgoingthroughthelegalprocess,whichis

expensive.26Barrierstoequalityincludelackofinformationabouttheirrights,potentialremediesand

theabilitytobringsuitsagainstpotentialviolationsduetoeconomichardship.27

2. GenderWorkplaceDiscrimination

Asignificantamountofresearchandstudyhasbeendoneonwomen’srightsand

discriminationagainstwomenintheUnitedStates.28Theresearchshowsthatdespitefarreaching

lawsandpublicpoliciesthatseektoaddressworkplacediscriminationwidespreaddiscriminationstill

existsbasedongenderintheworkplacesuchasunequalpay,interviewquestions,diminished

responsibilities,glassceiling.29Thefindingssuggestthattheworkisnotdoneandadvocatesmust

continuetopushfornewandinnovativewaystoaddressthegenderpaygap,andotherdiscriminatory

policies.30

TheUnitedStateshasmadegreatstridestocombatgenderdiscriminationsincethefirstwomen’s

Marchin1908.31Butacloserlookshowsthatwomenearnfarlessforthesameamongofwork,and

thisvariesgreatlywithlocation,arecommonlystuckinlow-wagejobs,andfacefargreaterbarriersto

23Idat1-10,n.2224“KnowYourRights:TitleVIIoftheCivilRightsActof1964.”AmericanAssociationofUniversityWomen(AAUW),website.http://www.aauw.org/what-we-do/legal-resources/know-your-rights-at-work/title-vii/25“Sex/GenderDiscrimination,”WorkplaceFairnesswebsite,1-10.http://www.workplacefairness.org/sexual-gender-discrimination26“SexualHarassment:LegalStandards,”WorkplaceFairnesswebsite,http://www.workplacefairness.org/sexual-harassment-legal-rights#9,1-3.27“SexualHarassment:LegalStandards,”note15.28Idat1-3,n.229Idat5-17,n.230Id.31Idat1-6,n.19

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careeradvancementthantheirmalecounterparts.32TheWorldEconomicForumindicatesthatthe

U.S.ranks28thoutof145countriesinannualworldrankingsfortheequalityofwomen,basedonan

economic,educational,health-basedandpoliticalindicators.33

B.IvoryCoast

1.LegalFramework

Article30oftheIvoirianConstitution—adoptedfollowingareferendumin2000—grantsequal

rightstowomenandArticle3commitsthestatetotakingappropriatemeasurestoensurethe

developmentofwomenandrealizationoftheirhumanrights.34Thecountryratified(CEDAW)in

1995,andin2012,itratifiedtheOptionalProtocolonviolenceagainstwomen.35TheIvoryCoasthas

alsosigned,butnotratified,theProtocoltotheAfricanCharteronHumanandPeoples’Rightsonthe

RightsofWomeninAfrica.”36

Thereareanumberofotherlaws,whichseektoaddressdiscrimination,buttherearemajor

loopholesandissueswiththeenforcementoftheselaws.37Reliablestatisticsarenotavailabledueto

twocivilwarsin2002and2010,butsubstantialtestimonyandanecdotalreportsgatheredbyHuman

RightsWatchandAmnestyInternationalindicatethatsuchgenderdiscriminationiswidespread.38

2. DiscriminationAgainstWomenintheWorkplace

“Overall,women’spositioninIvoiriansocietyremainslow,withmanysubjectedtodiscriminatory

practices,significantlylimitingthecapacityofwomentoplayanactiveroleinsociety,aswellas

32GarySiniscalco,LauriDamrell,andClaraMorainNabity.“ThePayGap,theGlassCeiling,andPayBias:MovingForwardFiftyYearsAftertheEqualPayAct,”ABAJournalofLaborandEmploymentLaw,Vol.29,Number3,Spring2014,1-5.33“GlobalGenderGapReport,”WorldEconomicForum,2016,onlinereport,UnitedStatesFindings,http://reports.weforum.org/global-gender-gap-report-2015/blogs-and-opinion/34“SocialInstitutionsandGenderIndex,”OECDDevelopmentCentre,2014,Coted’IvoireSummarySection,pg1.http://www.genderindex.org/country/cote-d03935“SocialInstitutionsandGenderIndex,”supraat1,n.3436Idat1,n.35

37“CommitteeontheEliminationofDiscriminationagainstWomenconsidersreportofCoted’Ivoire,”ReportfromtheUNCommitteeontheEliminationofDiscriminationagainstWomen,(Oct.2011),1-5,http://reliefweb.int/report/c%C3%B4te-divoire/committee-elimination-discrimination-against-women-considers-report-c%C3%B4te-d38“CommitteeontheEliminationofDiscriminationagainstWomenconsidersreportofCoted’Ivoire,”supraat1-5,n.37

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representingviolationsoftheirhumanrights,”accordingtoareportbyOECDDevelopmentCenter.39

However,thereislimiteddataavailablewithregardtoworkplacediscriminationagainstwomeninthe

IvoryCoast.TheNationalCommitteetoCombatViolenceAgainstWomenandChildrenrankstheIvory

Coast136thinthegenderinequalityindexpertheUNDP2011gender-relateddevelopmentindex.40

Thislowrankingcomesdespitethefactthatthecountryhasratifiedseveralinternationalandregional

conventionsonequaldignityandrightsforallcitizens.Inthatreport,CEDAWCommitteehasnoted

“whiletherearealmostequalrightsformenandwomen,nointerestisgiventogenderandwomen

empowermentissuesintheimplementationofnationalpolicies”.41Culturalfactorsperpetuate

traditionsthatareharmfulwomen,whichareusetojustifydiscriminationinworkplace.42

C. Mexico

1. Legalframework

Inaccordancewithinternationalstandards,Mexicohasenactedaseriesoflawsthatpromote

genderequalityincludingequalpayforequalworklaws,maternitylaws,andequalopportunitylaws.43

InOctober2015,theMinistryofLaborandSocialWelfare,togetherwiththeNationalInstitutefor

WomenandtheNationalCounciltoPreventDiscrimination,publishedtheMexicanStandardonEqual

EmploymentOpportunitiesandNon-discrimination.44Thestandardisnon-bindingbutis“intendedto

serveasaguidelinetoensurecompliancewithnationalandinternationallawsonemployment

discrimination,”accordingtoapublicationbytheInternationalLawOffice.45

39Idat1,n.3540“BeingaWomaninCoted’Ivoire:EmpowermentChallenges,”AbidjanCountryOfficeGenderConsultationsReportSummary,WorldBank,June2013,3.http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/263671468243906965/pdf/797440WP0Cote00Box0379789B00PUBLIC0.pdf41“CommitteeontheEliminationofDiscriminationagainstWomenconsidersreportofCoted’Ivoire,”supra11,n.37

42Idat4,8-9n.3743“NewStandardIssuedonEqualEmploymentOpportunitiesandNon-Discrimination,”InternationalLawOffice,(Dec.2015),pgs.1-3.http://www.internationallawoffice.com/Newsletters/Employment-Benefits/Mexico/Santamarina-y-Steta/New-standard-issued-on-equal-employment-opportunities-and-non-discrimination44“NewStandardIssuedonEqualEmploymentOpportunitiesandNon-Discrimination,”supraat1,n.4345Idat1,n.43

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UndertheMexicanConstitution,menandwomenareequalbeforethelawandallcitizenshavethe

freedomtoworkinalawfulprofessionoftheirchoice.46TheConstitutionalsoenumeratesanumber

ofequalrights,regardlessofgender,includingthepreventionofdiscriminationagainstworking

mothers.47MexicanFederalLaborLawalsostatesthatemployeesperformingequalworkmust

receiveequalpay.48

DespitetheseConstitutionalandfederalprotections,genderdiscriminationinemploymentpersists

inMexico.49Overthepastfewyears,theMexicangovernmenthasconsideredvariousproposalsto

furtherreformthecountry’slaborlaws.OnNovember29,2012,departingMexicanPresidentFelipe

deJesúsCalderónsignedacomprehensivereformofMexico’sFederalLaborLaw(FLL),instituting

morethan300changes,effectiveDecember1,2012.50Mexico’sgovernmentstatedthatthepurposeof

thisbillistoincreaseproductivityandbetterpayingjobs,whilealsoallowinggreateremployment

accessforwomenandyoungerworkers.TheamendmentsalignMexicowithinternationalanti-

discriminationandharassmentstandardsbyexpresslyprohibitingdiscriminationonthebasisof

ethnicorigin,nationality,disability,healthconditions,religion,immigrationconditions,opinions,

sexualpreferenceorcivilstatus.ThisisimportantbecauseemployersinMexicoareprohibitedfrom

requestingpregnancytestsasahiringcondition,andtheycannotrequireawomantoresigndueto

pregnancyorchangeofcivilstatus.51

2.DiscriminationAgainstWomenintheWorkplace

GenderinequalityinMexicohasbeendiminishingthroughouthistory,butcontinuestopersistin

manyforms.Asof2016,theWorldEconomicForumrankedMexico66thintermsofgenderequality

outof144countries.52InMexico,26percentofwomenreportedlabordiscriminationin2015.53 The

46PaulHastings,“GenderParity:Mexico,”pgs.1-2.https://www.paulhastings.com/genderparity/countries/mexico.html47“1917ConstitutionofMexico,”Articles4-5.https://www.oas.org/juridico/mla/en/mex/en_mex-int-text-const.pdf48PaulHastings,supraat1-2,n.4649“Mexico:29%to42%ofWomenSufferSomeWorkplaceViolence,”LaJornada,10December2015,pgs.1-2.50DianaJ.Nehro,“MexicoLaborReformIncreasesProtectionforEmployeesandClarityforEmployers,”publishedbyOgletree,Deakins,Nash,Smoak&Stewart,Feb12,2013,pgs.1-3.51DianaJ.Nehro,supraat1-3,n.5052“TheGlobalGenderGapReport2016,”WorldEconomicForum,OnlineSummaryandFullReport,2016.http://reports.weforum.org/global-gender-gap-report-2016/

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lawprovideswomenthesamelegalstatusandrightsasmenand“equalpayforequalworkperformed

inequaljobs,hoursofwork,andconditionsofefficiency.”AccordingtoElInstitutoNacionaldelas

Mujeres(INMUJERES),Mexicanwomencontinuedtoearnbetween5and30percentlessthanmenfor

comparablework,whereastheWorldEconomicForumreportedwomenearned43percentlessthan

menforcomparablework.Womenweremorelikelytoexperiencediscriminationinwages,working

hours,andbenefits.54

Anexpert,PatriciaEspinosa,PresidentoftheNationalInstituteforMexicanWomen,statesthat

despitesignificantstepstakenbythegovernmentofMexicotofulfillitscommitmentsunderthe

ConventiononAllFormsofDiscriminationagainstWomen“discriminationagainstwomenremaineda

constantthatviolatedtheprinciplesofequalityandrespectforhumandignityandprofoundly

influencedthatdevelopmentofMexicansociety.”55ThekeychallengesofthecurrentAdministration

includefosteringacultureofnon-violence,bringingjudicialpracticeinlinewithinternational

instrumentsconcerningprotectionandpromotionofwomen’srights,motivatingchangesinsexistand

discriminatorypractices;andincorporatingagenderapproachintopublicspendingandbudgeting.56

D. India

1. LegalFramework

TheConstitutionofIndiahasseveralprovisions,whichgrantcertainfundamentalrightstoits

citizens,whichincludesrighttoequalityunderthelaw.Article14oftheConstitution,which

“guaranteesequalitybeforelaw”,andArticle15“prohibitsstatefromdiscriminationonthegrounds

sex,”bothapplytothepublicsectorwhichhiresthemostwomen.57TheEqualRemunerationActof

1976statesthatitisthedutyofemployerstopayequalremunerationtomenandwomenworkersfor

thesameworkorworkofasimilarnature.58Section5oftheActprohibitsemployersfromformulating

53“Mexico:29%to42%ofWomenSufferSomeWorkplaceViolence,”supraat1-2,n.4954HumanRightsReport,Mexico2015,page20,citetoINMUREJES.55“MexicanWomenStillFaceDiscrimination,DespiteSignificantSteps,CommitteeTold,”UnitedNationsArchives,PressRelease,2002,pg.1.56Idat1-3,n.5057“India:TheLegalFrameworkforWomenandWork,”CatalystInformationCenter,October2012,1-3,citetoconstitution.58“EqualRemunerationAct,1976,”ArticleII.http://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/equal_remuneration_act_1976_1.pdf

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ahiringprocessthatputswomenatadisadvantageonaccountoftheirgenderwithrespecttohiring,

compensation,transfers,andpromotions.However,“discriminationonthebasisofsexisnot

prohibitedunderthelawforthoseinvolvedintheprivatesector,thelawchangedbelow.”

Discriminationintheprivatesectoroftencomesintheformofrefusingtograntajob,ordismissing

womenfromajobwhensheisfoundtobepregnant.59In2005,theNationalCommissionforWomen

draftedabillentitled.“TheprotectionofwomenfromDomesticviolencerules”,ofwhichaversion

finallypassedintheLokSabhain2012.60Thebilliscelebratedforthecontentsofthepreamble,which

statesthatsexualharassmentisaviolationofwomen’sfundamentalrights.61Thebillalsooutlinesa

uniformprocedureforconductinginquiriesintocomplaintsofsexualharassmentacrossaverywide

rangeofemployersincludinggovernment,armedforces,privateorganizedsectoraswellasthe

unorganizedsector.62Inshort,thebillenvisionsthateveryworkplaceshouldhaveaforumtotakeup

complaintspertainingtosexualharassment.63

GenderjusticehasbecomeaburningissueinIndiawithinthelastdecade,particularlyinlight

oftheincreasedfocusbynon-Governmentalorganizationsandwomen’sgroups.64“Themajorityof

employersstilldonothaveComplaintsCommitteesestablished.Apartfromafewpublicsectorbodies,

universities,andsomelargeprivatecompanies,ComplaintsCommitteeshavenotbeensetupona

largescale”.65Theyareoftensetupquicklyandevenwhentheyaresetuptheyremainlargelynon-

activismwithmanyjusticesgivingincreasedimportancetotherightsofwomen.66

Vishakhav.StateofRajasthanisanIndianSupremeCourtlandmarkcaseonwomen

discriminationonAugust13,1997,whereVishakhaandotherwomengroupsfiledPublicInterest

59“PregnancyRemainsaCurseforWorkingWomeninCorporateIndia,”QuartzIndia,April17,2015,1-3.https://qz.com/385866/pregnancy-remains-a-curse-for-working-women-in-corporate-india/60RameshaNiratanka,“GenderDiscriminationattheWorkplace,”(Jan.2016),pg.4.https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/gender-discrimination-workplace-ramesha-niratanka61RameshaNiratanka,supraat4,n.6062Idat4,n.6063Idat5,n.6064RajaniSuresh,Dr.SambaturScridharandSnehaS.Kairanna.“ASystemsApproachtoCombatWorkplaceSexualHarassment,”IOSRJournalofHumanitiesandSocialScience,(Oct.2014),pgs.29-36.65“ASystemsApproachtoCombatWorkplaceSexualHarassment,”supraat5,n.6466Idat5,n.64

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Litigation(PIL)againstStateofRajasthanandUnionofIndiatoenforcethefundamentalrightsof

workingwomenunderArticles14,19and21oftheConstitutionofIndia.Thecourtdecidedthatthe

considerationof"InternationalConventionsandnormsaresignificantforthepurposeof

interpretationoftheguaranteeofgenderequality,righttoworkwithhumandignityinArticles14,15,

19(1)(g)and21oftheConstitution."67

2. DiscriminationAgainstWomenintheWorkplace

Despitelegalprotections,discriminationagainstwomenintheworkplacepersistsinIndia.Arecent

pollbyOpportunityNow,whichsurveyedmorethan25,000womenfoundthatalmostone-fifthof

womensurveyedsaidtheircareershavestalledbecausemanagersfailedtopromotethemoroffer

trainingopportunities.68AccordingtoasurveymadebyTeamLease,some48%ofIndianswomen

havefacedsomekindofdiscriminationattheworkplace.69Thisisdespitethelawsthatmakecertain

typesofdiscriminationillegalsuchasequalremunerationanddiscriminationduetopregnancy.70

IV.PotentialSolutions

Ashasbeendiscussed,discriminationagainstwomenintheworkplaceremainsacriticalissue,even

inwhatarewidelyperceivetobe“progressive”societiessuchastheUnitedStates.Thecausesrun

deepandtouchtheveryfabricofsocietyandunderlyingtheeconomicproblemsthatarethecauseof

somuchstrifeintheworld.Mostcountrieshavesomesortofconstitutionalprotection,whichpromise

equaltreatmentunderthelawaswellasspecificlawsoutlawingspecifictypesofdiscriminationinthe

workplacebasedongender.Theselawsarebynomeansuniform,andenforcementvariesfromspotty

tonon-existent.ForexampleasdiscussedintheMexico,IvoryCoast,andIndiacountrysections,

significantloopholesstillexistbothinthelegaldefinitionsandtheabilitytobringcomplaintspursuant

67Vishakav.StatesofRajasthanandothers(1997SupremeCourt3011),citetoConstitution,Articles24,29,21.hpps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/vishaka-guidelines68“ManyWomenFaceDiscriminationattheWorkplace,”TimesofIndia,(Feb.2014),1-3.http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/relationships/work/Many-women-face-discrimination-at-workplace/articleshow/28186529.cms69“WorkplaceBiasesStillRampantinIndia:TeamLeaseStudy,”PRIPress,(Aug.2013)1-2.http://nripress.com/workplace-biases-still-rampant-in-india-teamlease-study/70“Idat1-2.

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totheselegalprotections.Thus,thereisstillalotofroomforimprovementinthewayoflegislative

protectionsthatseektotackletheproblem.Legislatingalonewillnotsolvetheproblemandmay

resultinaproblemwherelawsareonthebooksthatarerarelyenforcedduetosocialnormsandlack

ofenforcementpowersandmechanisms.Withthatsaid,basedontheliteratureandlegalframework,

thereexistssignificantlegalprecedentinmostcountriesthatcanbefurtherutilizedtobuiltuponand

addresstheissue.

Therealsoexistsomeinnovativesolutionsthatworkacrosscountries,whichcouldbepursuedina

moreuniformbasisaroundtheworld.71Forexample,theprivatesectorneedstotakesome

responsibilityforcombattingworkforcediscrimination,particularlysinceitisintheirfinancial

interesttodoso.72Workplacepoliciesneedtobeenactedtosetguidelinesfordiscriminationaswell

asremedieswhentheirguidelinesarebroken.73Fundinganddedicatedenforcementunitsalsoneed

tobecreatedeitheraspartofgovernmentorinmajorcorporationstohandlesuchcomplaints.There

aresomelimitsregardingtheextenttowhichworkplacediscriminationagainstwomencanbe

addressedinthepoliticalareaduetolackofpoliticalwill.Itwilltakealotoftimetoorganize,but

majorwomen’sorganizationsandfoundationscouldlookatrunningbroadscalepublicinformation

campaignstofurtherraiseawarenessoftheissueandspurpoliticalaction.Inaddition,discrimination

andworkplacebarrierstoequalityarecommonlylinkedtowidespreadpoverty,economicstrife,and

lackofaneducationsystemthatpromotesupwardmobility.74

Eachcountryandstatepartystartsinadifferentplacebasedonitssocioeconomicandpolitical

conditions,aswellasitssocietalnorms.Therefore,thesolutionsmustlargelybestateorcountry-

specific.Thereisavastbodyoflegaldefinitions,guidelines,conventions,andprecedentthatcanbe

usedtoenactbetterlaws,improveexistinglaws,andcloseloopholes.75Butthereismuchroomfor

innovativeapproachesbasedonthespecificsocioeconomicconditions,andpoliticalconsiderations71“ABCofWomen’sWorkerRightsandGenderEquality,”InternationalLaborOrganization,UnitedNations,pgs.20-30.72“PregnancyRemainsaCurseforWorkingWomeninCorporateIndia,”Supranote59,pgs.1-3.73Dr.ArundhatiBhattacharyya.“IndianWomenintheWorkplace,”MediterraneanJournalofSocialSciences,July2015,121.74“SocialInstitutionsandGenderIndex,”supraat1,n.3475“ABCofWomen’sWorkerRightsandGenderEquality,”Supranote71.

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thatexistinthecountry.Recentworldwidewomen’smarchesandeventsheldinJanuary2017,

particularlyinresponsetosomeofPresidentTrump’spositionsonwomen’sissues,demonstratethat

thereisasignificantdesiretoaddresswomen’sissues,includingworkplacediscrimination,fromthe

generalpopulace.76Effortstoaddressworkplacediscriminationmustalsotakerelatedissuesinto

accountsuchaseconomicopportunity,prevalenceofpoverty,andeducationaladvancement.

Conclusion

Thisresearchhassoughttoprovideanintroductionandsummaryoftheworldwideissueof

workplacediscriminationbasedongenderespeciallywomen.Wehaveseenthatthisisanextremely

broadandcomplicatedtopic.Furthermore,onaglobalscalediscriminationagainstwomenisstilla

seriousissuethatmeritsattentioninthesocietyingeneral.Eachcountryandsocietyhasit’sown

uniquehistoryontheissuewhichexplainstheprevalenceandnatureoftheproblemwithinits

borders.

ExaminationofemploymentbasedgenderdiscriminationintheUnitedStates,IvoryCoast,Mexico,

andIndiagasshownthateachcountryisinitsownuniqueplaceandgasitsownuniquesetof

circumstancesthatreformersmuchacknowledgeandunderstand.

76“Women’sMarchHighlightsasHugeCrowdsProtestTrump,”NewYorkTimes,January21,2017.https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/21/us/womens-march.html