Dilemmas in Truth and Science

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Dilemmas in Truth and Science

Inquiries in the Midst of the Science Wars

by

Timothy McGettigan


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Table of Contents

Message to the Reader...............................................................................................................................3

Chapter 1 - ncorrected !nsight..............................................................................................................."

Chapter # - Reflections in an nblin$ing %ye....................................................................................... #"

Chapter 3 - Redefining Reality............................................................................................................... &3

Chapter & - 'la(ed by Design.................................................................................................................)1

Chapter " - *nomaly +,erload...............................................................................................................1

*fter(ord.................................................................................................................................................3

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To the Reader

Though it may not appear so at first glance, the chapters that follow are all of a piece. Each is

part of a larger endeavor to evaluate the role and veracity of truth in the realm of science. Duringthe 1990s, when I composed the maority of these proects, postmodernists appeared to gaining

the upper hand in the !cience "ars. To put it #luntly, postmodernists had declared that sciencewas evil and truth was dead. $lthough certain elements of the postmodern criti%ue clearly had

merit, the #roader implications for truth and science were more pro#lematic.

In the chapters that follow, I develop a critical analysis of the philosophy and practice ofscience. "hile I ac&nowledge the tic&lish pro#lems that coercive power often e'ercises over

&nowledge, ultimately, I arrive at a very different conclusion than postmodernists a#out the value

of truth and the future of science.

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C/*0T%R +%

ncorrected !nsight1

'rom Confusion to Clarity on the Green Tortoise

*bstract

*ostmodernists have critici+ed scientific truth for serving as a means to impose "estern

ideology around the glo#e -emert, 1991, 1999 !eidman, 1991/. evertheless, luehr-o##an

1993/ points out that underdefining truth compromises human rights #y surrenderinglimitations upon coercion. In this paper, I advance a 4redefined5 6c7ettigan, 1998a, 1999a/

version of truth that, I argue, is well suited to update the criteria of 4good science.5

!ntroduction

In this paper, I document e'periences from a 7reen Tortoise adventure in order to advance a

4redefined5 version of scientific truth 6c7ettigan, 199, 1998a, 1998#,1999a, 2000/. The

discussion #egins with a description of my initial orientation to the 7reen Tortoise:which wasrooted in an uncritical acceptance of standard research practices. ;owever, an unanticipated

emergency altered my perspective profoundly. During a crossing of the


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'ield Research on the Green Tortoise

The site of my research proect was a fourteen day, !an rancisco to ew Aor&, adventure trip

on the 7reen Tortoise in >cto#er of 199(. The 7reen Tortoise is a #us travel company, #ased in

!an rancisco, that emerged from the youth countercultures of the 19=0s. During the si'ties anum#er of small companies offered crosscountry #us trips as alternatives to mainstream carriers

e.g., 7reyhound, Trailways/. The Tortoise outlived its upstart competitors #y converting itsroutine crosscountry trips into adventures.

0hoto 12 The Green Tortoise

The philosophy of the 7reen Tortoise i.e., $rrive inspired, not dog tired/ is to elevatethe status and comfort of #eing on the road. This is achieved in part #y remodeling each of its

#uses with cushioned, woodcrafted #enches, ta#les, and platforms. $lso, the TortoiseBs open

seating arrangement encourages the uninitiated to get ac%uainted rapidly. -ast #ut not least, theTortoise is also e%uipped with its own provisions and &itchen. Thus, most #asic creature

comforts are well tended on a 7reen Tortoise adventure.1

1$lso see eumann 199(/ for an account of a trip that he too& in 198.

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0hoto #2 *n !nterior Shot of the Tortoise

6any of the 19=0s countercultures failed due to organi+ational dilemmas Canter,

192/. evertheless, since then a variety of unconventional #usinesses:such as food coops,

neocommunes, alternative newspapers, coffee houses, etc.:have attempted to stri&e a #alance#etween organi+ational via#ility and a reection of mainstream culture


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getting in *ollner and Emerson, 198(/.

Tension and !ntolerance on a eo-/ippie us

>ne of the uni%ue features of the 7reen Tortoise is that 4getting in,5 or what "a' 191/ refers

to as 4the first and most uncomforta#le stage of fieldwor&,5 is e%ually difficult for all. ieldresearchers often study well esta#lished groups, and, prior to initiation, they appear to #ehopelessly inept outsiders Evans*ritchard, 19)0 6alinows&i, 19= 6ead, 19==/. ;owever,

on the Tortoise there was no preesta#lished community. Instead, all of the passengers were

cast into the role of #ungling outsiders.

In fact, developing a cohesive ingroup is one of the principle elements of Tortoise

ourneys. $dventure travel on the Tortoise is predicated upon cramming over#oo&ed

passengers onto old, refur#ished #uses and ta&ing them on long trips without preciseitineraries. ecause the #uses are usually very crowded e.g., there were fortytwo passengers

on this ourney/ passengers are forced to violate many of the niceties of conventional crowd

#ehavior. !ean, a passenger on his si'th adventure trip, noted that a common saying on the

7reen Tortoise is 46ove your meat, lose your seat.5 evertheless, I was alarmed throughoutthe first few days #ecause of how often I #umped into others and invaded their space:no

matter how illdefined.

urther elevating on#oard tension, the drivers, named urt and $rthur who appeared to

#e charter mem#ers of the lower *ower movement/ &ept asserting that we would all #enefit

#y shedding our inhi#itions. 6any of the women felt particularly threatened #y such comments:rolling their eyes, crossing their arms, and sha&ing their heads in goodnatured disgust:

especially when the drivers advocated nudity and se'.

The drivers often spo&e reverently of their e'ploits with uninhi#ited, se'cra+ed

passengers, and, indeed, they did more than preach. "henever the opportunity arose:and it

did regularly:the drivers demonstrated their disdain for social norms #y shedding theirclothing. urt, the lead driver, professed that his advocacy of se' and nudity derived from a

deepseated resentment of mainstream social repression. $ccording to urt, discomfort with

se' and nudity was simply the result of a warped, sociallyimposed sense of privacy anddecency.

In &eeping with this attitude, the design of the Tortoise invo&es routine assaults on

passengersB personal space and privacy. "hen a woman o#ected to having a man near#y whileshe changed clothing, urt vetoed her #y shouting 4;ey, weBre all peopleF5 In fact, there was

little sense in see&ing privacy on the #us. *assengers had a choice #etween changing clothes in

the semiprivacy of outhouses or roadside #ushes, or a#andoning discretion and changing inpu#lic.


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0hoto 32 * Desert Stopo,er

$lthough the Tortoise visits many conventional places e.g., truc& stops, grocery stores,

freeways, national par&s/, it also travels to many unconventional destinations. >n day two, we

traveled to a remote, cactus #estrewn corner of the 6oave Desert called Deep ree& ;ot!prings. Despite initial enthusiasm, many passengers were alarmed to learn that the springs

were 4clothing optional.5 $t that stage, few of the passengers:least of all the females:felt

comforta#le a#out swimming nude. "hile urt gamely too& advantage of the noclothing

option, several witnesses disapproved indignantly of his #ehavior.

The tension and intolerance resulting from such flagrant violations of social conventions

made all the passengers wary o#servers. This heightened guardedness created an effect thatwas opposite of the intended Tortoise e'perience i.e., a friendly, tolerant traveling

community/. The passengers #ecame e'ceedingly conscious of the #arriers that normally

maintain social distances and privacy:and clung to them doggedly.

I got the feeling, as I o#served the passengersB vigilance, that we were all going to #e

outsiders forever. $nyone who #ehaved too casually was viewed with much the same suspicionas the drivers. "hen !ean ha+arded a swim without his #athing suit, I heard Carl, another male

passenger, snarl derisively 4$renBt we luc&yF !ean is giving us a strip teaseF5 !till, the drivers

appeared untrou#led a#out the prospects for an unsuccessful Tortoise trip. It was only the

second day and there were many more surprises in store.

4ingering Suspicions

"hile the drivers studiously ignored the tension created #y their insouciance, some passengersattempted hesitantly to do li&ewise. Indeed, most of the male passengers tended to feel less

threatened #y the drivers. $n illustrator from anada named ;al, said he thought all the se'

tal& was 4ust a way of getting to &now each other.5

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The driversB articulated reasons for conspiring against inhi#itions were often

superficially nonvoyeuristic. Time and time again, urt and $rthur emphasi+ed their primary

o#ective was to #e 4cool.5 In addition to #eing more tolerant of nudity and se', 4#eing cool5implied that one should not fret:as uptight travelers generally do:a#out schedules, routes

and destinations. The drivers typical responses to %ueries a#out the itinerary were? 4$re you

happy with where youBre atG If you are, then rela' and enoy yourself. If not, how will going tosome other place solve your pro#lemG5


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the riverBs strong current. "hen the stream slac&ened I lifted my head and was struc& #y a glo#

of mud. or the ne't twenty minutes, mud flew wildly and the air filled with a rich, earthy

fragrance. "hile, for the most part, the mud #attle served as a harmless, tensionrelievinggame, there were several casualties? !ean was struc& in the left eye, and !andra, normally a

cheerful !wiss woman, suffered a direct hit in the mouth.

Just as the mud #attle was #eginning to su#side, $rthur noticed that 6aggie, arla, and-eslie three principal mem#ers of the disapproving group/ had crossed the river #ut were

standing #eyond the range of #attle. "ith a piercing shrie&, $rthur charged out of the waterand sprinted after the women. "hile she ran, -eslie roared, 4Ceep away from me, you dirty,

na&ed, disgusting hippieF5 $s $rthur strea&ed after his prey, I was struc& #y the aptness of this

image. The more that $rthur and urt pressed their agenda, the more they incited fear,

reection, and disgust among their targets. *erhaps ;o##es 199=/ was right in claiming that,minus strict social constraints, we might all #ecome howling, lascivious werewolves li&e

$rthur.

*hoto )? ig end amp !ite

ollowing the mud #attle most of the former com#atants got together for a #eer.Interestingly, as the atmosphere #ecame more chummy, the disapproving group #ecame morephysically and socially reclusive. ;al shot me a pu++led loo& after spotting the solitary cli%ue

and as&ed 4"hy did they come on the TortoiseG5

$t the time, I shared ;alBs perple'ity. I sympathi+ed with the disapproving group,

however, my goal was to o#serve evolvinggroup dynamics on the Tortoise:and it appeared as

though the disapprovers were holding up the process. Impatiently, I thought that if the

disapprovers would ust rela', they might do us the courtesy of permitting 4more important5

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developments to unfold. $lthough I had not tried this line of argument on the disapproving

group, others had:#ut to no avail. The disapprovers were far too suspicious to #e #udged #y

argument. In fact, the more compelling the argument, the more their suspicions were aroused.

evertheless, over the course of the ne't twentyfour hours, the disapproversB attitudes

finally yielded. Interestingly, however, this turna#out was produced #y neither argument nor

appeal.


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pushed the craft into the current. There were two oars in the #oat, and I was annoyed when Ja&e,

a perpetually drun&en 4freerider,5 refused the #oatmanBs re%uest for assistance. The #oatman

had to tug hard through the current. >n the far side, a man stood %uietly #y a pic&up truc&, andas his customers scram#led ashore, the #oatman directed them to pay the 4nice man5 two

dollars? one for the trip they had ust ta&en and another for their return. They paid their fares and

wandered across a wide #each covered with large, round stones.The #oatman wasted no time in shooting #ac& across the river. "e refilled the #oat and

then !ean helped paddle through the current. $fter landing we followed the esta#lished routine?

paying the #oatmanBs partner and then pic&ing up the trail to o%uillas. $t the outs&irts of the

village, the trail swung uphill past a line of shac&s. $nimals were tied outside many of the littleshanties, and, occasionally, children would #urst out waving wrist#ands and nec&laces. $top

the hill, there were two relatively large #uildings? an unpopulated mar&et and a #ar.

I as&ed ;al if I could #uy him a drin&, and he agreed o#ligingly. The #ar was a white

washed, flatroofed #uilding with royal #lue trim. The door stood open as did each of the deep

set, ado#e windows. The interior was simply a large room with a wood counter running along

the side wall. Inside the door, a guitarist sat on a stool and crooned loud, unmelodious songs.Ta#les too& up much of the #arBs central space, while the rear was reserved for two dilapidated

pool ta#les.

I #ought two #ottles of arta lanca and sat down with ;al. In a short time, *erry, a

dar&s&inned English traveler, invited us to a game of pool. The game progressed slowly

#ecause the ta#leBs surface played li&e a sand#o'. In the middle of our game, I noticed thatJa&e had ac%uired a #ottle of te%uila. ;is #ottle of uervo 7old %uic&ly attracted an enlarging,

#oisterous throng.

;al and I lost our pool game, #ut rather than oining the others, I sat on the unused pool

ta#le and o#served the te%uila party. It was fascinating to witness how eagerly the te%uila

drin&ers discarded their formerly inviolate inhi#itions, and it occurred to me that the te%uila

appeared to produce a 4slingshot effect.5 The drivers had #een challenging people to #ecomeintimate in a very short span of time. "hile the passengers had resisted the driversB

provocations, these counterpressures had elevated rather than diffused tension. ;owever, the

passengersB defiance had risen to the challenge until, in the impersonal atmosphere of the #ar,they let their emotions e'plode. "ith the assistance of an accepta#le vehicle:te%uila:a wave

of tolerance #urst over the drin&ers li&e a tsunami. Their opposition had only tightened the

springs of the snare.

I was feeling rather pleased with myself as I watched the mounting uproar:much as

Thorne 199/ must have when she wrote?

...I sensed...that I could have my ca&e and eat it too. I could share in the e'citement, thethrills of participating in events that seemed almost magnetic:and #e spared the costs?

the uncertainty of ris&ta&ing Thorne, 199, p. 81/.

I noted smugly that even though I was accepted as a mem#er of the group, I could still controlthe into'ication of #oth the alcohol and the Tortoise. I alone remained in charge of my distant

and privileged viewpoint.

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The #esotted passengers were not content to sit and drin&, they also #egan dancing. $t

first they capered amongst themselves, #ut soon they #egan partnering with village residents. I

presume such antics were a routine spectacle for the inha#itants of o%uillas, however, I notedsurprise when Judy, a small Irish woman, #egan s%uirting the locals with water. rom that

point on, the drun&en scene in the #ar #ecame utterly outrageous. 6any passengers had

gu++led so much te%uila that they were having trou#le wal&ing. >thers slowly slid down thewalls they were leaning on, or out of the chairs they could no longer sit in. $s a viscous torpor

of grievous into'ication descended upon the partiers, ;al #orrowed the guitaristBs si'string

and #egan playing 4$ "hole -ottaB !ha&inB.5 "hile ;al ammed, several others #eganstac&ing a column of #eer #ottles. The pillar clim#ed to four feet #efore all the #ottles crashed

to the floor.

Even though I was pleased to witness such a momentous change in group dynamics, the

earsplitting clatter of the #ottles also made me an'ious. The drun&ards had reached the pointwhere a #it of gentle supervision was advisa#le. $lthough I was not unwilling to aid my

intemperate companions, it was not my desire to ta&e charge. I wanted to participate in the flow

of events as 4one of the gang,5 instead of imposing restrictions that would alter the natural

course of events. ;owever, #efore impending disaster could stri&e, the drivers appeared. Thus,I was spared the trou#le:for a little while longer:of having to muddle my role as a

pro#lematically#alanced o#server.

* Double-%dged S(ord

Impressed as they were #y their chargesB stupefaction, the drivers were not intent onconcluding the party. Instead, they were even convinced to oin some of the fun. or e'ample,

6aggie announced that she wished to have a special te%uila shot with $rthur. To my lasting

ama+ement, 6aggie poured a whopping shot of te%uila into $rthurBs mouth and then suc&edout the li%uor with a horri#ly sloppy &iss. $s a circle of onloo&ers groaned in disgust, I

inwardly reoiced.


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first load of partiers ashore. "hen finished, !ean and I loo&ed at the #efuddled state of the ne't

#oatload and decided to assist them, too.

efore the final shuttle, urt and $rthur put their clothes in the #oat and swam acrossthe river. The drivers had not #othered to pay for a ride earlier, however, rederic& and 6onty,

a staggeringly into'icated Englishman, decided they too should swim. The four s&innydippers

plunged into the river. "hile one crossing was sufficient for the rest, rederic& too& an e'tralap. pon his return, $rthur urged rederic& to clim# ashore. 6onty, on the other hand, haddeparted ovially without his clothing:I heard #awdy cheers from the direction of the #us

when, I presumed, 6onty hove into view.

The final #oat crossed the river and, with the drivers in the lead, we returned to the #us.

$s we reassem#led, the partiersB high spirits renewed. 6onty had not yet #othered to put on hisclothes and, rather than censure, his performance elicited howls of encouragement from

un%ualified admirers.

$lthough I was hoping for rest, a head count soon determined that two people were

missing. o one had seen Ja&e or a female passenger, $manda, cross the river. !ince few others

were steady on their feet, !ean and I volunteered to conduct a search. In the %uiet, away fromthe mayhem, my head hummed li&e a tuning for&.

efore I could grow used to the tran%uility, !ean and I heard shrie&s coming from the

river. "e decided to speed our pace and, at the landing site, were pu++led to find neither the

#oat nor its operator. ;owever, we were sha&en from our perple'ity #y an angry #ellow. The#oatman, who was lying in the water a#out thirty feet downstream, e'claimed 4ItBs not rightF

Aou shouldnBt have left me with a cra+y manF5 I stood fro+en in #ewilderment, #ut the

#oatman pointed to Ja&e, who clung to tree roots as he scaled the river#an&. I shouted, 4Ja&e,

what the hell are you doingG5 ;e ignored me, #ut the #oatman e'plained that Ja&e had pitchedhe and $manda out of the #oat. 4ItBs not right. ;eBs got no respect. ow my #oat is goneF5 I

was too stunned to respond. ;owever, I was olted out of my shoc& when the #oatman added

that $manda was still in the river.

I darted to the end of a small point. na#le to spot $manda, I decided to ump into the

river. I was much too alarmed to ponder the methodological implications of helping $mandai.e., "ould my interference contaminate the field site irrepara#lyG "hat happens when an

audiencemem#er interferes in a performanceG/. In urgent situations, even the most fastidious

researchers have foregone scientific constraints. or e'ample, "a' 191/ stated after oiningthe resistance against a terrorist gang?

If anyone had told me that I was a#out to 4interfere5 in a field situation and that I was

there#y #rea&ing a primary rule of scientific procedure, I thin& I would have laughed or,

perhaps, told the admonisher to go to hell "a', 191, p. 138/.

I too& off my shirt, #ut, in my haste, forgot a#out my glasses. $ moment after I dove into

the river, I reali+ed that my glasses were lost and unrecovera#le. I swam into the central current

and searched from #an& to #an&. It was not until I had rounded a #end that I sighted the #oat. $6e'ican man wearing only white underpants was standing in it. ;e was struggling to control

the spinning vessel, and, in a swirl of #ac&water, I finally spotted $manda. !he was trying to

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In the early dus&, I too& few steps into the scru##y landscape and plumped down, hidden and

alone, on the crunchy hus& of a dead plant.

In the %uiet desert, my mind raged. hief among my thoughts emerged an overriding

antipathy for Ja&e. Even though I am not usually an advocate of imprisonment:I li&e to

imagine that there must #e more constructive ways of managing trou#lesome people:I felt as

though Ja&e deserved incarceration he deserved to #e handled as inhumanely as he had treatedothers. $lso, I was still annoyed that Ja&e had #een permitted #ac& on the #us. I seriously

considered deserting in protest.

It is not unheard of for researchers to 4loathe5 -ofland and -ofland, 198)/ some of

people they study. ;owever, despite the enmity that I #ore for Ja&e1, I decided that it would

only compound the dayBs inustices if I permitted him to disrupt my wor&. Therefore, I decidednot to a#andon my research proect, however, I was forced to radically revamp my perception

of the Tortoise. That is, from the outset, I had cultivated the ludicrous misperception that while

I may have #een physically present on the #us, my analytical psyche had #een removed:as if Ihad #een a researcher 4witnessing a reality impervious to his presence5 *ollner and Emerson

198(, p. 2(=/. ;owever, the river incident convinced me that no one had #een acting:

especially for my #enefit:and I had not #een in an audience. urthermore, I had developed theunsha&a#le conviction that I had #oth the right and responsi#ility to interfere with trou#le

ma&ers. To put it mildly, I was disgusted with my naKve orienting assumptions and I was

disenchanted with the 7reen Tortoise.

$s a result, I found myself in a %uandary. I could no longer tolerate either of the

availa#le realities? either to continue in the role of 4a good researcher5 or to #ecome an actor in

the 4Tortoise drama.5 Instead, I decided to proceed without a predetermined set of anchoringassumptions.

ac$ on oard

The afternoon in o%uillas had produced the desired effect on many of the passengers. The

shouts of cavorting #athers echoed throughout the surrounding hills. "hen I reoined the others,I found the hot springs full of noisy, nudists. $gain, I had to marvel at the results of their #inge.

The so#ering crowd appeared perfectly comforta#le a#out s&inny dipping together. Aet,

although I had sidestepped the drun&en insanity in o%uillas, I no longer sensed I was the

master of my surroundings. I felt di++y and slightly aswirl, as though I were caught in an unseencurrent.

In the days that followed, I noted with interest a new twist in my #ehavior. $ftero%uillas, I #ecame more outspo&en a#out the potential dangers of various activities. I had no

1I decided that my opinion of Ja&e could not improve sufficiently to tolerate any &ind of interaction with

him. Instead I decided to do my #est to ignore him. "hile this was a daunting proect #ecause of our restricted

%uarters, nevertheless, we were #oth a#le to maintain an impressive distance for the remainder of the trip.

Interestingly, as reprehensi#le as I consider Ja&eBs #ehavior, I found his presence instructive. -argely

#ecause of my a#horrence, I consciously:and not without annoying plagues of conscience:e'ercised dou#le

standards in relation to his #ehavior. Thus, I learned useful lessons a#out the value#ased nature of my 4o#ective,5

analytical mind.

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desire to witness any more disasters:no matter how sociologically interesting. "hen hagnon

19/ encountered a AanomamL mother who was starving her daughter he was faced with a

dilemma. $lthough this sort of mistreatment was not negatively sanctioned among theAanomamL, hagnonBs culturally#iased sense of morality compelled him to intervene.

hagnon imposed an alien morality:and, in doing so, altered the 4natural5 course of events:

#ecause he could not condone such #rutal neglect. "hile hagnonBs culturally#iased intrusionthreatened the validity of his research, in another sense he also enhanced its validity.

leuhr-o##an 1993/ argues that social scientists do a disservice #y avoidinginterference in the plight of the oppressed. y adhering to a 4holy5 Cvale 1993/ orientation to

science, researchers minimi+e contamination, #ut also ac%uiesce to forms of coercion that

systematically su#vert truth, e.g., interpreting %uietude as consensus 7aventa, 1982/. $lthough

leuhr-o##an is cogni+ant of the dangers associated with superimposing alien culturalstandards, she argues that science cannot ignore the misfortunes of the oppressed while also

esteeming truth. Thus, leuhr-o##an proposes that truthsee&ing must #e associated with the

amelioration of particular inustices within and across cultural #oundaries.

Truth on the Green Tortoise

$fter o%uillas, my interference, much li&e hagnonBs, at times appro'imated surrogateparenthood. or e'ample, during a day in ew >rleans, one woman replied 4Aes, DaddyF5

when I cautioned her against the ha+ards of the rench Muarter. These solicitations eventually

earned me the nic&name, 4the father of the #us.5 evertheless, rather than contaminating the

Tortoise, my morallyinvolved participation affirmed and advanced its 4naturally5 evolvingsocial dynamics. That is, after o%uillas there was also another nota#le modification in my

#ehavior? I #ecame increasingly caught up in the enthusiasm of the adventure trip. or

e'ample, if some#ody sprayed me with water, I would spray twice as much #ac&. $lso, duringa food fight, I found myself hurling more muc& when everyone else had given up the game. $

man named Cen, who was thunderstruc& #y my antics, remar&ed repeatedly a#out how much Ihad changedsince I lost my glasses.

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0hoto 62 Tidying p

$lthough it was not clear at the time, when I reected the perspective that had

characteri+ed other passengers as actors, I #egan to treat the Tortoise as a real place. $s aresult, I #ecame more suscepti#le to the 4Tortoise Effect.5 That is, I #egan associating with

others in the +any fashion the Tortoise inspires #ecause my inhi#itions had gone out the

window #ehind theirs. y #rea&ing through the #oundaries that had preserved my aloofness, I

was 4charmed5 #y the Tortoise and drawn to a more verisimilar -incoln and Den+in, 199)/

understanding of its uni%ue e'perience.

Conclusion

The social world is far too comple' for imperfect scientists ever to presume that they have

determined its final truths. Aet, although ultimate truths may #e forever out of reach, humans

are still capa#le of changing profoundly 4the shape of the thin&a#le5 7ordon, 1991, p.8/. $scertain as we my #e a#out 4a#solute truths,5 the process of redefining reality 6c7ettigan,

1998a, 1999a, 1999#, 2000/ generally causes such certainties to appear, in a new light, as rather

silly #eliefs e.g., the earth #eing flat, or lying at the center of the universe/. Therefore, I assert

that scientific truth is #est conceived as a vehicle to transport in%uiry toward 4the continent ofthought ust #eyond the hori+on5 *efanis, 1991, p. 1(8/. $t any rate, I #elieve that imperfect

scientists can most faithfully serve truth #y caring more a#out people than &nowledge.

47ood science5 has #een critici+ed repeatedly for maintaining esta#lished paradigms

Cuhn, 190 -ather, 1993 -emert, 1991, 1999 "right, 1992/ more effectively than divining

truth. If truth emerges through the process of reducing distortions over &nowledge ;a#ermas,1981 -emert, 1991 6c7ettigan, 1998a, 1999a, 2000/, then a sacred Cvale, 1993/ view of

scientific validity o#viates truth #y endorsing a wide range of sacrosanct limitations on

&nowledge. $s in the early stages of my Tortoise ourney, such constraints tend to insulate and

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filter 4good scientific5 perceptions. Aet, when I 4#otched5 my proect i.e., when I lost my

glasses, contaminated the field site, and muddled my good scientific perspective/ I ac%uired

more and #etter information a#out the 7reen Tortoise than I ever could have otherwise. Thus, Iargue that truthsee&ers would #e #etter off caring a#out people more than 4good science5

#ecause, at the very least, privileging human welfare decreases the chances that imperfect

researchers will inflict harm. $t #est, caring more a#out people will help advance the cause ofustice #y challenging the su#tle, dia#olical, and often unintended forms of power that, in turn,

limit the production of truth within and across societies.

References

elgrave, -inda -is&a, and Cenneth J. !mith, 1993. 4egotiated Nalidity in olla#orative

Ethnography.5 Qualitative Inquiry1? 1/ =98=.

hagnon, apoleon $., 19. Yanomam: The Fierce People. 2d ed. ew Aor&? ;olt, a&s? !age.

Douglas, Jac& D., 19=.Investigative Social $esearch: In!ivi!ual an! Team Fiel! $esearch.

everly ;ills? !age.

Emerson,


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22(.

;a#ermas, JOrgen, 1981. Theory o# &ommunicative 'ction%-ondon? ;einemann.

;o##es, Thomas, 199=.+eviathan. am#ridge? am#ridge niversity *ress.

Canter,


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6c7ettigan, Timothy, 1998#. 4


23/93

hicago *ress.

"ichros&i, 6ary $nne, 199=. 4rea&ing !ilence? !ome ieldwor& !trategies in loistered and

onloistered ommunities.5 Qualitative Sociology19/ 1? 13(10.

"olfe, Tom, 19=8. The (lectric 5ool6'i! 'ci! Test. ew Aor&? arrar, !trauss and 7irou'.

"right, "ill, 1992. 3il! 5no)le!ge: Science7 +anguage7 an! Social +i#e in a Fragile

(nvironment. 6inneapolis? niversity of 6innesota *ress.

2(


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2)


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C/*0T%R T7+

Reflections in an nblin$ing %ye1

egotiating !dentity in the 0roduction of a Documentary

*bstract

The presence of a motion picture documentary team during a 7reen Tortoise adventure trip

created a variety of uni%ue opportunities to evaluate the construction of identity in apostmodern, 4cinematic society5 Den+in, 1993/. "hile, the 4ga+e5 ichols, 1991/ of cameras

often participated directly in the production of 4spectacular5 events, the 4simulating5audrillard, 1988, 199)/ ga+e of the cameras also served as a 4refle'ive mechanism5 through

which to e'pose cinematic influences that construct contemporary reality.

'ield Research on the Green Tortoise

In July of 199), as part of a research proect in which I e'amined the evolving framewor&s of

power in contemporary society, I too& an elevenday, ew Aor& ity to !an rancisco,

adventure trip on the 7reen Tortoise. The 7reen Tortoise is a #us travel company, #ased in !an

rancisco, that emerged from the re#ellious youth countercultures of the 19=0Bs. The philosophyof the 7reen Tortoise e.g., 4$rrive inspired, not dog tired5/ is to transform traveling from a

misery into an adventure. This goal is achieved in part #y converting their #us interiors into anunrestricted lounging space filled with cushioned #enches, ta#les and platforms. $lso, whereas

conventional travel may often #e characteri+ed as 4#eing alone in a crowd5


26/93

is an e'cellent e'ample of ust such a countercultural organi+ation. Travel on the 7reen

Tortoise is #ased on a communeli&e atmosphere i.e., communal sitting, sleeping, and eating

arrangements/, #ut Tortoisetravel is also conventional due to its inescapa#le reliance uponfossil fuelgu++ling #uses that are driven on asphalt roads #y licensed drivers, etc. Thus, the

7reen Tortoise is clearly dependent upon contemporary society, #ut its orientation towards the

unconventional also typifies a compromised reection of the mainstream. I wanted to get4inside of the shell5 of this type of organi+ation #ecause I wished to o#serve the dynamic

processes involved in incorporating countercultural philosophical practices into conventional

organi+ational settings. I wanted to see if these organi+ations were a#le to generate internal4spaces5 that were any different than the conventional world they had, in part, disavowed.

ould such conventionallyvia#le organi+ations actually originate realistic countercultural

challenges to mainstream societyG

* e( T(ist on a 'amiliar *d,enture

!hortly after I had made travel arrangements for my second crosscountry adventure trip on the

7reen Tortoise,

1

I received a letter from a film producer, named De#ra,

2

who was in charge ofDiem *roductions, a ew Aorased, independent film company. In the letter, De#ra

e'plained that she had made arrangements to shoot a documentary on the July, 199)

west#ound 7reen Tortoise crosscountry trip. De#ra ac&nowledged that while she intended forher documentary to capture the 4natural5 events on the Tortoise trip, she was also aware that

she and her crew were going to comprise an unusual intrusion. evertheless, she #elieved that

her filming of the documentary could actually enhance the spirit of adventure on this 7reen

Tortoise ourney.

I would li&e to say at the outset that we are not going to #e invasive and if you do not

want to participate, we will not force you..."e hope that our filming of this trip will

ma&e it an e'perience a#ove and #eyond what you e'pected when you first signed upE'cerpt from De#raBs introductory letter/.

Indeed, I felt confident that De#raBs optimistic forecast would prove to #e prophetic. I

could imagine that the presence of the documentary team would precipitate an interesting range

of 4reactive5 effects ec&er, 198= Den+in, 1989a !mith, et al., 193/ in the passengers. Inaddition, I also sensed that my interactions with the camera crew would produce a fascinating

refle'ive pu++le? in the course of my own 4voyeuristic5 Den+in, 1993/ o#servation proect, I

would #e o#serving 4voyeuristically5 the activities of other voyeurs as they were engaged inthe process of o#serving the people that I was o#serving:and, of course, num#ering amongst

the 4o#served5 would #e mysel#. Thus, much as oneBs visi#le reflections are multiplied #ypositioning mirrors closely together, the presence of the camera crewBs 4ga+e5 would augmentsu#stantially the num#er of reflective 4angles5 through which the events of our adventure trip

might #e analy+ed. Therefore, while I resolved to remain acutely aware of the reactive effects

1 This was my third trip on the 7reen Tortoise. The first was a wee&long round trip on the north@southcommuter that runs #etween !eattle and -os $ngeles. The second trip was an east#ound crosscountry adventure

trip in >cto#er of 199( from !an rancisco to ew Aor&.

2 E'cept for mine and my wifeBs, I have su#stituted pseudonyms for all personal names in this article.

2=


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that the camera crewBs ga+e had upon the west#ound adventure, I was also determined to

monitor closely the impact of the cameraBs ga+e upon my own thoughts and actions.

6y second crosscountry adventure trip on the 7reen Tortoise #egan in ew Aor& ity

on !unday, July 1, 199). I was accompanied #y my wife, !usan, who was em#ar&ing on her

first 7reen Tortoise trip. "e rende+voused with the #us in upper 6anhattan ne't to the 7eorge

"ashington !treet us !tation. The 7reen Tortoise and its passengers appeared out of place inthe dense, ur#an environment? in the glowing ha+e at the end of a hot summer day a

disorgani+ed crowd of people:with camera operators in their midst:lingered on the sidewal&ne't to a travelweary, green #us.

There was a small, white van par&ed #ehind the Tortoise. The film crew needed to #ring

along too much e%uipment e.g., cameras, sound recorders, film, etc./ to carry it on the #us. Intotal, there were five mem#ers of the film crew? De#ra and her coproducer, $my, two camera

operators, named Cen and James, and one camera operator@van driver, named huc&. $s we

were #eing filmed #y s%uinting men with porta#le cameras on their shoulders, I almost forgotthe routine of getting loaded onto the #us. >ne of the drivers, the 4lead5 driver named Jeff, was

preoccupied with the tas& of getting off the streets of ew Aor&. Thus, #efore !usan and I had

even paid for our tic&ets, Jeff as&ed us to #oard the #us to speed our escape from the city."hen he had driven a#out ten miles south, Jeff stopped at a roadside pullout and, there, finally

calmed down. $s we sat in the grass eating freshly #a&ed Italian coo&ies, Jeff e'plained his

philosophy as a Tortoise driver.

JeffBs attitude towards running the #us was different than that of other drivers. irst of

all, Jeff did not allow drin&ing on the #us when he was driving:this is not the usual policy on

Tortoise adventure trips.1Jeff also enumerated a num#er of policies that appeared to #e gearedtowards ma&ing his passengersB transition to life on the Tortoise relatively gentle e.g., he

would stop for restroom #rea&s any time2and, incredi#ly, he would try to maintain an

itinerary/. Jeff ac&nowledged that some of his policies were different than the norm forTortoise drivers. Thus, he added that he would need the film crew:who were filming at the

time:to edit some of the things that he had said in order to protect his o#. I thought this was a

curious 4pro#lem5 for Jeff to have. "hereas it was against the law for people to drin& alcoholon the #us, the documentary could provide the &ind of evidence that might land Jeff in trou#le

with his employer for having overly 4uptight5 policies. $t the same time, another thought

entered my mind. $lthough Jeff did not appear out of place on the Tortoise, I could imagine

that his lawa#iding policies and his accommodating attitude might proect the &ind of imagethat would minimi+e negative pu#licity for the Tortoise.

$fter our orientation, we got #ac& on the #us. Jeff wanted to drive further that evening#efore performing 4the miracle.5 4The miracle5 is the process through which Tortoise #uses

are transformed into sleepercoaches. There is nothing especially 4miraculous5 a#out these

transformations, however, it does re%uire an enormous amount of reorgani+ation to createenough interior space to stretch out thirtyfive sleeping #ags. Jeff stopped the #us to perform

the miracle at a truc& stop on I80 in *ennsylvania. >nce again, Jeff threw himself into this

1 -ater, a male passenger, named ;arvey, told me that on a previous Tortoise trip:an adventure duringwhich he claimed to have consumed 4a twentyfour pac& of #eer a day for seven days straight5:he had heard a#out

one Tortoise driver who did not allow drin&ing on his #us. ;e added o&ingly, 4"ouldnBt it #e my #loody luc& to

end up on this #usF5

2 Tortoise #uses have no on#oard toilet facilities.

2


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la#or with vigor:practically accomplishing the entire tas& #y himself. "hen the

transformation was completed, we pac&ed into the #us li&e sardines and then ostled through

the night in a ha+e of semisleep.

The !nfluences of Different Ga;es

The morning dawned #right and early. It is difficult to sleep late on the Tortoise #ecause the#rea&ing sunlight sears relentlessly through the #usBs many side windows. !oon after crossing

into Indiana Jeff e'ited the freeway and found a state par& where we could ma&e #rea&fast. $t

the par&, Jeff set to wor& immediately on the production of #rea&fast, whereas ust a#out

everyone else went for a swim in a near#y la&e. It was a cool morning, so most of theswimmers were out of the water %uic&ly. !ince, for me, the worst part of swimming in cold

water is the initial shoc&, once I was in the water I decided to linger. 6y e'tended swim

provided an opportunity to #ecome ac%uainted with the other two remaining swimmers, Danieland 6ar&. 6ar& was a vacationing arts columnist and Daniel was in the midst of a 4pause5 in

his life during which he was traveling to alifornia to find out where he was. I was pu++led to

find that neither 6ar& nor Daniel registered any alarm when I told them that I was engaged in aresearch proect.

>n previous 7reen Tortoise trips, when I had e'plained to other passengers that I wasconducting a research proect, they generally responded with wideeyed ama+ement and said

things li&e? 4Aou mean youBre doing research right no)G >n thisG >n usG >n meGF5 Thus, I

had anticipated that Daniel and 6ar& would #e startled when I e'posed the 4voyeuristic5

nature of my presence on the Tortoise. $lthough, I was caught offguard #y their unruffledac&nowledgment of my proect, it was clear that Daniel and 6ar&Bs 4unusual5 response had

much to do with the presence of the camera crew. The passengers on this trip had #een

prepared in advance to #e o#served #y the documentary team. $s such, even though I was notwor&ing with the camera crew, I simply num#ered as one more of the already many 4voyeurs5

on this ourney. In addition, the documentary teamsB use of cameras made their o#servationalactivities comparatively more noticea#le and intrusive than mine. Thus, my more low&eyo#servational techni%ues constituted less of a threat to the passengers.

!till, while my o#servational techni%ues were somewhat different than those of the

documentary team, I had to admit that my o#servational techni%ues were not necessarily any4#etter.5 Despite the fact that I routinely informed other passengers that I was engaged in a

field research proect, #ecause my o#servation techni%ues were less overt than those of the

camera crew, the people that I o#served were often less aware of my 4scientific ga+e5 Den+in,1993/. "hile 4modernist5 researchers might consider this to #e a strength of my o#servational

strategy, this form of 4uncontaminated5 o#servation tends to o#scure, rather than eliminate, the

influences of the o#server upon the o#served Den+in, 199)# ;arman, 199= !chwandt, 199)/.

Thus, the documentary teamBs form of o#servation was a #it more 4honest5 than mine #ecausethe ga+e of cameras alerted their su#ects without am#iguity to the fact that they were #eing

o#served. onse%uently, #y utili+ing overt o#servational techni%ues the camera crew createdmore 4honest5 opportunities for the passengers to e'ercise some control over the way that their

4selves5 were documented. ;owever, simply #ecause the overt use of cameras may #e a

somewhat more 4honest5 documentary techni%ue, this does not imply that such techni%ues

necessarily capture the 4real5 or 4true5 essence of their su#ects. The presentation of thepassengersB selves was indeed pro#lemati+ed #y the cameras. The 4colla#oration5 in self

28


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presentation 7offman, 1939/ that was facilitated #y the cameras could also generate

4simulated5 audrillard, 1988, 199)/ departures from su#ectsB 4normal5 self presentations.

Reacti,ity and egotiating the Representation of Self

$fter #rea&fast Jeff announced that he had a full slate of activities planned for the rest of theday. "e were going to drive directly across the state to Indiana Dunes !tate *ar&. There wewould have a swim in -a&e 6ichigan an then ma&e supper ne't to the #each. $s we drove

across Indiana in the muggy, midday heat, Jerry, one of the youngest male passengers, got out

a pair of drum stic&s and started clattering them on a variety of surfaces e.g., the inner wall of

the #us, wood paneling, plastic water #ottles, etc./ to produce an interesting com#ination ofsounds. ;e %uic&ly drew the attention of a circle of near#y passengers as well as that of James,

one of the film crew mem#ers.

8ideo Clip 9#2 (((.socresonline.org.u$:3:1:,ideo:,id#5t.html

It occurred to me as I o#served this scene that the point of ma&ing a documentary on the

7reen Tortoise:or conducting a field research proect, for that matter:was #ecause it was an

unusual or 4weird,5 and therefore intriguing, setting. Thus, the interest that the documentary

had for its potential viewers lay in capturing that 4weirdness5 on film for the crew to ma&e afilm that would #e interesting to people who were curious a#out the 4weird5 travel e'perience

that the 7reen Tortoise offers, the film crew would have to ma&e an effort to capture all of the

unusual activities that developed during the course of our trip. ;owever, the instantaneous andconspicuous attention of a camera had an effect that modified events. In a sense, #ecause of the

4simultaneity5 of the recording procedure, the cameras could not help #ut convert the events

they were filming into 4performances.5 y ga+ing upon the activities of particular individuals,

the cameras had a tendency to create a 4center of attention.5 $s the camera ga+ed at Jerry, hisdrumming #ecame the focus of interest for a widening circle of people who then related to

JerryBs drumming much as an audience would to a performer e.g., cheering, clapping, etc./.Thus, the cameras had the effect of creating 4performeraudience5 relationships #etween the

su#ects of their ga+e and those people who directed their ga+e towards the 4center5 that had

#een created #y the camera.

$s the 4performancema&ing5 power of the cameras had a propensity to restructure the

activities upon which they ga+ed, this process also had the result of heightening the interest and

enthusiasm that the passengers had for those activities. That is, the ga+e of the cameras had adou#ly stimulating effect upon the passengers? the ga+e of cameras not only created

performances:and, thus, sources of entertainment:#ut they also conferred significance upon

those performances i.e., the ga+e of the cameras implied that activities were 4importantenough5 to warrant documentation/. Nisual media have a great deal of 4power5 in that this

technology has the capacity to confer significance on people, o#ects and events merely #y

ga+ing upon them. That is, mundane o#ects and events can achieve an elevation in their

perceived significance simply #y #ecoming 4o#ects of attention.5 This phenomenon is similarin nature to audrillardBs 199=/ distinction #etween seduction and meaning, 4RI #elieve that,

#y also descri#ing the sites of fascination, where meaning is supposed to implode with great

flourish, you #estow #eauty on that void and give meaning to what shouldnBt have any5 199=,

29


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p. (3/. 6ore than merely contri#uting to the structure of identity in the postmodern social

e'perience, visual media technology also define the #oundary #etween the 4real5 world of the

ordinary and the simulated sphere of the 4e'traordinary.5 audrillard 1988/ argues that in thecontemporary world of visual media imagery, the relationship #etween simulations and the

phenomena that have #een simulated #ecomes resynthesi+ed?

The cinema has a#sor#ed everything:Indians, mesas, canyons, s&ies. $nd yet it is themost stri&ing spectacle in the world. !hould we prefer 4authentic5 deserts and deep

oasesG or us moderns, and ultramoderns, as for audelaire, who &new that the secret of

true modernity was to #e found in artifice, the only natural spectacle that is really

gripping is the one which offers #oth the most moving profundity an! at the same timethe total simulacrum o# that pro#un!ityaudrillard, 1988, p. =90, Emphasis in

original/.

Thus, in a postmodern, visual age, what is 4real5 is accessi#le with the greatest

profundity through images. 4Nideo, everywhere, serves only this end? it is a screen of ecstaticrefraction5 audrillard, 1988, p. (/. onse%uently, in producing 4simulated5 images of

individuals, o#ects and events, visual media technology transform the status of thesephenomena with respect to the sphere of 4meaningful5 cultural constructs. Nia their

simulations, the individuals, o#ects and events that have #een simulated are inducted into the

world wherein media products are 4preserved5? 4Everything can have a second #irth, the

eternal #irth of the simulacrumRwhich is, as we &now, a repeat performance of the first, #utits repetition as something more real5 audrillard, 1988, p. )1, Emphasis in original/.

"hereas unsimulated events wallow in eternal o#scurity, in #ecoming simulated recorded

images #ecome 4larger than life.5 !imulations e'ist in a state of preservation wherein they may#e distri#uted to, and consumed #y, potentially unlimited num#ers of people who, in turn, may

each e'alt in the profound significance of the otherwise mundane phenomena that have #eenaggrandi+ed in their simulation. onse%uently, not only did the cameras generate a source ofentertainment for the passengers, #ut the cameras elevated the degree to which the passengers

tended to #e stimulated #y the profusion of simulacra that were created #y the cameras ga+e.

The ga+e of the cameras made a 4spectacle5 of the unusual events that drew the attention of the

cameras and, therefore, stimulated passengers to indulge and glory in the 4weirdness5 that wasassociated with our Tortoise adventure.

Indeed, it was impossi#le to avoid sensing the palpa#le energy that emanated fromJerryBs drumming performance. ;owever, even as real and potent as the enthusiasm that

surrounded the drumming performance happened to #e, I could not avoid #eing disgruntled #y

the fact that JerryBs performance was a 4simulation.5 6uch as the performance may have #een

a spontaneous product of the uni%ue environment that inhered within our welldocumentedTortoise adventure, nevertheless, it had not #een 4real.5 In other words, the drumming

4spectacle5 had #een driven and structured #y the presence of the cameras. "ithout the ga+e ofthe cameras the centrality of focus, the structure of the performance and, thus, the

4significance5 and the intensity of energy surrounding the event would not have e'isted.

$lthough I had seen an a#undance of weird and wac&y events on the other 7reen Tortoise

trips, at no time had any of those events ta&en on the structure of the drumming performance:nor had they e'hi#ited such a selfindulgent cele#ration of 4weirdness.5 $s such, due to its

(0


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departure from 4reality,5 I felt more repulsed #y JerryBs performance than drawn to it. !till,

4simulated5 as the drumming spectacle had #een, it had #een a very 4real5 and compelling

event for many of the passengers on our #us whether I li&ed it or not, the simulating presenceof the cameras made such performances an integral and 4real5 component of the 4simulated5

ourney in which we were ta&ing part.

eginning the 'ormal !nter,ie(s

"hile the cameras offered a uni%ue source of entertainment for the passengers, challenges did

remain for passengers as they struggled to manage their selfpresentations under watchful ga+e

the cameras. $fter having supper in Indiana we wo&e the ne't morning in "isconsin to findJeff searching for a #rea&fast site along the #an&s of the 6ississippi ver the ne't twentyfour hours Jeff was hoping to traverse across much of the 6idwest inorder to arrive at adlands ational *ar&, on the west side of !outh Da&ota, in time for a pre

dawn hi&e. Thus, this long day of driving provided the film crew with an opportunity to

conduct #rief interviews with each of the people on the #us.This process created a stir throughout the #us #ecause of the novelty that #eing

interviewed offered for many of the passengers. The camera crew conducted their interviews#y having Cen train his camera on one interviewee after another, while $my handled a #oom

microphone and De#ra &ept an eye on the audio recording levels. The #rief interviews were

comprised of %uestions a#out the intervieweesB names, occupations and their reasons for #eing

on the Tortoise. !lowly, Cen wor&ed his way over to 7reg, a friendly 7erman man, who wassitting ne't to me. 7reg got a #it flustered under the glare of the camera. 7reg e'plained, while

the crew too& a #rea& after his interview, that he had not #een a#le to understand CenBs

%uestions clearly and, thus, he had #een forced to fum#le for answers. I tried to reassure 7regthat he had done a good o# in his interview. I also gave him some offhand advice a#out

responding in 7erman whenever he could not understand an interviewerBs English. 7reglaughed a #it uncertainly at my advice, and I soon understood why. In the midst of my chatwith 7reg I found that Cen was training his camera on me.

It is a very strange feeling to #e on camera. There are various ways of dealing with the

stressrelated energy one may encounter while #eing 4ga+ed5 upon. "henever laherty 19=/#egan filming 4anoo&,5 he #ecame overcome with laughter 6assot and


32/93

e'cessively with my presentation of self. ;aving #een identified as 4the resident sociologist5

%uotation from the narration in Songs o# the 0pen $oa!/, I felt as though I needed to maintain

4face5 7offman, 19=/ on a num#er of different levels. $s a 4professional sociologist5 I feltresponsi#le for creating the impression that I could analy+e the challenges of identity

construction in an age of 4simulations5 audrillard, 1988 Den+in, 1993/ without

simultaneously suffering from those difficulties even while my own self image was undergoingsimulation. In addition, I also felt responsi#le for offering samples of the &ind of penetrating

sociological insights that 4could only come from someone with an advanced academic degree.5

$nd I wanted to do all of this while I avoided creating the impression that, due to myawareness of the various responsi#ilities under which I needed to #ear up, my performance was

not actually 4a performance.5 onse%uently, in this #rief interview, I had a powerful

introduction to the difficulties involved in sustaining a carefully crafted presentation of self

#efore the un#lin&ing stare of the camera.

In my oncamera interview, I #ecame #etter a#le to empathi+e with the su#ects of the

voyeurBs ga+e. I learned that under the searching ga+e of voyeurs engaging in even the mostroutine activities #ecomes a struggle. In addition, in #eing ga+ed upon #y other voyeurs, I

o#tained a sense for the distortion of reality that can precipitate from encounters with voyeurs."hile this may have #een news to me, the documentary team understood all too well whatcorrupting effects their camerasB ga+e might have upon the 4truths5 they wished to capture.

onse%uently, as part of the process of capturing the 4real5 e'periences of 7reen Tortoise

passengers, the documentary team also adopted measures to restructure their 4documentaryga+e5 and, there#y, assisted passengers in the deconstruction of their 4documentary selves.5

Restructuring the 8oyeur


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"hen he had par&ed the #us, Jeff e'plained that we had arrived at the first place where

it would #e o&ay to swim nude and do 4mud yoga.5 Jeff also e'plained that the camera crew

was going to #e hanging around. Thus, he thought it would #e natural for some people to feeluncomforta#le a#out s&innydipping and, therefore, he insisted that anyone who felt the least

#it uncomforta#le a#out swimming in the nude should not #e pressured to do so. 4If you donBt

want to #e caught in the nude, then wear a suit. If you donBt care, you donBt care.5 ;owever,Jeff also added, 4I, personally, am loo&ing forward #eing nude and on film5 Dialogue

transcription from Songs o# the 0pen $oa!/.

8ideo Clip 932 (((.socresonline.org.u$:3:1:,ideo:,id35t.html

7ood to his word, Jeff was one of the first people to have his clothes off and to plunge into themud on the #an& of a near#y stream. Despite the presence of the cameras, %uite a few of the

passengers cast aside their clothing and inhi#itions, and oined Jeff in the mud. ;owever, I was

particularly surprised to o#serve that some of the most enthusiastic mud#athers were the

mem#ers of the documentary team. $my shot footage of people rolling around in the mud for awhile, #ut then she turned the camera over to -oni, a female passenger from the etherlands.

-oni then reversed her relationship to the ga+e of camera #y filming the documentary team, whohad suddenly #ecome the su#ects of their own documentary.

The simple act of transferring their e%uipment into the hands of passengers modified

the structure of the documentary teamBs voyeuristic proect profoundly. y ceding control overthe camera e%uipment, the film crew ena#led the passengers to participate more fully in the

construction of the documentary. "ith the cameras in the hands of the passengers, the su#ects

of the documentary were a#le to shoot footage that contri#uted to the construction of the tale oftheir own e'periences Issari and *aul, 199 6am#er, 19) !toller, 1992/. urthermore, the

camera crewBs enthusiastic participation made it possi#le for their proect to #ecome more

deeply em#edded in the events that they were filming. $s the film crew themselves #ecameactive participants in the 4weirdness5 of the Tortoise adventure, the documentation of events

fell increasingly under the influence of 4real5 participants on the trip i.e., passengers who had

ta&en an interest in shooting footage and the camera crew who had #ecome a#sor#ed into the

TortoiseBs 4unusual5 e'perience/. evertheless, the presence of the documentary team andtheir e%uipment could not help #ut continue to add an unusual 4spin5 to the structure of the trip.

The principal source of this influence was rooted in the camerasB proclivity to generate their

own source of e'citement. aptivating as the attention of the cameras may have #een for some,not everyone shared an e%ual passion for the e'citement, 4significance5 or 4reality5 of events

as they unfolded on our adventure trip.

*n !nstructi,e %ncounter

"hen it #ecame too cool and #ree+y to swim in the mud any longer, we sat on the dusty grass

around the #us and #athed in the sun. Jeff wanted to proceed to the restaurant where he had

arranged to meet the other #us, #ut he was voted down #y all of the people who wanted todrin& #eer and listen to music. ;appy hour carried on until Jeff spotted the other Tortoise #us.

$s familiar as our own #us had #ecome, it was still odd to see another #ig, green #us rolling

along the hillside on the opposite side of the river.


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longer, Jeff got everyone loaded onto the #us and we set off for our rende+vous.

"e were going to meet the east#ound #us at a near#y restaurant that was run #y ative$mericans. !hortly after we arrived at the restaurant the other #us appeared. The documentary

team set to wor& immediately filming and collecting release forms from their new su#ects.

The restaurant was little more than a hut with a small counter and a few ta#les. Three women,

who were #ehind the counter, were serving 4Indian Tacos5? fried #read with #eans, salad, freerange #eef and a selection of hot sauces. "e remained at the restaurant while Jeff went on

reconnaissance with the restaurantBs owner to search for a suita#le campsite. $s night was#eginning to fall, Jeff returned with the news that he had found a great campsite. "e loaded

into our respective #uses and then drove a few miles from the restaurant to a dirt trail. Jeff

turned onto the trail and then crept into the midst of an open field. ollowing a #it of

indecisiveness, Jeff par&ed ne't to a sun&en pit that was a#out forty feet across and ten feetdeep. The pit served admira#ly as a meeting place and a fire circle.

!oon after a crac&ling #onfire had #een set a#la+e in the center of the pit, a loud call wasraised for Jerry to play the drums. $s Jerry #egan playing drums it #ecame evident that the

activities of the passengers on our #us were #eing influenced #y the film crewBs overt

recording techni%ue. The #onfire had transformed the pit into a #la+ing orange arena. Thedrummers, the firelight and the #oisterous mem#ers of our #us created the &ind of fantastic

spectacle that made for great documentary footage. $s the camera crew ga+ed attentively upon

the drummers, the activities in the fire pit too& on the structure of a staged performance. Jerryand several other people, who had oined him in the drumming, had #ecome the centers of

attention they were 4the performers,5 and as such they were distinguisha#le from the other

people in the pit due to their #eing the focal points of attention:#oth of the documentary team

as well as of the audience of passengers who cheered and responded with encouragement totheir efforts.

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The avid attention of the documentary team added to the e'citement of this particularspectacle. That is, #ecause the camera crew was so attentive to the performance in the fire pit,

the 4significance5 of the event #ecame elevated correspondingly. $s the drummers and their

audience #egan to feel that they were indeed involved in a 4spectacular5 event, their

enthusiasm increased and so did the value of the spectacle for the documentary team. Indeed,these dynamics com#ined to generate a truly spontaneous and spectacular event. ;owever, not

everyone who was present was e%ually impressed #y the fireside performance.

"e did not hit it off very well with the people from the other #us. $s the performance in

the pit advanced, the people from the other #us slowly disappeared. $s the people from our #us#ecame more involved in the performance #y the fire, the people from the other #us lostinterest. Daniel told me that a few people from the other #us went so far as to suggest that the

passengers on our #us were 4a #unch of posers...Aou &now, Sli&e weBre ust putting this on as

an act5 Interview transcription/. It was easy to understand how the performance in the fire pit

could appear to #e a 4simulation5:#ecause it certainly was. The fireside drummingperformance was a conse%uence of the evolving integration of the documentary simulation into

our Tortoise trip. ;owever, the people from the east#ound Tortoise witnessed the fireside

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performance merely as the 4artificial5 conduct of #lowhards doing their #est to get their faces

on camera. ecause the people on the other Tortoise #us had not #een e'posed e'tensively to

the cameras they did not share the same motivation or appreciation for 4cele#rations ofweirdness5 as did the passengers on our #us.

-ater in the evening, while the drumming in the pit was still going strong, !usan and I

stum#led across a small group of people who were almost undetecta#le outside the noise andthe #right firelight in the pit. They were people from the east#ound #us who were trying to

enoy the fire, #ut who were also trying to avoid the drumming spectacle. I was struc& #y thecontrast #etween the activities of the people inside versus those outside the fire pit? the people

from the other #us were sitting a short distance from the rim of the pit, tal&ing %uietly, sipping

#eer and paying vague attention to someone in their midst who was strumming a guitar. !ince

their activities were not influenced #y the focus of cameras, they were not stimulated to createa spectacle or to structure their entertainment. I could not help feeling a little envious of their

calmer, more dignified composure. Early the ne't morning the east#ound Tortoise #us pac&ed

up and left without ceremony. >ur meeting provided ample evidence that we were indeedproceeding in much different directions.

Transforming the *d,enture

$s we drove away from adlands ational *ar& during the ne't afternoon, eth #orrowed the

camera crewBs wal&ietal&ie and sent goofy messages to James who was driving the van. The

camera crew had #ecome very permissive of the passengers who wished to use their

e%uipment. In fact, Daniel had #egun wor&ing so closely with the documentary team that heachieved the honorary status of 4si'th mem#er of the camera crew.5 >n one occasion Daniel

drove the camera crewBs van through the night #ecause huc& had #ecome so starved for sleep

that he had #egun hallucinating as he was driving.

>ver the ne't couple of days we drove through many of the scenic wonders and ational

*ar&s of "yoming, olorado and tah.

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Jeff arranged for our second camp out of the trip to #e in 6oa#, tah. >ur day in 6oa# #egan

with a raft trip on the 7reen


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communal sleeping and eating arrangements, etc./ can cause its passengers to cling firmly to

their conventional inhi#itions. 7enerally, the tension #etween the passengers and the

unconventional environment on the Tortoise #uilds until group events evolve that serve to4e'plode5:or 4deconstruct5 Den+in, 1989#, 199)a/:the influences of conventional social

constraints over the structure of the passengersB thoughts and #ehaviors. These are usually very

energetic events due to the fact that they are fueled #y the sudden release of tension that has#een #uildingup for days or even wee&s. $s a result of these 4deconstructive,5 tension

relieving events, passengers often feel more comforta#le a#out flouting conventional social

constraints for the #alance of their ourneys. >n this trip, due to the influences of thedocumentary team, such tensionrelieving events tended to #e organi+ed around visual

spectacles. This nightBs performance was an even more fantastic visual spectacle than the

drumming performance in the adlands.

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The dancers added to the #ooming resonance of the drumming #y waving their flashlights asthey wriggled in their ma&eshift discothe%ue. The people in the culvert danced and drummed

for a couple of hours until they emerged as a worn out, sweaty mass, and then too& a s&innydip in the near#y river.

$s much as such visual spectacles may have #een perceived #y 4critics5 e.g., the

passengers on the east#ound #us and myself/ to have #een an 4artificial5 contrivance, in adiscussion related to this topic, Daniel suggested that the presence of the cameras had ena#led

he and others to 4reflect5 upon their identities in ways that would not have #een possi#le

otherwise. "hile, his initial reaction to the cameras had #een to create an 4epic5 representationof himself, this impulse had faded as he developed a more insightful analysis of his 4real self5?

RI will admit that at first I thought, 4"ow, you &now, I really would li&e them to get

pictures of me, you &now, clim#ing a mountain.5 Aou &now, the 4epic,5 forever me.Immortal on film. ut then I reali+ed, you &now, thatBs #asically the uh...video version

of ma&ing a face at a camera Interview transcription/.

$s a result, while the documentary team captured images of passengers whose level of

enthusiasm a#out participating in this Tortoise adventure had #een intensified:much as De#rahad predicted:the 4inde'icality5 ichols, 1991/ of the documentary simulation was not

utterly compromised as a result. "hile long term e'posure to the ga+e of cameras had a

tendency to stimulate and structure 4performances,5 at the same time, #eing ga+ed upon for an

e'tended period time also ena#led some passengers to progress towards a deeperunderstanding, and more 4verisimilar5 -incoln and Den+in, 199)/ presentation, of their

identities.

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The Self-0erpetuating Significance of the Simulacrum

During the ne't day we traveled from ryce anyon to Uion ational *ar&. $fter a very late

dinner in Uion we settled in for the last stage of the trip. Jeff was planning to drive throughout

the night so that we could spend the final evening of our ourney on the alifornia coast. In themiddle of the night:from 2?00 to (?00 $6:we made a #rief, nightmarish stop in -as Negas.

The lights of -as Negas e'ploded out of the desert in such a shimmering conflagration that,com#ined with the stifling desert heat, it was not hard to imagine that we had arrived in ;ell.

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"hen dawn #ro&e we had almost emerged from the evada desert. pon arriving in

alifornia Jeff piloted the #us towards a&ersfield in order to drop off $ndie, the first

passenger to depart from our adventure trip. $ndie had made arrangements to meet a friend atthe 7reyhound station in a&ersfield. ecause our arrival in a&ersfield coincided roughly

with the lunch hour, Jeff announced that we should ma&e use of this stop to find refreshments.

6ost of the #usBs compliment ate their noon meal at a deli that stood a stoneBs throw from the7reyhound station. $fter devouring a %uic& sandwich in the frigid deli, !usan and I returned to

the fiery air of the afternoon and then oined the crowd on the shady sidewal& ne't to the #us.

"hile we were waiting to get #ac& on the road, a reporter from a local TN news station arrived

with the intention of shooting footage of the 7reen Tortoise for the evening news. Thepresence of the reporter activated the documentary team, who, in a flash, had their cameras

rolling as well.

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The ensuing scene characteri+ed many of the uni%ue aspects of the motion picture

documentation medium, while it also offered a demonstration of the manner in which the

4significant5 components of postmodern reality have #ecome caught up in endless cycles of

visual simulation audrillard, 1988 Den+in, 1993/. $s much as motion picture cameras can#e thesee"ersof spectacle, they can also #e thesourcesof it. That is, the TN news reporter was

interested in documenting a story a#out the 7reen Tortoise, #ut he #ecame even more

interested in the Tortoise when he discovered the presence of the documentary team. Thus, animportant element of the reporterBs 4story5 was that there was a film crew at wor& on the

Tortoise. $s a result, we were treated to a somewhat surreal spectacle of documentation? the

local TN reporter had come to film the people on the Tortoise, #ut then he had found another

film crew filming us thus, he filmed the crew that was in the process of filming us, and he didthis while the film crew that was filming us, filmed him as he filmed them. $nd to complicate

matters further, as the camera crews filmed each other, the Tortoise passengers:whose

e'perience the camera operators were intent upon documenting:ga+ed upon the spectaclecreated #y the camera operatorsB simulation of each other, and wondered. In the end, it was

difficult to decide where the simulation of our Tortoise adventure #egan and ended:or, as

audrillard 1988. 199)0 points out, if in fact reality was in any final way distinguisha#le fromits simulation.

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$fter this orgy of documentation we got on the #us and headed for the coast. "e spent

much of the day ma&ing a long, hot drive across alifornia. $lthough Jeff had hoped to travel

as far as ig !ur, we made it no further north than !an !imeon !tate *ar&:still a stri&ingly#eautiful #eachfront location.

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"hile we coo&ed and ate dinner, anticipation grew for the last drumming party that was #eing

organi+ed on the #each. The sparsely populated coast offered an ideal location to #uild anotherroaring #onfire. $s Jerry and a woman, named 6annie, drummed on plastic #uc&ets, a few

passers#y accompanied them on driftwood logs. The passers#y remained in the shadows

outside the firelight and, when they were encouraged to oin in the 4performance,5 theyshrugged off the opportunity. It remained the case that &indred spirits still chose to remain

outside the glow of the firelight and well #eyond the ga+e of the cameras. >urs had #een a

uni%ue adventure that, while following a course that was similar to that of other Tortoise trips,

had #lurred the #oundary #etween simulation and reality in the postmodern world.

Conclusion

The conception of self in contemporary culture has come to #e influenced increasingly #y, anddefined through:#ut is not yet welle'amined in relation to:various forms of visual media

and simulations? 4S$mericans are themselves simulation in its most developed state, #ut they

have no language in which to descri#e it, since they themselves are the model5 audrillard,1988, p. 2829/. Despite #eing influenced e'tensively #y the world of visual simulations, it

remains for most people an unusual, e'citing:and, indeed, an'ietyprovo&ing:e'perience to

#e ga+ed upon #y motion picture cameras. Aet, it was through the novelty of #eing e'posed to

the motion picture documentation process that 7reen Tortoise passengers were a#le todeconstruct Den+in, 1989#, 199)a/ the 4power5 that visual media e'ercises over their

definition of self. In other words, the ga+e of the cameras made it possi#le for myself and theother su#ects of the documentary 4to visuali+e not only theory and culture as products of a

comple' visual cinematic apparatus, #ut to show how that apparatus entangles itself within the

very tellings we tell5 Den+in, 1993, p. 200/.

Therefore, in generating a 4simulated5 e'perience for the passengers on the Tortoise,

the documentary team colla#orated in the production of the transformative cultural criti%ue that

is the 4real5 su#stance of the 7reen Tortoise travel e'perience:and which, as it turns out, alsohappens to #e the crucial su#ect matter that it was the goal of the documentary team to

capture. In the end, the documentary team captured the 4ourney5 into the identities of the

passengers that they set out to record. In e'posing themselves to the ga+e of their cameras, thedocumentary team emphasi+ed the fact that 4truth5 is not to #e found merely in ga+ing upon

others. $lthough it may not #e possi#le to ga+e upon truth no matter where oneBs camera is

focused, it is through the un#lin&ing eye of the camera that 4a new form of selfawareness is

produced, an understanding that moves to the core of the otherBs self5 Den+in, 1993, p. 218/.Thus, the filming techni%ues of the camera crew emphasi+ed that the virtue of ga+ing upon

others:either in visceral or simulated form:is not to locate truth, #ut, rather to employ a

4refle'ive mechanism5 through which we can come to #e more aware of the contemporary

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4cinematic5 influences that structure our own voyeuristic ga+es.

References

audrillard, Jean, 1988.'merica. Translated #y hris Turner./ Nerso? ew Aor&.

audrillard, Jean, 199). Simulacra an! Simulation. $nn $r#or? niversity of 6ichigan *ress.

audrillard, Jean, 199=. &ool -emories II: 89;6899orth. International ilm !eminars/ ;ome

Nision.

7offman, Erving, 1939. ThePresentation o# Sel# in (very!ay +i#e. 7arden ity, .A.?

Dou#leday.

7offman, Erving, 19=.Interaction $itual: (ssays in Face to Face Behavior. 7arden ity,

.A.? $nchor oo&s.

(9


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;arman, "illis ". 199=. 4The !hortcomings of "estern !cience.5 Qualitative Inquiry2/ 1?(0(8.

Issari, 6. $li, and Doris $. *aul, 199. 3hat is &inema *eriteG -ondon? The !carecrow *ress,Inc.

-incoln, Avonna !., and orman C. Den+in, 199). 4The ifth 6oment.5 *p. 3338= in

an!boo" o# Qualitative $esearch%orman C. Den+in and Avonna !. -incoln Eds./.

Thousand >a&s? !age.

6am#er, !tephen, 19). &inema *erite in 'merica: Stu!ies in ,ncontrolle! 1ocumentary.am#ridge? The 6IT *ress.

6assot, laude, and !e#astien anoo" $evisite!. *rinceton? ilms for the

;umanities.

6c7ettigan, Timothy, 199. 4ncorrected Insight? 6etaphor and Transcendence P$fter TruthBin Mualitative In%uiry.5 Qualitative Inquiry( (/? (==(8(.

6c7ettigan, Timothy, 1999. ,topia on 3heels: Blun!ering 1o)n the $oa! to $eality. -anham,

6D? niversity *ress of $merica

ichols, ill, 1991.$epresenting $eality: Issues an! &oncepts in 1ocumentary. loomington?Indiana niversity *ress.


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!toller, *aul, 1992. The &inematic /riot: The (thnography o# 2ean $ouch. hicago? The

niversity of hicago *ress.

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C/*0T%R T/R%%

Redefining Reality1

* Solution to the 0arado= of %mancipation

*bstract

In this article I propose that a 4redefined5 standard of truth offers a means through which to

develop a united theoretical and methodological framewor& for sociological science. I arguethat, although human agency needs to #e defined in terms that are antithetical to social

structural constraint, agency and social structure must also #e compati#le and coproductive.

$s such, I also assert that the micro level of individual #ehavior is interactively lin&ed to macrostructures through the medium of three dimensional power. inally, redefined truth facilitates a

#roader and more inclusive definition of sociological su#ect matter, while also advocating an

improved alternative to the conventional notion of 4good science.5

!ntroduction

In what follows, I propose a solution to the parado' of emancipation #y suggesting that actors

have the capacity to 4redefine reality5 6c7ettigan, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001a/. This solutionhas implications for a num#er of unresolved theoretical dilemmas. $s evidenced in the three

faces of power de#ate -u&es, 19), 2003/, conventional approaches to sociological science

employ methods that comply to a constrained definition of disciplinary su#ect matter. I arguethat to o#serve the third face of power successfully one must e'pand oneBs definition of 4good

science5 to more fully appreciate the multidimensional nature of empirical reality. In doing so,

sociologists will #e #etter a#le to conceptuali+e the lin&ages $le'ander, 198


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Competing 8ie(s of 0o(er

$ccording to -u&es 19), 2003/ there are three dimensions of power. The one dimensionalview defines power as something that is e'pressed in o#serva#le relationships? ver#al or

physical struggles #etween antagonists. The twodimensional view includes the influence of

intention in power relationships. This perspective critici+es onedimensional power theories for

overloo&ing the degree to which power may invisi#ly impede o#serva#le power contests. Thethreedimensional view of power suggests that power is even more insidious. Three

dimensional perspectives assert that actorsB very own interests are shaped #y power structures.Thus, actors are often secretly hoodwin&ed into doing the #idding of others, even while

presuming to serve their own selfinterests.

The pluralistic, or onedimensional view of power maintains that power in a democraticsystem is distri#uted among competing groups. This perspective stresses that, although it is

une%ually distri#uted, everyone has some access to power. Thus, Dahl 19=1/ assumed that one

needed only to o#serve the democratic representational process in action to witness thee'ercise of power.

DahlBs 4intuitive idea of power5 can #e descri#ed as follows? 4$ has power over to thee'tent that he can get to do something that would not otherwise do5 193, p. 80/. *ower,

in this sense, is operationali+ed as the a#ility of one actor to affect another, which Dahl and

other pluralists #elieve may #est #e o#served in decisionma&ing situations. >vert conflict is afundamental component of this operationali+ation of power. Dahl measured power in terms of

an actorBs a#ility to win decisions on &ey issues, which necessarily implies some disagreement,

or in -u&esB words, 4actual and o#serva#le, conflict5 19), p.1(/.

DahlBs emphasis on studying 4concrete, o#serva#le #ehavior5 -u&es 19), p.12/ had a

dual purpose. irst, DahlBs 19=1/ study was a reaction to elite studies of power 6ills 193=/.

Elite power theorists claim that instead of #eing distri#uted pluralistically, power is possessed#y a limited num#er of power #ro&ers. Thus, DahlBs study of the political environment of ew

;aven, onnecticut was intended to demonstrate that many groups, not ust elites, won &eydecisions and therefore possessed power. !econd, Dahl had a scientific motive? he wanted topractice 4good science,5 which implies a #rea& with conceptual, philosophical issues in favor

of studying o#serva#le #ehavior that is su#ect to conventional scientific analysis.1

Early critics of Dahl, proponents of what -u&es calls the twodimensional view of powerachrach and arat+ 190/, argued that pluralist restrictions on the operationali+ation of

power, that were intended to serve a particular definition of 4good science,5 discounted an

important facet of power? the mo#ili+ation of #ias. The mo#ili+ation of #ias is a 4#ias in favourof the e'ploitation of some &inds of conflict and the suppression of others5 -u&es 19), p.1=/.

achrach and arat+ claim that those who are in power e'ercise control over organi+ational

agendas #y ma&ing 4nondecisions.5 ondecisions are conscious choices made #y agenda

setters that result 4in suppression or thwarting of a latent or manifest challenge to the values orinterests of the decisionma&er5 achrach and arat+ 190, p. ))/. Issues that conflict with the

1 This tradition in social science is closely related to what is often referred to as positivism. Turner 198/ descri#es

positivism as 4the use of theory to interpret empirical events and, conversely, the reliance on o#servation to assess

the plausi#ility of theory5 198, pp. 13=13/. $lthough positivism has #een critici+ed, reviled and renamedIsaac

198/ pronounced positivism dead at the hands of *opper 1939/ and refers to its descendant as 4empiricism5it

remains an influential, if not the dominant, paradigm in sociology.

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interests of agendasetters may, therefore, #e easily suppressed simply #y failing to allocate

time for their consideration. or e'ample, political parties often enhance the perception of

unanimity #y failing to yield podium time to radical splinter groups during nationalconventions. In this way, power may #e e'ercised %uite effectively without creating any visi#le

conflict, which, in turn, creates a pro#lem for the practice of 4good science5 acc

Dilemmas in Truth and Science

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