Design of Hybrid Propulsion Systems for Unmanned … Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics 1...

American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

1

Design of Hybrid Propulsion Systems for Unmanned Aerial

Vehicles

Dr. Junghsen Lieh1 and Mr. Eric Spahr

2

Wright State University, Dayton, Ohio 45435 USA

Dr. Alireza Behbahani3 and Mr. John Hoying

4

Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH, 45433, USA

A hybrid electric propulsion system with two or more energy sources has many advantages over

conventional internal combustion (IC) engine power trains. The most recognized advantages are its low

pollution, low noise, and reduced heat release. The application of hybrid electric propulsion for highway

vehicles has successfully improved energy efficiency and reduced pollution. In the military, hybrid electric

unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) can be used effectively because they possess the capability for long flight

time, better efficiency and stealth operation. According to DOD’s roadmap, conventional UAVs have made

500,000 flight hours in support of military missions as of October 2008. And the flight hours and functions of

UAVs are expected to increase because their application may be expanded from military to civil service (such

as for monitoring and detecting disaster, hazard, and environment conditions, and reserving backup power

for emergency). Four hybrid propulsion models are considered in the paper, namely secondary shaft dual-

clutch, secondary shaft single-clutch, inline and planetary gear models. Among these four models, three

prototypes for secondary shaft and inline configurations are built and presented.

I. Introduction

HE shortage of fossil fuels and increased toxic emissions threaten the sustainability of engine-powered aircraft

propulsion systems. Soaring fuel costs have a negative impact on the airline industry and also result in an

increasing military budget. Of all possible remedies, hybrid electric propulsion systems are generally considered.

It is known that hybrid electric propulsion systems possess many advantages over engine-alone systems. With

the successful implementation of hybrid electric drive trains to highway vehicles, more and more researchers are

applying hybrid concepts to other machinery; typical examples are aerial vehicles and ships. In recent years, the

development of hybrid electric UAVs has become one of the main tasks of the military in order to improve vehicles’

flight time, energy efficiency and stealth operation. Hybrid UAVs are not only considered for military application,

they are also considered for civil service (for monitoring disaster and environment conditions, and serving as backup

power in case of engine failure).

Hybrid electric propulsion systems can be beneficial to the Air Force’s growing fleet of UAVs, many of which

are small propeller-driven vehicles with similar flight characteristics to model planes. The benefits of a hybrid

system include quiet operation, reduced heat signature, battery recharging during flight, allowing downsized ICE for

cruise mode, having a back-up power source, reverse motor ICE starting, and in-air ICE restart. Thus, it is feasible

that these UAVs could be easily adapted to hybrid configurations. This transition not only has the potential to

increase flight hours and reduce fuel consumption but also has the potential to enable the vehicle to conduct

sensitive surveillance operations in a stealth “electric-alone” mode, which provides significant noise and heat

signature reductions over IC engine configurations. The development of hybrid electric-engine propulsion systems

can be traced back to the 1980s. Since then many hybrid configurations were rapidly evolved, mainly for ground

vehicles. The application of hybrid electric concepts to marine vehicles was reported by Barcaro, Bianchi and

Bolognani and Sortland in 2008.

1 Professor, Mechanical & Materials Engineering

2 Graduate Student, Mechanical & Materials Engineering

3 AIAA Associate Fellow, Senior Aerospace Engineer, Propulsion Directorate, 1950 Fifth St. WPAFB, OH

4 Aerospace Engineer, Propulsion Directorate, 1950 Fifth St. WPAFB, OH

T

47th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference & Exhibit31 July - 03 August 2011, San Diego, California

AIAA 2011-6146

Copyright © 2011 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. All rights reserved.


2

The research of hybrid-energy powered aerial vehicles was also initiated in the 1980s. Youngblood, Talay and

Pegg developed an unmanned airplane by incorporating solar and fuel cell propulsion in 1984. An early version of a

hybrid solar electric-engine remotely piloted aerial vehicle was developed by Harmats and Weihs in 1999. Its

propulsion system includes solar cells, a battery pack, an electric motor, and an IC engine. A series hybrid electric

micro air vehicle (MAV) model was recommended by Wilson in 2002. From theoretical simulation results, Freeh,

Liang, Berton and Wickenheiser indicated that various hybrid configurations may be beneficial to airplanes based on

the technical and financial success of battery/IC engine automobile hybrids currently in the market. Simulation

results from a mathematical model developed by Harmon, Frank and Joshi, and Harmon, Frank and Chattot showed

that hybrid electric propulsion can be used for UAVs. The most recently reported hybrid electric UAV was designed

by a research team of National Cheng-Kung University and its debut flight test was successfully conducted on May

13, 2010. This new hybrid UAV was powered by a fuel cell plant, a brushless DC (BLDC) motor and a lithium-ion

battery, and is able to fly at a speed of 80-100 km/h.

The first pilot-operated serial hybrid electric airplane, DA36 E-Star, was developed by Siemens (Paur, 2011).

The debut flight of the hybrid electric airplane was completed on June 8, 2011. Its propulsion system includes a 94-

HP motor to power the propeller and a 40-HP Wankel rotary engine to drive a generator that charges the battery.

II. Review of Hybrid Electric Propulsion Drive Trains

The hybrid electric drive train can be classified into five categories: series hybrid, parallel hybrid, series-parallel

hybrid, complex hybrid (Chan and Chau, 2001; Ehsani, Gao and Emadi, 2010), and fuel cell hybrid. The details of

these configurations are described below.

Series Hybrid: The series hybrid drive train

is an “electrical coupling” system. The

configuration includes a battery pack and an

engine-generator assembly that are coupled in

a power converter, see Figure 1. The power

converter is an electric coupler which is used

with a controller to manage the power flow

from the battery and generator to the motor.

The engine-generator is the primary power

source and the battery acts as an energy

buffer. The system can run individual mode

(engine-alone or battery-alone) or dual mode

(engine + battery) via the electric coupler depending on the need and operation condition.

Parallel Hybrid: The parallel hybrid

drive train is a “mechanical coupling”

system. The configuration has its engine

and motor connected by a mechanical

coupler (such as an electric clutch). As

shown in Figure 2, the engine is the

major power source and its battery is a

secondary power source and acts as an

energy buffer. Similar to a series hybrid,

the system can run single mode (engine-

alone or motor-alone) or dual mode

(engine + motor) via the mechanical coupler.

Engine Fuel

Power

Converter Motor/

Generator

Battery

Output

Figure 2: Parallel hybrid drive train.

Mechanical

Coupler Transmission

Motor

Control

Generator

Power

Converter

Transmission

Battery

Electric Coupler

Output

Figure 1: Series hybrid drive train.

Motor

Control

Motor

Fuel Engine


3

Series-Parallel Hybrid: The series-parallel hybrid

drive train consists of both electric and mechanical

couplers (see Figure 3). The system includes the

features of both series and parallel configurations, and

therefore can operate with single mode or dual mode, or

more modes than the above series or parallel drive train.

Complex Hybrid: The complex hybrid drive train also

consists of both electrical and mechanical couplers

similar to series-parallel system but with an

additional power converter added to it. Its

electric coupling function is moved from the

first power converter to the battery pack, as

shown in Figure 4. The system has the

features of both series and parallel

configurations, and therefore can operate with

individual mode or dual modes, or more

modes than an individual series or parallel

drive train.

Fuel Cell Hybrid: The configuration of fuel

cell hybrid electric propulsion is a series system similar to

the one described in Figure 1. The power lines are

electrically coupled. When applying to UAVs, the system

can be simplified as shown in Figure 5. The successful

flight of the fuel cell hybrid model conducted by NCKU on

May 13, 2010 proved that this fuel cell hybrid drive train

could be effectively implemented in modern UAVs.

III. Power Units For Hybrid Electric Propulsion Systems

IC Engines: There are many types of IC engines (see Figure 6); the best known types are the 4-stroke spark-ignited

engine, the 4-stroke compression-ignited diesel engine, the 2-stroke engine, the Wankel rotary engine, the gas

turbine engine, and the quasi-isothermal Brayton cycle engine. The Stirling engine is another type of engine that

uses external combustion. A combustion engine converts chemical energy into mechanical power. However, the

energy conversion process encounters high friction, low mechanical advantage, high heat loss, and serious pollution.

The energy efficiency of an engine is normally lower than 35% depending on its operating condition.

Electric Coupler

Figure 3: Series-parallel hybrid drive train.

Engine

Generator Fuel

Power

Converter

Motor

Battery

Output Mechanical

Coupler Transmission

Motor

Control

Electric Coupler

Fuel Cell Fuel

Power Converter

Motor

Battery

Output

Figure 5: Fuel cell hybrid electric drive train.

Controller

Figure 6: Different types of engines.

Rotary Engine

Reciprocating

IC Engine

Brayton Cycle

Wankel Engine

Gas Turbine

Atkinson Cycle

Jet Engine

Otto Cycle

2-stroke

4-stroke

6-stroke

Turbojet

Turbofan

Ramjet

Rocket

Diesel Engine

Nutating Engine

Diesel Cycle

Figure 4: Complex hybrid drive train.

Motor/

Generator

Power

Converter

Transmission

Battery

Electric Coupler

Output Mechanical

Coupler

Power

Converter

Motor Motor

Control

Fuel Engine


4

Batteries: There are a number of rechargeable batteries and the most commonly used types are lead acid, nickel-

cadmium (NiCd), nickel-zinc (NiZn), nickel metal hydride (NiMH) and lithium cells. The cell voltage and specific

energy of these batteries are listed in Table 1.

Table 1: Properties of rechargeable batteries

Battery Cell

Voltage, V

Specific Energy

[MJ/kg]

Lead Acid 2.1 0.14

NiCd 1.2 0.14

NiMH 1.2 0.36

NiZn 1.6 0.36

Lithium (LiFePO4, LiPO) 3.3-3.7 0.4-0.7

From Table 1, the lithium battery has the highest specific energy. For safety considerations, two types of lithium-

based battery, LiPO and LiFePO4, were considered.

Motors: For power supplies, motors can be categorized into two groups: DC motors and AC motors (see Figure 7).

The most-often considered AC motors for hybrid propulsion are induction motors and switched reluctance motors.

Because of control simplicity and technological maturity, DC motors are widely accepted for applications requiring

variable speed, frequent start/stop, reversing and braking. There are two main groups of DC motors: commutator

(brushed) and commutatorless (brushless). Commutator motors include separately excited, shunt excited, series

excited, compound excited, and permanent magnet (PM) motors.

BLDC motors are created by inverting the

stator and rotor of brushed DC motors. There

are two types of BLDC motors: sensored and

sensorless. Sensored BLDC motors require the

use of position sensors to detect the position

of rotor magnets. Sensorless BLDC motors

eliminate the use of position sensors; the

position of the rotor’s magnets is detected by

back EMF voltage. The estimation of rotor

magnet position is achieved by using a 3-

phase configuration of BLDC motors in which

only 2 of 3 phases are active (for example

points “a” and “c” in Figure 8) and the third

iac

Figure 8: Sensorless BLDC motor and drive.

a

b

c

V

Va

Vb

Vc

Tr1 Tr3 Tr5

Tr2 Tr4 Tr6

Sensorless

Sensored

DC

AC

DD Motor

Switched

Reluctance

Induction

Squirrel Cage

Wound Rotor

Reluctance

PM Rotor

Wound Rotor

Synchronous

Brushed

Motor

Hub Motor

Brushless

PM Hybrid

Figure 7: Different types of electric motors.


5

phase floats (inactive, point “b”) for a given rotor position.

Each phase of the BLDC motor may be described as an electrical-mechanical model as shown in Figure 9. The

equations describing the motor dynamics are

(1)

(2)

The motor efficiency is defined by the following equation:

(3)

In this equation, Pi is the 3-phase power in kW, Ph is the rated horse power, L% is the output power as % rated

power, and K is the efficiency correction factor.

Define e = Ker (see Figure 10), Eq. (1) becomes

(4)

The Laplace transform of the steady state solution of Eq. (3) is

(5)

Letting s = j results in V = (R + jL) I + E, where E = jE = j m is the EMF voltage, = 2f is the angular

frequency of sinusoidal input in radian/sec, and is the flux linkage of the stator winding per phase

induced by the permanent magnet. When E and I are in phase, the motor mechanical power output, i.e. the

electromagnetic output power (without friction, wind and iron losses) is Pem = m |E| |I| = m m I; here m is the

number of phases. From the relationship P=T, the electromagnetic torque can be written as

(6)

Define p as the number of poles, and r = 2/p is the rotor speed. The current (or electromagnetic torque) and

induced EMF voltage become

(or

) and

(7)

Define the shaft output load as Tload = Tem - Tloss, where Tloss is the total torque loss due to friction, iron hysteresis,

and windage. The voltage equation (for L<<R, and V, E and I in phase) can be simplified to

V = RI + E (8)

Substituting Eq. (7) into Eq. (8) results in

(9)

For a constant voltage supply, Eq. (9) is equivalent to a linear function (y = a – bx), and the corresponding torque-

speed (Tem ~ r) curve is plotted in Figure 11.


6

The above analysis is based on a simplified model. For better representing the 3-phase motor dynamics, a more

complicated model is needed and will be presented in the near future.

For the parallel hybrid electric configuration, the control scheme shown in Figures 12 and 13 is recommended.

Figure 13: Computer controlled hybrid electric UAV (similar for other configurations).

Clutch

Motor/

Generator

Battery

Engine

Control Engine

Fuel

Motor

Control

Power

Converter

Receiver

To Servos

Radio

Controller

Computer

D/A & A/D

Figure 11: Torque-speed

curve of a BLDC motor.

Tem 0

P

ro r r

cr TL

Figure 9: Equivalent circuit of each

phase of a BLDC motor.

Ker

T=KT i

J

Figure 12: Block diagram for hybrid electric propulsion systems.

System

Controller

Engine

Command

Motor

Command

Engine

Control

Motor

Control

Engine

Motor/

Generator

Propeller

PPS SOC

Fuel

Battery Power

Converter

Input

Signals

Figure 10: Equivalent circuit of

each phase of a BLDC motor.


7

IV. Propulsion Analysis For Small Aerial Vehicles

As shown in Figure 14, there are four major forces (thrust, lift, drag and weight) and one moment acting on the

airplane without considering the forces generated by control mechanisms (Anderson, 2008). The thrust F is

produced by the propeller or jet engine; the lift L is produced by the air when it passes over airfoil wings; the drag D

is an aerodynamic resistance; and the moment M is created by the coupling effect of aerodynamic downward and lift

forces (due to surface pressure and shear stress distributions on wings).

The lift (L) and drag (D) can be expressed as follows:

and

(10)

Where the symbols are defined as follows: S = wing area, CD = drag coefficient, CL = Lift coefficient, V = Velocity,

and = Air density. The thrust equals the total drag which is the sum of zero-lift drag and lift-induced drag:

(11)

For a small UAV (m = 10 kg, S = 1.0 m2, = 1.055 kg/m

3, CDo = 0.025, e = 0.8, AR = 10), the thrust-velocity

curve is shown in Figure 15. Similar to the thrust equation, the power can also be divided into two terms (namely

zero-lift power and lift-induced power):

(12)

Using the same parameters, the power-velocity curve is plotted in Figure 16. The liftoff distance can be

expressed by

(13)

Where, VLO is the liftoff velocity. To ensure a margin of safety during takeoff, the liftoff velocity is typically 20%

higher than the stalling velocity. That means

(14)

Substituting Eq. (14) into Eq. (13), the liftoff distance becomes

(15)

For estimation purposes, it is assumed that the average force occurs at V=0.7VLO. For the same UAV, the relation

between the liftoff distance and thrust is shown in Figure 17.

Figure 14: Free-body diagram of an airplane in flight.

Chord line

Horizontal

F

L

Flight path

W

T

D

M

V


8

Figure 15: Thrust-velocity curve.

Figure 16: Power-velocity curve.

Figure 17: Liftoff distance-thrust curve.

0 10 20 30 40 50 600

10

20

30

40

50Thrust vs. Velocity

Velocity, m/s

Thru

st,

N

0 10 20 30 40 50 600

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3Power vs. Velocity

Velocity, m/s

Pow

er,

KW

0 10 20 30 40 50 600

50

100

150

200Liftoff Distance vs. Thrust

Thrust, N

Lifto

ff D

ista

nce,

m


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V. Prototypes Of Parallel Hybrid Electric Propulsion Systems

The major difference of hybrid electric propulsion systems between highway and aerial vehicles is that highway

vehicles are required to operate in a stop-go mode, especially when driving in the city, but this is not the case for

aerial vehicles. The operation of aerial vehicles normally maintains the velocity in a nearly constant range except

during takeoff and landing. Among the five hybrid configurations described in the previous section, the parallel

hybrid configuration (Figure 2) is adopted. In order to reduce the weight (to maximize payload), a sensorless BLDC

motor and a LiPO battery pack are used. As for the engine, a four-stroke model is used.

To show the feasibility of different configurations, four parallel hybrid models were designed, namely secondary

shaft dual-clutch, secondary shaft single-clutch, inline, and planetary gear models (see Figure 18). Among these four

configurations, three prototypes (secondary shaft dual-clutch, secondary shaft single-clutch, and inline) were built

(see Figure 19). After adding control components and wiring, a test model was constructed. Figure 20 shows the

wired system based on the secondary shaft single-clutch configuration and Figure 21 shows the wiring for the

remotely controlled system. The wired test model is used to measure the rpm and thrust of the propeller.

(a) Secondary shaft dual-clutch (b) Secondary shaft single-clutch (c) Inline

Figure 19: Prototypes of parallel hybrid models.

(a) Secondary shaft dual-clutch (b) Secondary shaft single-clutch

(c) Inline (d) Planetary gear

Figure 18: SolidWorks models of parallel hybrid configurations.


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Figure 20: Parallel hybrid model with control wiring on test stand.

VI. Summary And Recommendation

Due to time and budget restriction, only three prototypes were built. At this moment, test and evaluation of the

prototypes is still in a preliminary stage. Future work will include the following items:

1) Improve both secondary shaft and inline prototypes through additional testing and evaluation

2) Build a prototype of the planetary gear configuration for comparison

3) Develop a central self-tuning controller for operating the hybrid propulsion system and integrate with the

flight control

4) Install each prototype in a small aerial vehicle and conduct both lab and flight tests to optimize the designs

(maximum energy efficiency, minimum weight/size, increased payload, reduced noise/vibration, etc.)

5) Design full-scale hybrid electric propulsion models and install them in UAVs for further field testing and

evaluation

6) Improve the power storage capacity and life cycle of battery and fuel cells

7) Optimize the size and weight of the hybrid electric propulsion systems including downsizing the ICE for

cruise mode

VII. Conclusions And Further Research

This paper presents power control strategies for the propulsion of a UAV which is driven by a motor/battery and

ICE hybrid system. The UAV propulsion system has different power requirements in order to complete its mission

successfully. The different power stages in UAVs introduce taxiing, take off, cruising and landing. In this paper the

historical evolution of hybrid technology for UAVs and the challenges of implementing a hybrid propulsion

arrangement on future designs were discussed, and the following key features were revealed through this study. We

have reviewed the hybrid electric propulsion drive train along with its power units. In this paper we have

concentrated on the hardware aspect and making sure integration is part of the hybrid propulsion. Total UAV's

propulsive power and weight are the two dominant factors most likely to impact a future UAV employing hybrid

propulsion technology. A UAV's range and endurance, particularly for vehicles powered by electric propulsion, will

be a major issue. Current state of the art motor and battery technology limits electric-powered hobbyist helicopters

to less than a half-hour of flight at best. Further, there is little empirical information/insight into the design of very

small UAVs.


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Figure 21: Wiring for the radio controlled hybrid electric system.

Radio

Controller

Glow Plug

Battery

(Devices)

Motor

MERS

Engine

Servo

E-Clutch

Throttle

Receiver

Glow

Control

Battery

(Main)

Motor

Control

Motor

Switch


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