Dicranopteris Linearis Common Name in Malaysia

8/14/2019 Dicranopteris Linearis Common Name in Malaysia

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A Guide to the Plants of Kent Ridge


Welcome! This page is intended to be an online resource for theuse of teachers, students, and the general public. Within youcan find information on the vegetation of Kent Ridge, as well asdescriptions of the various common species of plants that canbe found there. The Introduction is a brief essay on various

aspects of Ridge vegetation, while the Plants page gives simple

descriptions of plant life, as well as an artificial key to aid inidentifying common Ridge trees. The References section gives a

list of books and articles for further reading.

Introduction

Plants

References

This webpage done Dec 2001 by Brandon Seah for the Raffles

Museum of Biodiversity Research, Department of Biological

Sciences, National University of Singapore.

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A Guide to the Plants of Kent Ridge -- Introduction

Introduction

There is an interesting variety of plant life on Kent Ridge. Thisguide attempts to be an introduction to common species thatcan be found along the edge of the Kent Ridge forest that runsalongside the stretch of Kent Ridge Road from the CentralLibrary to the staircase behind the Institute of Molecular andCell Biology building. Both natives and naturalized exotics arementioned. Choose from the links below to access various partsof the introduction.

Adinandra belukar

Plant Overview

Succession

Land Use History

Soil Erosion

Exotics

Plant-Animal Interactions

Adaptations

The Future

Main | Introduction | Plants | References

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Introduction -- Adinandrabelukar

The type of vegetation found on the Ridge is known asAdinandra belukar, as Adinandra dumosa is its characteristicallymost commonly found tree, and 'belukar' is Malay for secondaryforest. Secondary forest is forest that grows on ground that hasbeen previously cleared of its original vegetation (primaryforest) or disturbed significantly. It is different from primaryvegetation in many ways. For example, the species of plantsgrowing in secondary forests are different from those in primaryforests, and are more adapted to life in its different conditions.These different conditions include increased light intensity,

lower humidity, higher temperatures, etc. In order to surviveand be successful, plants in secondary forests also have to growquickly and be easily and widely dispersed, so that they maycolonize newly disturbed ground before other plants do.Adinandra belukar is found on degraded land, whereas anothertype of belukar, Trema belukar, dominated by Trema sp. andsimilar plants is found in naturally occurring gaps in primaryforest, where the soil is still rich in nutrients and not degraded.

Adinandra belukar was first qualitatively described by Holttum(1954a), and later by Sim et al (1992). Wee and Corlett (1986)have given a semi-popular account of secondary vegetation inSingapore, and Corlett (1991) has described the various stagesof development in Singapore's secondary vegetation based onstudies in the Central Catchment area. In general, belukar has

several distinct differences from primary forest. Firstly, itsfloristic diversity is much lower, with more plants per speciesper unit area than primary forest. Secondly, temperature andhumidity fluctuations are much greater. The belukar is highlyexposed to the elements, hence in the day it is very warm andduring the night it is very cool. It is much drier too, for thebelukar's average minimum relative humidity is 62% whereasprimary forests experience at least 76%. Thirdly, the soil is

much poorer, lacking various nutrients due to its previous uses.Rain and other erosive agents wash away humus and organicmaterial as well. In short, belukar is hotter, drier, and poorerthan primary forests. Its various aspects are explored in detail

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below.




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Introduction -- Plant Overview

The dominant plant on the Ridge (Sim et al, 1992; Holttum,1954a) is Adinandra dumosa, the Tiup Tiup, which is a smalltree with reddish young leaves and small creamy white flowers.Other common plants include Melastoma malabathricum, theSingapore Rhododendron, that has pretty purple flowers and anedible dark purple fruit; Ficus grossularioides, a fig with leavesthat show great variation in form, ranging from deeply lobed toellipsoid; Myrica esculenta, a small shrubby plant which hasleaves that are spirally arranged; Dillenia suffruticosa, SimpohAir (Ayer), a prominent plant that has large thick leaves, bright

yellow flowers, and bright red star-shaped fruits; andRhodamnia cinerea, the Silverback, so called because theunderside of its leaves are a glossy whitish colour. A commonlyseen tree that is not native but introduced is Acaciaauriculiformis, a tree with a messy looking crown and sickle-shaped 'leaves' (actually modified stems or phylloclades) as wellas abundant sprays of yellow flowers. It is a native of northernAustralia, the Torres Straits, and southern Papua New Guinea

(Boland et al, 1990). Furthermore, there are several types ofherbaceous plants in the belukar. The most prominent would bethe species ofNepenthes, or the pitcher plants. They areinsectivorous, and trap insects and other small creatures in theirjug-like pitchers, which contain a liquid that has digestiveenzymes, acting almost like a stomach in digesting what it trapsfor additional nutrients, which it needs due to the poor nutrientcontent of the soil. The terrestrial orchid Bromheadia

finlaysoniana is also present, which has pinkish flowers.

Very commonly seen is the Resam, Dicranopteris linearis, a sunloving fern that blankets large areas of bare land and preventsother plants from establishing themselves there. Resam isconsidered a harmful weed to agriculture, and it needs to be cutflush to the ground and sprayed with lime to be stopped

(O'Hara, 1926). Notable in their absence are the epiphytes,plants that grow on other plants without harming them (hencenot parasites). Before humans came to disturb and clear theforest, causing the development of secondary forests, these



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belukar plants were usually confined to limestone cliff forestsand other similar environments which have conditions similar tothose found in belukar land. (Corlett, 1991)




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Introduction -- Succession

These plants are not usually found in primary undisturbedforest. In South East Asia, the forests are characterized by thepresence of dipterocarps, members of the familyDipterocarpaceae, which is known for its winged seeds and goodtimber. When these are cleared from the land, or when gapsappear in the forest, the plants which emerge to quickly takeover the land are known as pioneers. As mentioned above, theytend to grow quickly as well as flower and fruit fast. They arealso better dispersed than dipterocarps, hence pioneers can getto the open land faster than the dipterocarps. The exposed

nature of gaps and clearings also is unsuitable for many primaryforest plants, which have adapted to the humid and shadedclimate of the understorey, that is the part of the forest coveredby the foliage canopies of trees.

Eventually, the vegetation will recover from the clearing ordisturbance, and revert to its original state. This process is

known as 'succession', so called because different types ofplants succeed each other as conditions change. Corlettdescribed four stages of succession on degraded land inSingapore. In stage 1, the recently cleared and abandoned landis invaded by herbaceous and smaller woody pioneers and thereis no distinct foliage canopy, in stage 2, the woody pioneersform a canopy over the ground, and eventually shade out theherbaceous pioneers, which need light for full growth. In stage

3, a transition occurs and the pioneers are slowly replaced by adifferent set of species, and this culminates in stage 4, the tallsecondary forest. Previously, a distinction had been madebetween the so-called low and tall secondary forests, the formerbeing shorter than 10 metres, and the latter being taller. (Hill,1977) However, this separation is rather arbitrary. Stages 1 and2 also appear to correspond with the old concepts of belukarmuda ('muda' is Malay for 'young') and belukar tua ('tua' is

Malay for 'old'). At present, Kent Ridge appears to be at stage 2of Corlett's model of succession, being still dominated by theoriginal species of pioneers.



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The 'original state', or 'climax' that the Ridge belukar shouldrevert to is the lowland tropical dipterocarp rainforest(Whitemore, 1975). However, this will take an extremely longtime, as dipterocarps (as mentioned above) are very poorlydispersed. The seeds, although winged, can only fly up to a

maximum of 100 metres (100 yards) in a very strong wind, andaccording to Ridley (1930), dipterocarps take about 30 years toreach maturity and start fruiting, hence in the most ideal case,they would take 58666 years to cover 100 miles of land, andthis is discounting other threats to dipterocarp survival, e.g. theneed to be tall to catch drafts of fast wind, and the possibility ofthe seeds being consumed by rodents. In order for the belukarto proceed beyond stage 2, new species of plants from the older

forest need to recolonize the land. However, Kent Ridge is in themiddle of the urban jungle, and the only sources of seed forthese plants are several kilometers away in Bukit Timah and theCentral Catchment area, the former being the only primaryforest in Singapore, and the latter the most mature secondaryforest. (Corlett, 1992) Hence, in this state of isolation, thefuture of Ridge vegetation is uncertain.




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Introduction -- Land Use History

Adinandra belukar occurs on land that has been degraded byagriculture and development, then subsequently abandoned. Itreflects the common pattern of historical land use in Singaporeover the years. The land of the Ridge has seen various types ofuses. Prior to 1845, the area was probably covered byundisturbed lowland rainforest that now can only be seen inBukit Timah. From about 1845 to 1945, the Ridge was coveredby settlements and was used for rubber plantations. Somerubber trees still persist on the Ridge, and Holttum (1954a)reports seeing old and dying rubber trees along the Gap, where

Buona Vista Road cuts through the Ridge. From 1945-1959, theplantations were largely abandoned, being unproductive afterhaving exhausted the soil of its nutrients, and the primary landuse was residential and military. From 1959-1970, the areaused for residential purposes increased, and from 1970 to thepresent, the Ridge is largely known for housing the NationalUniversity of Singapore campus. In addition, associated with thesettlements and kampungs on the ridge were small-scale

agricultural holdings, planting vegetables and fruits, e.g. tapioca(Manihot esculenta), sugarcane (Saccharum officinarium),banana (Musa paradisica), etc. Hence, some of these cultivatedplants may have escaped into the Ridge vegetation.Horticultural plants, for example the Money Plant (Epipremumbipinnatum) are also present on the Ridge. The presence of thehuman settlements also resulted in settlers collecting wood forfirewood, and this has caused some degree of damage as well.


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Introduction -- Soil Erosion

The intensive land use on the Ridge has resulted in very deeperosion and weathering of its soil (12-25 m). As such, thehumus (organic matter) content of the soil is low, and its naturestrongly reflects the characteristics of the rocks that lieunderneath. The rocks on Kent Ridge are from threeformations: the Kallang, Tekong, and Jurong formations (PublicUtilities Board, 1976). These are mostly sandstone andmudstone formations, and so the soils they form are mostlysediment that is deficient in many forms of plant nutrients. Thesoil is known to be deficient in potassium (K) and calcium (Ca)

(Lee, 1995); hence Ridge plants have to be well adapted togrow under such conditions. The evidence for the deep erosionof the soil is the numerous boulders that can be seen in severalplaces along Kent Ridge Road. While there is leaf litter present,the humus layer is much thinner compared to primary forest,and even more so in areas covered by grass. Organic matter onthe ground acts as a 'sponge' to absorb water when the raincomes, (Holttum, 1954b) so without it, the water holding

capacity of the soil is reduced. Kent Ridge soil exhibits highsurface runoff and a compact nature. (Sim, 1991; Mudaliar,1984) Therefore, water is not absorbed and retained well by thesoil, instead flowing off; in addition, the soil is poorly aerated.Together with the higher soil temperature, due to the greaterlight penetration to the surface compared with primary forests,this causes the environment to be drier than primary forest,hence pioneer belukar plants have to be adapted to lower water

availability. Ironically, while the open nature of the canopycauses higher rainfall penetration to the ground, this results inerosion of the soil that eventually causes the water deficiency.The acidity of the soil is also high, and this can decrease thesolubility and hence availability of macronutrients, in particularnitrogen and phosphorus, while increasing the solubility of toxicsubstances like aluminum. Therefore, only plants that cantolerate this can survive. The relative absence of legumes(members of the family Leguminosae [Fabaceae]), except forthe exotic Acacia, means that they cannot carry out theirnitrogen fixing function for the soil.



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Introduction -- Exotics

There are many exotic plants that have invaded the Ridgebelukar. Many of these are pan-tropical weeds of theCompositae (Asteraceae), as well as alien grasses and sedgesthat have been introduced. This might be due to Kent Ridgebeing enveloped in an urban area, and since Singapore was,and still is, a busy trading port, many of these may havefollowed traders in from overseas. Woody alien plants are alsopresent. The most prominent of these, and also the mostsuccessful, is Acacia auriculiformis, the Wattle, which is a nativeof northern Australia, the Torres Straits, and southern Papua

New Guinea. It was brought to this region as a horticulturalplant and also as a source of timber, and Nicholson (1965) callsit "...a very useful tree, especially for replanting waste areas...."Hill (1977) notes that it was planted in Kent Ridge itself alongthe Gap. The tree was also used as a wayside tree by thegovernment before being abandoned because of its excessivelyvigorous growth and rapid dispersal. Other trees along KentRidge Road are also possibly planted as wayside trees, for

example Adenanthera pavonina, the Saga tree, as well asCausuarina equisetifolia, which is found naturally on sandyshores. But Acacia is still the most common exotic, and this isdue to several factors. Firstly, it is well suited to the dry andexposed environment of the belukar, and also has tough leaveslike native belukar plants. Secondly, its growth is fast, and itmatures rapidly, competing with the natives for light andnutrients. Thirdly, being a legume, its associated root nodules

can fix nitrogen and give it an edge in growth. Fourthly, itsbrightly coloured yellow aril attract birds which feed on itsnumerous seeds that are produced year round and hencedisperse the plant. As can be seen, even though it is an exoticthat has evolved in a different area from this region, it sharesmany characteristics and adaptations with belukar plants andhence is able to compete favourably with them.

As mentioned above, horticultural plants and food plants have"escaped" from peoples' gardens to grow wild on the Ridge. Itwas quite surprising for the author to stumble upon a patch of



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Sanseviera sp. growing wild in the shade of the belukar trees.Epipremnum, the money plant, can also be seen climbing uptrees together with the native Smilax spp. These weeds maycompete with the native plants and smother them out, orcompete with them for nutrients, and hence reduce plantdiversity. Veldkamp (2001) complained about how tropical flora

is becoming increasingly homogenized, and in the belukar,where plant diversity is already significantly less than primaryforest, the threat of exotics is quite great. However, the exoticsare established mostly at the edge of the forest, where humandisturbance is the greatest, and the conditions are the best fortheir growth. It can be observed that even plants as successfulas Acacia still have not penetrated to the core of the belukarforest, though in time they may.

Other foreign invaders include Mimosa pudica, the sensitiveplant, and Lantana camara, one of the top ten weedsworldwide. With the increased exposure of the Ridge to externalinfluences and urbanization, the belukar will be increasinglyinfiltrated by plants that 'should not be there'. At present thebelukar natives are holding their own, but the future is

somewhat uncertain. According to Mudaliar (1987), two-thirdsof belukar plant species are natives. While it comparesfavourably with other forms of land use, e.g. urban greenspace, residential, etc., it is much less than primary forests.




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Introduction -- Plant-AnimalInteractions

Plants and animals interact in many ways, both mutuallybeneficial and antagonistic. The most important ways they canhelp each other are dispersal and pollination. Many examplescan be found in Ridley (1930).

DispersalDispersal is important for the pioneer belukar plants to be

widely distributed and more successful in the secondary forests.The majority of belukar plants are dispersed by animals,especially birds and bats, which are highly mobile creatures.Many of the plants have edible fruits, which are consumed bythe animals and then spread over a wide range when theanimals excrete the seeds in their faeces. Belukar plants tend toflower and fruit at a young age, each fruit tends to have manyseeds. For example, Chin (1970) reports that Melastoma hasbetween 394-1472 seeds per fruit, while Adinandra has

between 83-189. The seeds are also very light and small, e.g.Adinandra seeds are an average of 0.948 mg, those ofFagraea,0.269 mg, etc. All these factors contribute to their ease ofdispersal. Compared to the dipterocarps, as mentioned above,they make use of the mobility of animals to help them indispersal. Hence, they can colonize newly abandoned land withgreat vigour.

Phua and Corlett (1989) report that the Lesser Short-nosedFruit Bat, Cynopterus brachyotis, consumes a wide variety offruits, including a significant number of the belukar plants, likeAdinandra, Fagraea, Vitex pinnata, etc. Cynopterus tends to flyto the fruits, bite them from the tree, then fly away to anotherplace to consume the flesh of the fruit and drop the seedsbefore flying back for more. Because of this behavior of the bat,

the seeds are dispersed over a wider area than they would if thebats simply stay in place to consume the fruits.



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Birds also feed on a wide variety of fruits. The Yellow VentedBulbul feeds on Rhodamnia, Melastoma, Cinnamomum etc.,while the Turtle Dove feeds on Melastoma, which Ridley (1930)said was "one of the first bushes to appear in the waste fields oflalang grass, where the seeds are dropped by pigeons andbulbuls." Bulbuls also tend to go after the seeds ofDillenia,perhaps attracted by the bright red colour of the arils. Thesuccessful exotic, Acacia auriculiformis, is also dispersed bybirds, which are attracted to its seeds by the bright yellow arils.In fact, seeds ofMelastoma germinate better after passingthrough the digestive tract of a bird. (Chin, 1970)

In more mature secondary forests, monkeys are active dispersalagents, '"attacking vigorously" the fruits ofEugenia, Passiflora,etc. However, they are not commonly encountered on theRidge, though a number were sighted a few years back andmay or may not still be present. Finally, there is the interestingcase ofPloiarium alternifolium, another pioneer plant, where theseed capsules dehisce (split) on the plant, and rain washesthem down to be dispersed.

PollinationPollination is carried out by many insects. Turner notes thatcarpenter bees (Xylocopa latipes) can be seen pollinatingDillenia and Melastomain Singapore. In addition, the figs, Ficusspp. are famously pollinated by the tiny fig wasps, which laytheir eggs in the figs. The eggs then hatch and the wasps mate.The males die and the females squeeze out of the fig to lay

their eggs, and in the process pick up pollen. When they enterother figs to lay their eggs, they deposit the pollen and hencepollinate the figs.

MyrmecophytesMacaranga triloba, the Mahang, is a plant that can be found inAdinandra belukar though more commonly in Trema belukar. It

is a myrmecophyte, literally meaning an "ant plant". Its stem ishollow, as the pith within disintegrates just behind the meristem(growing tip). Within the hollow, ants of the speciesCrematogaster borneensis establish their colonies. Small holes



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along the stem can be seen where the ants enter and exit. Theplant also provides small white food bodies for the ants to feedon. In return, the ants protect the plant against foreign invadinginsects and other small creatures. The ants also bite off thegrowing tips of plants that come near the Macaranga plant,hence preventing vines and other plants from growing over and

smothering it.




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Introduction -- Adaptations

StrategistsAccording to MacArthur and Wilson's (1967) theory of islandbiogeography, there are two kinds of ways which plants canadapt and strategize to adapt to their conditions. The so called r-strategists are herbs which are short lived, light demanding,and have biomass mostly to produce large amounts of seeds.On the other hand, ideal K-strategists are slow growing long-lived trees with biomass used to produce a large stature, andhave shade tolerant seedlings, and have larger, fewer andpoorly dispersed seeds. The former is adapted to rapidly

changing environments, being able to quickly grow and disperseits seeds so that at least some may survive to continue thelineage, while the latter is adapted to stable, unchangingenvironments. As can be seen, belukar plants are more r-strategists. They are adapted in many ways to survive and bemore successful in the belukar environment. As mentionedabove, there are many environmental factors they have tocontend with.

WaterTo deal with the low amounts of water available to them,belukar plants have thick and small leaves, (Turner & Tan,1991) with more dry weight per unit area than primaryrainforest plants, which, according to Whitmore (1975), tend tohave large and thin leaf laminas. Furthermore, Adinandra

belukar plants have tough and sclerophyllous leaves incomparison with Trema belukar plants (Boo, 1996), most likelysince the latter have more water available to them in a morehumid environment. According to Chee (1987), rhizosclereidscan be found in Adinandra, and astrosclereids in Fagraea. Healso reports the texture of most belukar plants as coriaceous orchartaceous, qualitatively confirming the tough nature of theleaves. Having tough leaves may also be a form of protection

against animals consuming the foliage, as they would tend tochoose softer and tender leaves for consumption. (Choong et al,1992) Furthermore, pioneer plants tend to have low resistanceto water transport (Bazzaz, 1996). Adinandra, Melastoma, and



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Ploiarium also have young in-curled leaves, possibly to reducewater loss by transpiration by creating a small zone of morehumid air around the leaves. In addition, most importantbelukar species have about 2 layers of cells in the upperpalisade mesophyll layer in their leaves, except for Vitex (1)and Fagraea (4-5). This is probably also another means of

preventing water loss through the leaves. Dicranopteris, the sunloving fern, has a waxy cuticle layer on both sides of its fronds,as well has having a closely arranged palisade mesophyll layer,a tactic to save water. In addition, the stomata in Dicranopterisfronds are sunken and surrounded by raised cells, which createpockets of humid air around stomata to reduce water loss. Thewaxy cuticle on the underside of Dicranopteris is flaky, andhence may act as 'heat fins' to dissipate excess heat as the

plant is often in direct sunlight. (Silachart, 1995)

Growth and PhotosynthesisIn order to have successful establishment and dispersal, belukarplants mature very fast. For example, 6 day old Adinandra andFagraea plants already have primary roots covered in root hairs.Macaranga spp., another common pioneer plant, produces

lateral roots when only 1-4 days old. (Chin, 1970) Fast rootgrowth is important to get water, which is more important foryoung seedlings than mature plants. Belukar seedlings are alsolight demanding, needing a lot of light for good growth. Thisgives them an advantage over the shade-loving forest-floorherbs found in the understorey of primary forests. Their rapidgrowth results in the mature plants being tall and thin, almostpole like. Hence venturing into a belukar forest is somewhat like

walking into a forest of poles. Turner et al (1994) report thatprimary forest herbs are rarely found in mature secondaryforest in the Central Catchment area, perhaps due to theiraversion to such environments. They have high photosyntheticrates, and high light saturation intensities. Their maximalphotosynthetic rates are higher than primary plants. Hence,they can better cope with the greater light exposure in belukar,and the high rate of photosynthesis means that the plant cangenerate more biomass quickly and grow rapidly. However, thephotosynthetic apparatus of belukar plants is not very efficient,and Boo (1996) suggests that this might be due to insufficientnutrients being channeled to it. Interestingly, a light-demanding



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plant like Dicranopteris may experience having too much lightas it tends to grow in exposed places, hence to cope with thatproblem it has undulations on the surface of its fronds thatreflect of some of the incident light, reducing light intensity andthe possibility of photodamage to plant cells. (Silachart, 1995)

NutritionNutritionally, the soils are deficient. Therefore, the plants whichgrow in belukar need to survive on low nutrient concentrations.In fact, high nutrient concentration may even be toxic tobelukar plants. Nepenthes spp. attempt to supplement the littlenitrogen they can get from the soil by having developedpitchers, which are mentioned above. They digest insects and

even small animals (although some creatures can survive in thepitchers) to give more nutrients. Their presence in belukar is avery good indicator of the nutrient poverty of the soil. Althoughlegumes (except for the exotic Acacia) are not commonly foundin belukar, Myrica esculenta, a common plant on the Ridge,forms an association with Frankia (an actinomycete) that formsroot nodules that fix nitrogen (Sim, 1991).




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Introduction -- The Future

Kent Ridge is being increasingly developed. The patches offorest remaining are being isolated and surrounded bydevelopments, e.g. housing, the various Institutes newly builtalong the Ridge, etc. In addition, the Ridge is treated aswasteland or a free 'dumping ground' by contractors, and pilesof building refuse can sometimes be seen along the road. KentRidge is highly isolated from other natural areas, and itsincreased fragmentation will lead to a manifestation of the 'edgeeffect', where the edge:area ratio is high. Hence, the frontsfrom which external influences can affect the Ridge will

increase. Drying winds blowing through the forest reduce itshumidity, and rainfall coming in washes away humus. Hence,the forest is effectively being prevented from carrying out itsnatural rehabilitative functions. As such, the soil and the flora ofthe Ridge may permanently remain poor, exacerbated by itsdistance from sources of seed for the further stages ofsuccession to proceed. Buildings and other structures also storeup heat during the day and release it during the night, hence

radiating heat into the forest due to its close proximity. Thisaffects both the plant growth and animal life.

Transects of the Ridge (Mudaliar, 1984) have shown interestingresults. Land on the Ridge is mostly urban, belukar, orabandoned open land. Acacia can be found in belukar andabandoned areas. Plants like Cinnamomum iners have escaped

to abandoned land too. However, most trees in belukar arerestricted to it, especially natives, notably Adinandra itself, andhave not escaped to abandoned open land. Some plants thatare not conventional belukar plants, like Durio zibethinus(Durian), Pterocarpus indicus (Angsana) and Tabebuia sp.(Tabebuia, an ornamental) are present there. The first isprobably from settlements and villages, the second was plantedas a wayside tree by the government, and the last can be found

in some private gardens on the Ridge. Other non-belukar plantsthat can be found there are Millettia artopurpurea, Cassia spp.,Areca catechu, and others. From the trends, it seems that mostof the belukar 'invaders' are from one of three sources:



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cultivated as food in former kampungs, planted as waysidetrees by the government, or horticultural shrubs from privategardens. Not many belukar plants are successful in colonizingland outside the belukar, perhaps because the conditions aredifferent than from the original disturbances in which they firstestablished themselves about 50 years ago. In particular,

Nepenthes is not commonly seen outside the belukar. A possiblereason is that its pitchers are highly in demand by collectorsand the merely curious, hence it cannot grow under suchduress.

In view of the various factors involved, it would be interestingto see how the forest on the Ridge develops in response to

them. But in spite of its invasion and admittedly poor diversity(compared to primary forests), the belukar is still 'natural' andhas a function to play. Within the forest, away from the bustleof the urban areas, many species of birds and animals stillsurvive in the heart of the city. Many species of insects andinvertebrates are also present, and require the leaf litter andshaded conditions of the forest to survive. As mentioned above,the birds and bats feed on the fruits of the belukar plants, and

we humans can think of this in a favourable light, as we wouldrather them do so than loiter in our food centers and canteens.But still, the Ridge should be preserved for its own sake. Afterall, Holttum first described the belukar from the Ridge, and ithas historical value as well. Allowing people to recreate on theRidge, which is a public place after all, will give them a betterappreciation of nature, even if in a modified form.




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A Guide to the Plants of Kent Ridge -- Plants

Plants

There are many different species of plants on the Ridge. Thissection aims to give a simple guide to identifying some of themore common species. Scientific Nomenclature is a brief essay

on how plants are named scientifically. The Artificial Key aids in

identifying the common tree species by easily-noticeablecharacteristics. Individual Descriptions gives plant-by-plant

descriptions.

Scientific Nomenclature

Artificial Key

Individual Descriptions


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Plants -- Scientific Nomeclature

The plant kingdom (Kingdom Plantae) is divided into variousdivisions. The seed plants are in the Division Spermatophyta,the ferns and fern-allies are in Division Pteridophyta, etc. Withina division are various subdivisions. For DivisionSpermatophyta, the two subdivisions are Gymnospermae andAngiospermae. The latter are the angiosperms, the floweringplants. The subdivisions are further divided into classes, forAngiospermae, the classes are the Dicotylodonae and theMonocotyledonae. The classes are further subdivided intoorders. Names of orders generally have the suffix -ales. For

example, the Rose Order is Rosales. Within each order are oneor more families. Names of families generally have the suffix -aceae, though for historical reasons, the old names of someimportant families are retained, for example, the Leguminosae(Bean Family) is also known as Fabaceae. A family is a group ofplants which are closely related to each other. However, withinsome large families may be subfamilies. These are indicatedby the suffix -oideae. For example, within the Leguminosae

(Fabaceae) are the Mimosoideae, Caesalpinoideae, and thePapilionoideae. For very large families, the subfamilies may befurther divided into tribes, which are indicated by the suffix -eae. For example, within the subfamily Mimosoideae is the tribeAdenanthereae. Every plant species is given a name, known asa binomial, because it is split into two parts: the genus (pluralgenera) and the specific epithet or the species name. Forexample, the saga tree is known as Adenanthera pavonina, with

Adenanthera being the genus and pavonina being the specificepithet. Several species may fall under the same genus.

The name is in the Latin language, for various reasons. Firstly,Latin is a 'dead' language and hence does not change, unlikemodern languages. Hence, the name can possibly remain inplace forever without the language becoming obsolete.

Secondly, the same plant can have many different names invarious parts of the world, or the same name might be appliedto many different plants. Hence, having a single universal namewill aid communication among scientists and even the layman.

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Thirdly, Latin was the language of science in Europe in the past.Carl von Linne, also known as Carolus Linneaus, the famousnaturalist who devised this system, first described most of theplants known then in a monumental work, the SpeciesPlantarum. The book was written in Latin, and the standard setforth in his work is followed till today. The binomial is always

italicized, the genus name is always capitalized, and the specificepithet is not capitalized. After the binomial can be found someabbreviations, e.g. Adenanthera pavonina L. These are theauthors or authority, the abbreviated name of the first personwho described the plant in a scientific work. For example, "L."stands for Linneaus, "Ridl." stands for H. N. Ridley, etc. Someplants may have been described by various authors as differentplants, hence there may be synonyms, for example, Ficus

grossularioides is also known as Ficus alba, hence it might bewritten Ficus grossularioides (=F. alba).


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Plants -- Artificial Key

Artificial Key To Common Belukar Tree Species

A. CompoundLeaves

B.

Leaves palmate,usually 5leaflets, middleleaflet largest,spear-shaped

... Vitex pinnata

B.Leaves notpalmate

C.Leaflets invertedtriangular, treeis a palm

... Caryota mitis

C.

Leaflets large,oblong arrangedin two rows, 12-14 pairs, fruitglobose berriesin umbels,leaves spirallyarranged

... Arthrophyllumdiversifolium

A. Simple Leaves

B.

Large leaves(~30 cm

length), veinsthick andprominent,flowers yellowand showy, fruitstar-shaped andsplitting open toshow red insides

... Dilleniasuffruticosa

B. Leaves generally


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C.

3-5 prominentveins runningfrom base toapex

D.

Underside of

leaves silvery-white

... Rhodamnia

cinerea

D.Underside ofleaves not white

E.

Young leavespink, flowerssmall onumbellate

inflorescence

... Cinnamomuminers

E.

Young leavesnot pink, leavesnarrow, purpleflowers, fruitnumerous-seeded and withdeep-purple flesh

... Melastomamalabathricum

C.3-5 prominentveins notpresent

D.

Underside ofleaves white,sessile fruitborne on leafaxis

... Ficusgrossularioides

D. Underside ofleaves not white

E.

Deeply fissuredtrunk, flowersfragrant,branchesspreading

... Fagraeafragrans

E.No deep fissureson trunk

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F.

Intermarginalveins present,leaves coarseand waxy

... Eugenia sp.

F.No intermarginal

veins

G.

Leaves actuallyphylloclades,sickle-shaped,numerous smallyellow flowers insprays amongphylloclades

... Acaciaauriculiformis

G.Leaves notsickle-shaped,not phylloclades

H.Leaves spirallyarranged

I.

Leaves ~5 cmlong, fruits smallred berries

along shortstalks

... Myricaesculenta

I.

Leaves 7-10 cmlong, frutsdehiscingcapsules

... Ploiariumalternifolium

H.

Leaves alternatein two rows,

cream-colouredsmall flowers

... Adinandra

dumosa


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Plants -- Individual Species

Prominent characters which allow easy identification are inbold. Descriptions are based on personal observations of livingplants on the ridge, herbarium specimens deposited at theherbarium of the Department of Biological Sciences, NationalUniversity of Singapore (SINU), as well as several publications(Keng, 1983,1990; Keng et al, 1998). Information on the usesof plants are primarily from Burkill (1968), Sarawak ForestryDepartment (1954), and Wee (1992). Other sources are cited inthe text. Nomenclature follows Turner, Chua, & Tan (1990).

Trees and Shrubs

Climbers

Herbs


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Plants -- Trees and Shrubs

By Scientific NameAcacia auriculiformis

Adenanthera pavonina

Adinandra dumosa

Arthrophyllum diversifolium

Cinnamomum iners

Dillenia suffruiticosa

Fagraea fragrans

Ficus grossularioides

Manihot esculenta

Melastoma malabathricum

Millettia atropurpurea

Myrica esculenta

Ploiarium alternifolium

Rhodamnia cinereaVitex pinnata

By Common Name

Cicada TreeCommon Ivy Palm

Leban

Malay Gale

Purple Millettia

Saga tree

Silverback

Simpoh AirSingapore Rhododendron

Tapioca

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Tembusu

Tiup-Tiup

Wattle

White-leafed Fig

Wild Cinnamon


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Wattle

Scientific Name: Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth.Common Name: WattleOrder: RosalesFamily: Leguminosae (Fabaceae) -- Bean FamilySubfamily: Papilionoideae -- Bean SubfamilyDescription: This is a medium tree reaching up to 10-15 m tallin open spaces, with a messy-looking crown. The leaves areactually phylloclades (cladophylls), that is, modified lengths ofstem with the same functions as leaves. The real leaves areevident only in young seedlings. The phylloclades are long,thin, and sickle or crescent shaped with several parallelveins. The flowers are small and borne in short sprays about 5-10 cm in length, and these can be seen from the ground as they

are quite numerous. The fruit pod curls up into a spiraleddark brown ring when dry, forcing out the small 1 cm longovoid black seeds attached to bright yellow or orange arils, thatbirds seem to favour. It is a native of northern Australia, theTorres Straits, and southern Papua New Guinea, and is now anaturalized citizen of Singapore.Use: This is one of a few Acacia spp. that succeeded in growingin Singapore. It has been used as a timber, firewood, and for

reafforestation. Few species ofAcacia are suited to the localclimate and soil, however, A. auriculiformis is quite successfullocally, and has been planted as an ornamental. Its cousin, A.mangium, is planted for timber in Malaysia.


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Saga Tree

Scientific Name: Adenanthera pavonina L.

Common Name: Saga treeOrder: RosalesFamily: Leguminosae (Fabaceae) -- Bean FamilySubfamily: Mimosoideae - Mimosa SubfamilyDescription: The tree was planted as a wayside tree howeversome have strayed wild into the belukar on the Ridge. Leavesare compound and pinnate. Each leaflet is about 2-3 cm acrossand somewhat ovate and dark green. The flowers are not very

prominent, having white petals and yellow anthers. The fruitsare dry pods that split and curl up when ripe, twisting outbright red seeds about 1 cm across that litter the groundbelow the tree, and are often collected by children and evenadults.Uses: The seeds have been used very often in arts and crafts,being made into necklaces, beads, etc. The tree is a popularwayside tree, in part also because of its seeds. A project is

underway at the Singapore Science Centre to collect 1 millionsaga seeds, and the seeds collected so far can be viewed in alarge plastic tub in one of its galleries.


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Tiup-tiup

Scientific Name: Adinandra dumosa Jack.

Common Name: Tiup-Tiup, Semapak, Entupak, Medang BerorokOrder: GuttiferalesFamily: Theaceae -- Tea FamilyDescription: A. dumosa is the dominant tree in belukar, and thisform of vegetation is named after it. Small to medium sizedtree, growing up to 15 metres tall, in the middle of the forest itsform appears like a long tall pole, whereas at the edge thefoliage can reach down quite close to the ground. The leaves

are reddish-pink when young. They are arranged alternately intwo rows. When mature, they are somewhat pale, oblong-elliptic and leathery, somewhat waxy. The flowers aresmall, about 1 cm across, rounded and creamy-white. Theirpetals remain closed even when mature. The fruits areberries, also about 1 cm across and the style is persistent on it.It flowers and fruits year-round. Its wood is quite dense.Uses: It grows well on poor soils and amid lalang (Imperata

cylindrica, a weedy grass common in abandoned land), and isresistant to fires, although its wood is not used very often forbuilding permanent structures. However, it is strong and usedfor house building, temporary structures, firewood, doorposts,planking, roofing timbers, and for the bases of walls. It isdurable if kept dry.


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Common Ivy Palm

Scientific Name: Arthrophyllum diversifolium Bl. (= A.

ovalifolium Miq.)Common Name: Common Ivy PalmOrder: UmbellalesFamily: Araliaceae -- Ginseng FamilyDescription: Small to medium sized tree. It has largecompound leaves arranged in spirals or whorls around thestem. The leaflets, about 20 cm long each, are numerousand arranged in two rows, about 12-14 pairs. The stem is

covered in fine golden hairs near the growing tip that are easilyscraped off. Old leaves falling off leave leaf scars along thebranch. The flowers are green; inflorescence is an umbel,produced near the top of the branch. The fruits are small blackberries about 1 cm across and also borne on an umbel.Uses: Wood is of little use.


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Wild Cinnamon

Scientific Name: Cinnamomum iners Reinw. ex Bl.

Common Name: Wild Cinnamon, Kayu Manis, Medang TijaOrder: RanalesFamily: Lauraceae -- Cinnamon FamilyDescription: It is a small or medium sized tree, sometimesplanted as an ornamental tree because of its pretty foliage. Theyoung leaves are reddish-pink and tender, while themature leaves are dark green. There are three veins runningfrom the base of the leaf. The flowers are borne in panicles and

appear creamy when young. The fruits are blue-black anddispersed by birds.Uses: The bark has the trade name "mesui" in Sarawak andBrunei, and an extract of it is used medicinally and duringconfinement after pregnancy.


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Simpoh Air

Scientific Name: Dillenia suffruiticosa (Griff.) Mart. (=Wormia

suffruticosa)Common Name: Simpoh Air (Ayer)Order: GuttiferalesFamily: Dilleniaceae -- Dillenia FamilyDescription: This is a common large shrub found very often bythe edge of the forest. The leaves are very large, thick, andwaxy, from 15-35 cm long, and are elliptic to oblong with arounded tip, almost spoon shaped. The young leaves are quite

soft and yellowish to pale green. The veins are thick andprominent. The flowers are bright yellow , with crinkledpetals, about 5-7 cm across. The fruits are star-shaped andsplit open to reveal seeds with a red aril eaten by birds. Thefruit itself is red-purplish and quite dramatic. The flower budsare somewhat globose and waxy on the surface.Uses: The plant has been planted as an ornamental, mostprobably for the brightly coloured flowers and fruits. It is a

hedge plant in Sarawak, and the leaves were used in the pastby hawkers to wrap food, and "collecting them provides alucrative trade for small boys" (Sarawak Forest Dept, 1954)


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Tembusu

Scientific Name: Fagraea fragrans Roxb.

Common Name: TembusuOrder: GentianalesFamily: Loganiaceae -- Tembusu FamilyDescription: A medium-sized tree of quite tall stature and largespread, with elliptic leaves from 5-13 cm long, flowers are small(about 2 cm across), creamy white turning to yellow, andfamously fragrant. The berry is orange, round, and about 8 mmacross. The bark is dark brown, somewhat roughish and with

deeply fissured trunk, its most well known characteristic afterthe fragrant flowers. The branches tend to bend down lowand run parallel to the ground somewhat, and YC Wee jokedthat this was all the better for pontianaks to sit on and whistleto the interesting looking young men walking below.Uses: It is used for timber and local medicine. A varietyformerly known as F. gigantea that grows primarily in primaryforests is the ironwood (different from Mesua ferrea the Ceylon

Ironwood). Planting this tree can suppress lalang, formerly avery pesky weed in open areas. Its wood is very hard, heavy,wet, and durable. It is planted as a wayside tree sometimes. Itswood is used for building houses and bridges, especially usefulfor constructing rafters. The leaves and twigs are used in adecoction taken for dysentery, while a decoction of the bark istaken for malaria.


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White-Leafed Fig

Scientific Name: Ficus grossularioides Burm. f. (= F. alba Reinw.

ex. Bl.)Common Name: White-leafed FigOrder: UrticalesFamily: Moraceae -- Fig FamilyDescription: This is either a small tree or a shrub. The leavesare distinctively coloured white on the underside, while thetop side is dark green. They have a long stalk, and exhibit avariety of forms, ranging from elliptic to 3 or 5-lobed. Its

margin is toothed. The underside is somewhat velvety, whereasthe top is covered in fine, short and stiff hairs that give it a'sticky' texture when one runs a finger across. The figs (fruits/flowers) are borne along the leaf axils and are about 1.5 cmacross and globose, from yellow ripening to maroon ordeep red. All parts of the plant exude a milky white sap whencut.Uses: Very young stem tips are eaten in salads, while leaves

are fed to horses as a replacement for grass. A leaf decoction istaken for kidney complaints while the latex contains a wax.


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Tapioca

Scientific Name: Manihot esculenta L.

Common Name: TapiocaOrder: GeranialesFamily: Euphorbiaceae -- Rubber FamilyDescription: A small plant growing to about 2 m. Usually with asingle thin woody stem, covered in leaf-scars at the lower partsfrom leaves that have fallen off. Leaves are simple butdeeply palmately lobed, with pronounced drip-tips at the endof every leaflet. The petioles (leaf stalks) are long, much longer

than the leaf itself, and the leaves are spirally arranged aroundthe stem. Petioles are coloured reddish. Fruits are not oftenseen, the roots are starchy. A close relative M. glaziovii is theCeara rubber tree, formerly cultivated for its milky latex, usedas a rubber substitute, however it was later found unsuitable.M. glaziovii has larger leaves as well as green petiole, incontrast with M. esculenta.Uses: The starchy roots are used for food. It is dried and

processed to make flour or cooked and eaten.


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Singapore Rhododendron

Scientific Name: Melastoma malabathricum L.

Common Name: Singapore Rhododendron, Senduduk(Sendudok)Order: MyrtalesFamily: Melastomataceae -- Senduduk FamilyDescription: It is a small shrub, that has tiny scales on itsbranches and petioles. The leaves are narrow and lanceolate,about 5-10 cm long, usually with 3 prominent veins runningfrom the base. The flowers are light pink-purple, with

elbowed anthers surrounding the style, and are borne inclustered inflorescences. The fruit is interesting, a sort of pod,usually about 1.5 cm long, which is covered in small bumps andtopped with a persistent calyx. The greenish pod splits openhalfway and flips over to reveal a fleshy deep purple structurestudded with numerous (about a thousand) tiny seeds, and isusually 5-sectioned.Uses: Reafforestation. The astringent fruits and sour leaves are

eaten. Fleshy parts are astringent, and have medicinal uses.The leaves and shoot ends are used with mangosteen bark andhusks in a decoction for diarrhoea. Shoots are used forpuerperal infection. Leaves are used in a local cure-all tonic.Root decoction is used in a post-childbirth medicine (ubatmeroyan). Dry powdered leaves are sprinkled on wounds. Rootsare used as a toothache mouthwash. Black dye is obtained fromfruits. Ashes are used as a mordant for other dyes. Wood is toosmall to be useful, however. The flowers are used asornamentation during weddings. Silk worms feed on its foliage,which are also used for dysentery medicine. The fruit is edible,somewhat sweet and tart, leaving a purple stain on one's mouthand clothing. Birds and bats feed on them and disperse the tinyseeds in their droppings, and ants have been observed feedingon the fruits too.


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Purple Millettia

Scientific Name: Millettia atropurpurea (Wall.) Benth.

Common Name: Purple MillettiaOrder: RosalesFamily: Leguminosae (Fabaceae) -- Bean FamilySubfamily: Papilionoideae -- Bean SubfamilyDescription: This is a large tree that can reach heights up to 40m. It has been planted as a wayside tree by the government.Leaves are simple palmate compound, and dark green.However, being borne quite high up, they are not really

noticeable, additionally since the crown is dense and cylindrical.Flowers are purple and asymmetrical, occurring ininflorescences borne at the ends of branches. However, its mostnoticeable part is the fruit. The fruits are typical legumes, dryoblong pods about 10-15 cm long that split open into twohalves revealing a large (~7 cm) oval seed. These (pod andseed) litter the ground near the tree.Uses: Planted wayside tree.


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Malay Gale

Scientific Name: Myrica esculenta Buch-Ham. (=M. farquhariana

Wall.)Common Name: Malay Gale, Telur Cicak (Telor Chichak)Order: AmentiferaeFamily: Myricaceae -- Gale FamilyDescription: Small tree about 5-10 m tall, very branched. Theleaves are dark green and oblanceolate, from 5-9 cm long. Themargin is serrate or entire. The fruit is a small globose drupe,about 2-3 mm across, turning black from red in pretty sprays

about 10 long borne along the leaf axis. The leaves arearranged spirally and quite densely too. Young leaves are atender reddish pink and gradually turn green from the baseup.Uses: The timber is small and close-grained but rarely used.


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Cicada Tree

Scientific Name: Ploiarium alternifolium Melchior (=Archytaea

vahlii Choisy)Common Name: Cicada tree, Riang-RiangOrder: GuttiferalesFamily: Bonnetiaceae or Theaceae -- Tea FamilyDescription: Common small to medium sized tree. Leaves arenarrow, ratio of length to breadth about 5:1, length of leafabout 7-10 cm long. Leaves quite densely and spirallyarranged along branches, which bear leaf scars of old

leaves that have fallen off. Flowers small, borne on the ends offlowering branches, about 1.5-2 cm across, with five contortedpetals and numerous stamens. Fruit 2 cm long, dehisces(splits) vertically from bottom to reveal numerous seeds.Uses: -


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Silverback

Scientific Name: Rhodamnia cinerea Jack (=R. trinervia Bl.)

Common Name: Silverback, MempoyanOrder: MyrtalesFamily: Myrtaceae -- Clove FamilyDescription: Small tree. It has oblong leaves about 7-10 cmlong, with three prominent veins running from petiole to tip(the origin of the synonym), underside of leaf whitish orsilvery, the origin of its common name. Its flowers are smalland white and clustered in the leaf axils. The berries are red

ripening to black, small, about 0.75 cm across, and containsmall seeds dispersed by birds.Uses: Hard wood is used for small objects. Whitish, tough anddurable, and charcoal is mde from it. Wood tar is produced fromit too, and used to blacken teeth. Leaves and roots are used fora decoction taken after childbirth and for stomach aches.Pounded shoots are used as a poultice for scalds. The fruit isedible and used in a decoction for treating gums. The bark is

used as a black dye, as well as for tanning fishing nets.


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Leban

Scientific Name: Vitex pinnata L. (=V. pubescens Vahl)

Common Name: LebanOrder: TubifloraeFamily: Verbenaceae -- Teak FamilyDescription: The most distinguishing features of this small tomedium tree are the leaves. The leaves are palmatelycompound, that is they are compound with the leafletsarranged like the fingers around the palm of one's hand. Theone in the middle is usually the largest and prominent while

those at the sides are somewhat smaller. Each leaflet is spearshaped. The total length of the leaf varies from about 10-15 cm.Young leaves are a pretty golden-green colour with yellowvenation, and soft and tender to the touch. The flowers arepurple-bluish, and fruits are globose and black.Uses: For reafforestation. It is a common commercial wood thatis heavy and used for agricultural implements, bridges, houseposts, and boats. A bark decoction is used for stomach ache and

post-childbirth medicine (ubat meroyan). Leaves are used forfever and wound poultices, while bark scrapings are also appliedto wounds and as a charm for convulsions. Burkill relates theinteresting story of how the bark shavings are burnt so thattheir smell can be used to mask the smell of burning Datura sp.,the latter of which was used by thieves to knock out theirvictims.


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Plants -- Climbers

Cissus hastata

Epipremnum pinnatum cv. aureum

Gynocthodes sublanceolata

Nepenthes spp.

Smilax spp.

Tetracera indica

Tinospora crispa


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Cissus hastata

Scientific Name: Cissus hastata Miq. (=Vitis hastata Miq.)

Common Name: -Order: SapindalesFamily: VitaceaeSubfamiliy: VitoideaeDescription: A common climber that can be seen scramblingaround trees close to the staircase leading from building S1.The leaves are light green, about 7-10 cm long, and arelanceolate (spear-shaped) with a pointed apex, but with a

cordate (heart-shaped) base. They also possess small teethat the points where the veins meet the leaf margin. The flowersare borne in bunches, with each bunch only about 1 cm across,they are not very conspicuous. The most easily noticed part ofthe plant is the reddish or orange tendrils borne opposite theleaves. The stem is somewhat rigid with striations running downit.Uses: -


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Money Plant

Scientific Name: Epipremnum pinnatum cv. aureum

Common Name: Money PlantOrder: AralesFamily: Araceae -- Aroid FamilyDescription: A horticultural climber cultivated for its foliage. Thiscultivar has variegated leaves, partially green and partiallywhite, although in insufficient light they may be entirely green.Leaves heart-shaped (cordate) and size can vary from 5 cmto 20 cm or more. Flexible stem with adventitious (i.e. borne

along above- ground part of stem or leaves) roots borne alongit. Does not flower often. Can be seen creeping up some treestogether with Tetracera, Smilax, and other natives.Uses: Horticultural climber


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Gynocthodes sublanceolata

Scientific Name: Gynocthodes sublanceolata Miq.

Common Name: -Order: RubialesFamily: Rubiaceae -- Coffee FamilyDescription: A slender w oody climber that has thin andleathery leaves, about 5 cm in length. Typically like theRubiaceae, the leaves are opposite and in pairs, with the fruits,that are bluish-black globose drupes about 1 cm across,borne at the same nodes in clusters of about 3-5 or more. It

climbs on trees and shrubs, twining through the foliage, notendrils.Uses: -


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Pitcher Plants

Scientific Name: Nepenthes spp.

Common Name: Pitcher plants, Periok Kera, Zhu Long CaoOrder: SarracenialesFamily: Nepenthaceae -- Pitcher Plant FamilyDescription: Terrestrial herbs or climbers, leaves with prominentcentral veins often with tendrils emanating from the apex of theleaf. P itchers, which are jug-like structures, actuallymodified leaves, borne on the ends of tendrils coming form longleaf blades, various shapes can be observed, e.g. hipped, egg-

like, urn-like, etc. The opening of the pitcher is topped witha lid, underneath which are found nectar-secreting glands,known as nectarines. These attract insects and other prey whichfeed on the nectarines then slide down the waxy walls of thepitcher into the pitcher proper. Within is a watery liquidcontaining digestive enzymes secreted from pit-like glandslining the inner surface of the lower part of the pitcher. Thesedigest insects that fall in, in order to obtain additional nutrients.

Pitcher shapes on the same plant differ, being distinguishableinto lower pitchers, generally more squat and speckled and withfringed wings, upper pitchers, generally more slender, lessspeckled and without wings, and intermediate pitchers, whichare somewhere in between. In N. ampullaria, upper pitchers arerarely expressed. On the ridge, three species (N. ampullaria, N.gracilis, and N. rafflesiana) and two hybrids (N. x trichocarpaand N. x hookerana) can be found. Flowers are borne onracemes, separated into male and female flowers, generallyfour-petalled and inconspicuous.Uses: Nepenthes species are popular as ornamentals, adorningmany houses and flats. However, one should not collect themfrom the wild, as that will reduce populations and eventuallylead to their demise. They can be purchased from reputablenurseries, where they are cultivated. Cultivated varieties aregenerally prettier than wild ones, another reason not to pickthem from the Ridge. The pitchers themselves are used to make

an interesting dish. Rice is stuffed into the washed pitcher, tiedup, and cooked. The long twining tendrils have also been usedas a sort of twine. (Shivas, 1984) Roots are boiled and made

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into a poultice for treating stomach ache and dysentery, while astem decoction is taken for fevers.


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Smilax

Scientific Name: Smilax spp.

Common Name: -Order: LilifloraeFamily: SmilaceaeDescription: This plant is a common climber, with ovate-lanceolate leaves, each about 15-20 cm long bearing about 5prominent veins that run from base to apex. Stem covered innumerous short golden hairs. Tendrils present. Fruits aresmall berries bearing two stony seeds each, and flowers small

on an umbellate inflorescence about 1.5 cm across.Uses: -


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Tetracera indica

Scientific Name: Tetracera indica (Christm. & Panz.) Merr.

Common Name: -Order: GuttiferalesFamily: Dilleniaceae -- Dillenia FamilyDescription: It is a tw ining climber without tendrils that hasovate-lanceolate leaves, with toothed margins and about 5-12cm long. Flowers are pinkish and numerous.Uses: According to Keng (1990), the stems of this species cansupply clear drinking water in times of emergency.


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Tinospora crispa

Scientific Name: Tinospora crispa Miers ex Hook. f. & Thorns.

Common Name: -Order: RanalesFamily: MenispermaceaeDescription: A climbing liane, stem flexible when young turningwoody when old, with knobs that get increasingly closelyspaced and prominent as the stem ages. Leaves bornealternately along stem, Can be seen climbing up some treestowards the Tropical Marine Science Institute side of the Ridge,

however probably a cultivated plant that has escaped. Flowersnot conspicuous.Uses: The family Menispermaceae is known for its medicinalproperties, Coiled and dried sections of the Tinospora stems cansometimes be found for sale in Chinese medicinal shops. (KSChua, pers. comm.)


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Plants -- Herbs

By Scientific NameBromheadia finlaysoniana

Clidermia hirta

Dicranopteris linearis

Lantana camara

Lycopodium spp.

By Common NameClubmoss

Lantana

ResamSenduduk paksa

Seraman


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Seraman

Scientific Name: Bromheadia finlaysoniana (Lindl.) Rchb. f.

Common Name: SeramanOrder: OrchidalesFamily: Orchidaceae -- Orchid FamilySubfamily: OrchidoideaeDescription: A terrestrial orchid with monopodial growth. Stemgrows up to 1.5 m tall, slender, bearing two rows of leatheryleaves spaced widely apart and arranged alternately.Inflorescence about 10 cm long, with "characteristic zig-

zag" (Tan and Hew, 1993) arrangement of flowers. Flowersabout 7 cm across, slender petals white tinged w ith purple,inside of lip veined purple. Can be found in belukar, however itis often mistaken for 'just another weed' as its flowers do notlast very long and are not very showy.Uses: -


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Senduduk Paksa

Scientific Name: Clidermia hirta D. Don.

Common Name: Senduduk paksaOrder: MrytalesFamily: Melastomataceae -- Senduduk FamilyDescription: Common weed, a shrub growing up to 2 m tall.Leaves characteristically pubescent (hairy), as is the stem,giving the plant a soft furry, albeit annoying, feel when touched.Leaves have five prominent veins, and are ovate-lanceolate,about 5-15 cm across. Flowers are white, small (~1 cm across).

Fruits green maturing to purple-black, also covered in spiny-looking stiff hairs, calyx of flowers persistent.Uses: -


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header

Scientific Name: Dicranopteris linearis (Burm. f.) Underw.

(=Gleichenia linearis)Common Name: Resam, "Bracken Fern"Division: Pteridophyta -- Ferns and Fern alliesDescription: A scrambling fern that easily forms near-impenetrable thickets at the forest edges. The plant is wellknown as a weedy pest and is difficult to eradicate. Rhizomes(creeping stem) are long and slender, creeping close to theground and spreading out very rapidly. The fronds are

pinnatifid, that is they are lobed deeply so as to appear almostpinnately compound. The plant tends to grow outwards for awhile before the growing tip splits into two and the plantbranches into two new directions. Repeating this process overand over again, it is easy to see how the Resam establishesitself over such a wide area. It tends to grow in sunnyplaces, though direct sunlight on the rhizomes may kill it.Dicranopteris is not the true Bracken, though often called such.

Bracken is Pteridium aquilinium, more common in thetemperate countries and poisonous to livestock.Uses: The leaves are applied as a poultice to control fever, whilethe plant is used in Indonesia to expel intestinal worms.


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Lantana

Scientific Name: Lantana camara L.

Common Name: Lantana, Bunga tahi ayamOrder: TubifloraeFamily: Verbenaceae -- Teak FamilyDescription: A small bushy plant. Leaves 3-5 cm long,lanceolate with toothed margin. Flowers small, about 0.5 cmacross, generally borne in a group on an umbellateinflorescence. The flowers give off an unpleasant smell,which some people say reminds them of chicken droppings.

However, after having smelt both, this author considers theLantana to smell somewhat better. Colours of flowers rangefrom white, to orange-yellow, to pink-purple. Spines bornealong the stem. One of the top ten worst weeds in the tropics.Uses: A decoction is used for leprosy and scabies in China, whileit is used as a stimulant and to expel intestinal worms inIndochina, and is applied to cuts and swellings in South EastAsia.


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Clubmoss

Scientific Name: Lycopodium spp.

Common Name: ClubmossDivision: Pteridophyta -- Ferns and Fern alliesDescription: A small herb that is common on muddy ground.The vegetative parts look like small bottle brushes, about 0.75cm across, and superficially resembles the branchlets ofAraucar ia co lum nar is , having numerous closely packed andsmall (~0.5 cm long) spike-like protrusions arranged along acentral axis, and every spike is elbowed upwards at its (the

spike's) middle. The texture is waxy and feels springy to thetouch. Fertile branches bear a cone-like structure on erectstalks that contain spores.Uses: It is used for burns, dysentery, hepatitis, rheumatism,sore eyes, trauma, beri-beri, skin eruptions, coughs, chest pain,etc.


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A Guide to the Plants of Kent Ridge -- References

References

Allen, B.M. (1971), Some Common Trees of Malaysia and

Singapore, Eastern Universities Press, Singapore, 90pp.

Bazzaz, F.A. (1983), 'Dynamics of wet tropical forests and theirspecies strategies', in Physiological Ecology of Plants of the WetTropics: Tasks for Vegetation Science 12, p.233-243, Dr W.Junk Publishers, The Hague.

Bazzaz, F.A. (1996), Plants in changing environments: Linking

physiological, population and community ecology, CambridgeUniversity Press, Cambridge, 320pp.

Bazzaz, F.A. and Carlson, R.W. (1982), 'Photosyntheticacclimatization to variability in the light environment of earlyand late successional plants', Oecologia, 54: 313-316.

Bjorkman, O. and Holmgren, P. (1963), 'Adaptability of thephotosynthetic apparatus to light intensity in ecotypes of the

exposed and shaded habitats', Physiologia Plantarum, 16: 889-914.

Bodegom, S.; Pelser, P.B. and Kessler, P.J.A. (1999), Seedlingsof secondary forest tree species of East Kalimantan, Indonesia,MOFEC-Tropenbos-Kalimantan Project, Balikpapan.

Boland, D.J.; Pinyopusarerk, K.; McDonald, M.W.; Jovanovic, T.and Booth, T.H. (1990), 'The habitat of Acacia auriculiformisand probable factors associated with its distribution', J. Trop.Forest Sci., 3(2): 159-180.

Boo, C.M. (1995), A study of secondary forest in Singapore, B.Sc. Hons. dissertation, Department of Botany, NationalUniversity of Singapore.

Boswell, A.B.S. (1926), 'Some observations concerning natural

regeneration in inland forests', in Proceedings of the ForestConference 1926, p.68-69, Federated Malay States, KualaLumpur.

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Brokow, N.V.L. (1985), 'Gap phase regeneration in a tropicalforest', Ecology, 66: 682-687.

Burkill, I.H. (1968), A Dictionary of the Economic Products ofthe Malay Peninsula (Vols. I and II), Ministry of AgriculturePublication Unit, Kuala Lumpur.

Chapin, F.S. III; Vitousek, P.M. and van Cleve, K. (1986), 'Thenature of nutrient limitation in plant communities', Amer.Naturalist, 127(1): 48-58.

Chee, C.Y. (1987), External Morphology and Anatomy of Leavesof Woody Angiosperms on Kent Ridge, B.Sc. Hons. dissertation,Department of Botany, National University of Singapore, 129pp.

Chia, L.S.; Rahman, A.; and Tay, D.B.H. (1991), Thebiophysical environment of Singapore, Singapore UniversityPress, Kent Ridge, 218pp.

Chin, S.C. (1970), Studies in Establishment of Some Species inAdinandra Belukar, B.Sc. Hons. dissertation, Department ofBotany, University of Singapore, 45pp.

Choong, M.F.; Lucas, P.W.; Ong, S.Y.; Pereira, B.P.; Tan, H.T.W. and Turner, I.M. (1992), 'Leaf fracture toughness andsclerophylly: Their correlations and ecological implications', TheNew Phytologist, 121: 597-610.

Chuang, S.H. ed. (1973), Animal Life and Nature in Singapore,Singapore University Press, Singapore.

Corlett R.T. (1991), 'Plant succession on degraded land in

Singapore', J. Trop. Forest. Sci., 4(2): 151-161.

Cousens, J.T. (1965), 'Some reflections on the nature ofMalayan lowland rainforest', Malay. Forester, 28: 122-127.

Evans, J.R.; van Caemmerer, S. and Adams W.W. III (1988),Ecology of Photosynthesis in Sun and Shade, CSIRO, Australia,358pp.

Foo, T.S. (1985), A Guide to the Wildflowers of Singapore,Singapore Science Centre, Singapore, 160pp.



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Gilliland, H.B. (1956), On classifying vegetation, Inaugurallecture, University of Malaya.

Gilliland, H.B. (1958), 'Plant communities on Singapore island',Gardens' Bull., 17(1): 82-90.

Gilliland, H.B. (1962), Common Malayan plants, University ofMalaya Press, Kuala Lumpur.

Hill, R.D. (1977), 'The vegetation of Singapore: a firstapproximation', Sing. J. Trop. Geog., 45: 26-34.

Holttum, R.E. (1954a), 'Adinandra belukar', Malay. J. Trop.Geog., 3: 27-32.

Holttum, R.E. (1954b), Plant life in Malaya, Longmans Green,London.

Johnson, D.S. (1964), An introduction to the natural history ofSingapore, Rayirath, Singapore.

Jolivet, P. (1996), Ants and Plants: An Example of Coevolution,enlarged ed., Backhuys, Leiden, 303pp.

Keng, H. (1983), Orders and Families of Malayan Seed Plants,3rd ed., Singapore University Press, Kent Ridge.

Keng, H. (1990), Concise flora of Singapore vol. 1, SingaporeUniversity Press, Kent Ridge.

Keng, H; Chin, S.C.; Tan, H.T.W. (1998), Concise flora ofSingapore, vol. 2, Singapore University Press, Kent Ridge.

Lee, F.L. (1996), Photosynthetic reponses of ferns to light, B.Sc.Hons. dissertation, School of Biological Sciences, NationalUniversity of Singapore.

Lee, S.C. (1994), Fine root production in Adinandra belukar andcoastal hill dipterocarp forest in Singapore, B.Sc. Hons.dissertation, Department of Botany, National University ofSingapore.

MacArthur, R.H. and Wilson, E.O. (1967), The Theory of IslandBiogeography, Princeton University Press, Princeton.



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Miles, J. (1979), Outline studies in ecology: Vegetationdynamics, Chapman & Hall, London.

Muhammad Jabil (1959), Contribution to the autecology ofAdinandra dumosa and Wormia suffruticosa of secondary(belukar) vegetation on Singapore island, B.Sc. Hons.

dissertation, Department of Botany, University of Malaya,Singapore.

Muladiar, Letchimi (1984), Vegetation on Kent Ridge, B.Sc.Hons. dissertation, Department of Geography, NationalUniversity of Singapore.

Nicholson, D.I. (1965), 'A note on Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn.ex. Benth. in Sabah', Malay. Forester, 28: 243-244.

O'Hara, V. (1926), 'Eradication of resam', in Proceedings of theForest Conference 1926, Federated Malay States, KualaLumpur.

Polunin, I. (1987), Plants and flowers of Singapore, TimesEditions, Singapore.

Phua, P.B. and Corlett, R.T. (1989), 'Seed dispersal by theLesser Short-nosed Fruit Bat (Cynopterus brachyotis,Pteropodidae, Megachiroptera)', Malay. Nat. J., 42(4): 251-256.

Public Works Department (PUB) (1976), Geology of the Republicof Singapore, Public Works Department, Singapore, 79pp.

Richards, P.W. (1952), The tropical rain forest, CambridgeUniversity Press, Cambridge.

Ridley, H.N. (1930), The dispersal of plants throughout theworld, L. Reeve, London.

Sandrasegaran, K. (1971), Stocking and yield of Tiup-tiup(Adinandra dumosa Jack.) in Johore, Malaysia: ResearchPamphlet No. 60, Malaysia Forestry Department.

Sarawak Forest Department (SFD) (1954), Trees and Timbersof Sarawak and Brunei: Leaflets Nos. 1-45, Sarawak ForestDepartment, Sarawak.



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Shivas, R.G. (1984), Pitcher Plants of Malaysia and Singapore,Maruzen, Singapore, 58pp.

Silachart, L. (1995), Studies on Tropical Sun and Shade Ferns,B.Sc. Hons. dissertation, Department of Botany, NationalUniversity of Singapore, 89pp.

Sim, J.W.S. (1991), Some Studies on Adinandra Belukar, B.Sc.Hons. dissertation, National University of Singapore, Singapore.

Sim, J.W.S.; Tan, H.T.W. and Turner, I.M. (1992), 'Adinandrabelukar: an anthropogenic heath forest in Singapore', Vegetatio,102: 125-137.

Symington, C.F. (1933), 'The study of secondary growth on rain

forest sites', Malay. Forester, 2: 107-117.

Tan, C.H.G. (1994), Ecophysiology of Secondary Forest Plants inSingapore, B.Sc. Hons. dissertation, Department of Botany,National University of Singapore, 98pp.

Turner, I.M. (1988), The response of tree species to canopygaps in a tropical forest, PhD thesis,.

Turner, I.M. (1991), 'Effectsr of shade and fertilizer addition onthe seedlings of two tropical woody pioneer species', Trop.Ecol., 32(1): 24-29.

Turner, I.M. (2001), The ecology of trees in the tropical rainforest, Cambridge University Press, New York.

Turner, I.M.; Chua, K.S. and Tan, H.T.W. (1990), 'A checklist of

the native and naturalized vascular plants of the Republic ofSingapore', J. Sing. Natl. Acad. Sci., 18 & 19: 58-88.

Turner, I.

Dicranopteris Linearis Common Name in Malaysia

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