Damming the Rain Forest- The Social and Environmental Costs of Hydro Power in the Amazon

8/8/2019 Damming the Rain Forest- The Social and Environmental Costs of Hydro Power in the Amazon

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DammingtheRainforest:

TheSocialandEnvironmentalCostsof

HydropowerintheAmazon

JustinCalles

Anthropology11SC

11October2010


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ABSTRACT

Recentlarge-scaledamproposalsintheAmazonrainforestpromptanalysisofhowtropical

damsaffecttheenvironmentandrainforestsocieties.Inadditiontobeingmassivelyexpensive,

damsunleashaplethoraofenvironmentalproblems,includingunexpectedlyhighamountsof

greenhousegasemissions.Theyalsohavehistoriesofdisturbingindigenoussocietiesandseverely

harmingnon-indigenouspeasantcommunitiesinwaysthatonlyexacerbatedeforestation.Seeing

hydropowerinthetropicsasagreensourceofenergymustbestoppedinordertohalt

hydropowersdestructiveprogress.

INTRODUCTION

DamsthathavebeenoperatingfordecadesincludingtheTucuruDamandCuru-Una

Dam,whichthispaperwillfocusonprovideatroveofinformationabouthowdamsoperateina

tropicalrainforestenvironment.Hydroelectricdamsrequiretheloodingoftheriverupstream

fromthedam,creatingareservoirthatdestroyshabitats,displacescommunities,creates

counterproductivesiltbuild-up,disruptsishmigration,

andthreatensindigenousreservations(LaRovere2000:

50-51,113-120).Considerablelocalenvironmental

degradationalsocomesfrompollutantsreleasedduring

theconstructionprocess.Increasedsettlingtothedam

areaafterconstructionleadstodeforestationand

increasedpressureonneighboringindigenousreserves.

Thelessobviousbutpossiblymorepotently

devastatingenvironmentalconsequenceofrainforest

damsisthelargeamountofmethanetheyarecapableof

emittingintotheatmosphere.Decomposingorganic

matterwithinarainforestdamsreservoirproduces

methane,andreleasesintotheatmospherethrough

bubbling,diffusion,turbineandspillwayemissions,and

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Fig.1.TheTambopataRiver,relativelyclosetothe

locationoftheproposedInambariDam(D.Schwartz).


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fromtheriverdownstream(Fearnside2005:675;Gurin2006:1).Becauseofthetendencyof

rainforestreservoirstohavelargedrawdownzones,theyarecapableofperpetuallyproducingand

emittingmethane.Furthermore,consideringthecarbondioxideequivalentsofthesemethane

emissions,studieshaverevealedthatAmazoniandamsemitmoregreenhousegasesthanwould

havebeenemittedfromsimilarlyproductiveburningoffossilfuels(Fearnside2005:686).

BACKGROUND

ProposalsfornewhydroelectricdamsintheAmazonBasinhasexperiencedaconsiderable

resurgenceinthepastdecade,duemostlytoBrazilsgrowingdemandforenergy,whichhascalled

fortheplanningofnewmulti-billion-dollarprojectsthatcanprovidemanythousandsofmegawatts

ofpower.Thisechoesthehydroelectricityboomfrom1969to1979,whenhydroelectricoutput

tripled,helpingbringhydroelectricitytothepointofproducing84%ofBrazilselectricityby2007

(Barrow1988:67;WorldNuclearAssn.2010).Theproposed2000megawatt(MW)InambariDam

isonesuchexample.EstimatedtocostUS$4billion,theInambariDamwouldbelocatedinthe

bufferzoneofPerusBahuaja-SoneneNationalParkandwouldbebuiltprimarilytopowerfar-away

Brazilianurbancenters.Itwouldalsolood400squarekilometersincludingthevillageof

InambariattheconluenceofRioMadredeDiosandRioInambariaswellaportionofthenewly

builtInter-OceanicHighwayanditwoulddisplaceover3,200locals(Barrera-Hernndez2009).

Similarprojectsinvaryingdegreesofsize,governmentalapproval,andconstruction

progressexistthroughouttheAmazonregion,mostnotablyincludingtherecentlyapprovedBelo

MonteDamonBrazilsXinguRiverandtheRioMadierahydroelectriccomplexattheborderof

Brazil,Peru,andBolivia.Hydroelectricdamssuchasthesearetoutedasnon-pollutingsourcesof

electricitythatcanprovidemuch-neededemploymentandinfrastructureforsparselyinhabited

regions(Giles2006:524;Fearnside1999:492).ItiseasyforacitizenofthedevelopedNorth,

inluencedbyromanticnotionsoftheingenuityandeficiencyofHooverDamandtheTennessee

ValleyAuthority,toseehydroelectricdamsintheAmazonasapproachestoproducingenergythat

arebothconservation-mindedandeconomicallystimulating.Twodecadesofevidence,however,

pointsintheoppositedirection.NotonlyhavehydroelectricprojectsinAmazonprovidedonly

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minimalemploymentrelativetotheirmassivecosts,thevariousenvironmentalcostsofrainforest

damsdispelanyideathattheyarenon-polluting.Furthermore,indigenousgroupssufferdirectly

andindirectlyfromtheintroductionofdamsneartheirlands.

HYPOTHESES

UsingestablishedcasestudiesofexistingAmazoniandamsofvaryingsizeandage,this

paperwillprovideevidencefortheenvironmentalandecologicaldestruction,methaneemissions,

anddetrimentaleffectstoAmazoniancommunitiescausedbydams.Thegoalofthiscasestudy

synthesisistoreverseanymisconceptionsabouttheeffecttropicalrainforestdamshaveontheir

localenvironmentandonglobalgreenhousegasemissions.Thispapersprimaryhypothesesabout

Amazoniandamsareasfollows:

1. RiverdisruptionandloodingintheAmazoncausedbytheconstructionofdamsandilling

ofreservoirshaveendangeredlocalecosystems;

2. Damprojectsfailtohelptheirsurroundingregionssociallyoreconomicallybecausethey

involvethecostlyrelocationofcommunitiesanddontthemselvesprovideenough

employmenttomakeaconsiderablelocalimpactfromadevelopmentperspective;

3. Damprojectsjeopardizeordirectlyloodindigenousreserves,irreversiblyendangering

indigenouspeopleslivelihoods,cultures,andchancesforsurvival;

4. Thecarbondioxideandmethanereleasedfromhydropowerprojectsproducemorepotent

greenhousegaseffectsthanfromburningfossilfuels.

METHODS

Asmentioned,thispaperwillprimarilyusecasestudyindingfromtheTucurDamonthe

TocantinsRiverineasternpartoftheAmazonianstateofPar,BrazilandtheCuru-UnaDamonthe

Curu-UnaRiverinwesternPar,Brazil.TucuruDamopenedin1984andCuru-Unawas

completedin1977,sothedamshavebeenoperatinglongenoughfordatatobecollected.Their

builtcapacitiesandreservoirsizesdifferconsiderably,allowingformorevarietyofresearch

indings:Tucurihasa3,960MWinstalledcapacitywitha2,430km2reservoirsurfaceareaand

Curu-Unahasa64MWinstalledcapacitywitha65km2reservoirreservoirsurfacearea.Other

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damswillbebrielyconsideredforcomparison,includingthePetitSautDaminFrenchGuianaand

BalbinaandSamuelDamsinBrazil.

TheTucurucasestudieswillprovideinformationaboutlocalenvironmentalconcernsas

wellastheeffectthedamprojecthadonindigenousandnon-indigenouscommunities.Studieson

Curu-Unawillallowforamoredetailedexplanationofmethaneandcarbondioxideemissions

fromAmazoniandamswhichcanbeextrapolatedtolargerdamslikeTucuruandfuturedam

projectsthroughoutthetropicalrainforest.

Finally,theseindingswillprovideabasisforassessinghowproposedfutureAmazonian

damprojectsmayaffecttheenvironmentandhumanpopulations.Thispaperwillconcludewith

recommendationsforassessingfutureprojectsandwillattempttosuggestalternativesto

hydropowerintheAmazon.

FINDINGS

Environmentalimpacts(TucuruDam)

AlthoughTucuruDamisnotlocatedinabiologicalhotspotsuchasthatofthetransitional

elevationrainforestregionsofsoutheastPeru,itisstillwithinthehumidAmazonrainforest,

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Fig.2.MapofTucuruandCuru-UnaDams(GoogleMaps).


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allowingtheregiontosupportincredibleamountsofbiodiversity.Priortolooding,theregion

containedparticularlyrichpopulationsofBrazilNuttreesandlianas(Barrow1988:73).

Unfortunately,becauseofinadequateassessmentsoftheloraandfaunapriortotheconstructionof

dam,duetoboththesheervolumetospeciestocatalogandtoinsuficientresourcesallocatedfor

suchassessment,thefulleffectofwildlifelosswillremainunknown.Howmanatees,riverdolphins,

Amazondolphins,turtles,andcaimanshavefaredwithintheriverwillremainundocumented,but

thereislittledoubtthattheirpopulationswillsufferwithalteredbreedinghabitats,stunted

migratoryroutes,andhigherhydrogensulphidecontentinwatercontainingdecomposingorganic

matter(Barrow1988:73).

Asistypicalwithlargetropicalrain

forestdams,theareaupstreamfromTucuru

Damsreservoirwasfarfrombeingfully

deforestedpriortoinundationeasier.Inthecase

ofTucuru,somechemicaldefoliants(350drums

ofPCP)wereusedtoclearvegetation,someof

whichleakedintotheenvironment,leadingto

reportedhumanandlivestockdeaths(Barrow

1998:70).Furthermore,thisisconsiderablerisk

chemicalenvironmentalpollutionfromnearby

aluminumplantsthatTucurudirectlypowers

(buildingdamstohelppowerdestructivemining

activitiesiscommonintheBrazilianAmazon).

Finally,anespeciallypotentformof

environmentaldestructioncomesfromincreased

settlementthatisencouragedaroundthe

Tucurureservoirarea.Figure3illustratesthedeforestationthatoccurredwithinthetenyears

afterstartingconstructionofthedam;theredontheleftimageindicatesintactforest,thegreenand

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Fig.3.Tucuru,beforeandafter(NASA/InternationalRivers).

Fig.4.Deforestationobservedfromabove(D.Schwartz).


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parallellinesontherightsignifydeforestationpatterns.Deforestationcausedbyincreasedhuman

pressureunsurprisinglycauseslossofhabitatandincreasederosion(seeigure4fordeforestation

observedclose-up)(LaRovere2000:50).

Indigenousandnon-indigenouscommunities(TucuruDam)

TheParakanaretheprimaryindigenousgrouptofocusonwhenassessinghowTucuru

hasaffectedindigenouspopulations.TheTucurureservoirlooded38,700hectaresofParakan

land,soBrazilsIndianagency,FUNAI,wascontractedtoaidintheresettlementprocess.Thestrain

ofpersistentandinadequateresettlementeventuallycausedpartsofthegrouptosplitup,causinga

breakdownoflong-standingsocialrelationships.Afteryearsofpoorlyorchestratedresettlement,

theParakanprotestedformoreservicesandeventuallyreceivedfrommoreaidfromFUNAIfor

communitydevelopment,whichincludedschoolingandhealthcenters(LaRovere2000:xvi).

AlthoughFUNAIsaidprogramfailedtoinvolvetheParakanthemselvesinthedecision-making

processandusedanaidmodelbasedmoreonassimilationthanculturalpreservation,FUNAIsaid

helpedincreasethesizeandhealthoftheParakan.

Still,communitydevelopmentaidcameonlytotheParakanaftertheythreatenedtoblock

theTrans-AmazonianHighwayandblowbridges.Protestbyindigenousgroupsisamongtheirst

reactionstodamproposals;itwas,afterall,toprotestAmazoniandamsthatanthropologistDarrell

PoseyfamouslybroughtPayakanoftheKayaptoFlorida.AfteragatheringinAltamirain1989,

buildingofAmazoniandamsbecameanissueofbothenvironmentalconcernandinternational

humanrights(Forline2010:29).

Outsideofindigenousland,theTucuri

Damcaused170kmoffederalhighway,ten

schools,andthirteenvillagestobesubmerged

(LaRovene2000:79).Anestimated35,000

peoplewereestimatedtohavebeendisplaced,

whoseproblemswereexacerbatedbytherural

settlementtotheregion,whichincreasedby

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Fig.5.Road-building;oftenaccompaniesdams(J.Calles).


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threemethodsreleasingthevastmajorityofthemethane(Farrr2007:6-8).Becausethe

reservoirsconstantlyloodandre-lood,themethaneproductioncouldcontinueindeinitely.

Methaneisanespeciallyundesirableemissionbecauseitis21timesmorepotentthan

carbondioxide,givingit7.6timesmoreimpactonglobalwarmingthancarbondioxide(Fearnside

2005:681).Whenthemethaneemissionsmeasured13yearsaftertheillingoftheCuru-Una

reservoirareconvertedtoequivalentcarbondioxideemissions,itbecomesclearthatthenetcarbon

emissionsfromCuru-Unaactuallyexceedwhatwouldhavebeenreleasedifthesameamountof

energyproducedatCuru-Unaduringthattimewasproducedwiththeburningoffossilfuels.

Table1liststhesecarbon-equivalentemissions,addscarbonemissionsfromaerobicdecayofforest

biomass(suchasfromtreeslefttodecayabovethereservoirswaterline),andtakesintoaccount

ecosystemluxes.Whereasburningfossilfuelswouldhaveemittedabout40,000tonnesCO2-

equivalentcarbon,thedamproducedabout140,000tonnes.Fearnsidesanalysisconcludesthat3.6

timesmorecarbonwasreleasedfromCuru-Unathanwouldhavebeenreleasedfromfossilfuels;

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Table1.CO2-equivalentmethaneemissionsfromCuru-UnaDamin1990(Fearnside2005:686).


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heestimatesthatinthesameyearTucuruemitted1.82.6times,Balbinaemitted11.6times,and

Samuelemitted22.6timeswhatwouldhavebeenemittedfromfossilfuels(Fearnside2005:687).

Similareffectshavebeenobservedatothertropicalreservoirsfromseparateresearch,

thoughthereisvariationinhowmuchmethaneisreleasedduetotheuncertainnatureof

measuringmethanerelease(Gurin2006:5-6).Onethingremainscertain,however:atAmazonian

damsofvaryingsize,age,andlocation,methaneemissionisapotentyetoverlookedconstantfactor.

CONCLUSIONS

Thesecasestudiesmakeitclearthat

hydroelectricdamsintheAmazonrainforestare

destructivetotheforest,thehumansocietiesliving

aroundthedamandreservoir,andtotheglobalclimate

situationfromthedamsdevastatinggreenhousegas

emissions.Fromaconservationperspective,thelossof

loraandfaunafromlargedamprojectsthreaten

biodiversityandthegreenhousegasemissionsare

inexcusable(seeigure7).Fromadevelopment

perspective,indigenouscommunitieshavetoightto

receiveadequateaid,andeventhataidisaimedat

assimilationratherthanculturalpreservation.Perhaps

theincreasedpressuretheinternationalcommunityhas

placedonBrazilinthepasttwodecadesforprotectingindigenouslandshasputindigenousgroups

inslightlybetterpositiontosurviveafteradamproject.Theymaynotfareaspoorlyas

hypothesized,butincreasedassimilativeforceswillfundamentallyalterindigenouscommunities.

Greatersocialandeconomicdevastationseemstoaflictnon-indigenouspeasantcommunitieswho

donotgetthedegreeoffederalprotectionandaidasindigenousgroupsdo.Largedamprojects

displacetensofthousandsofpeopleandattractruralsettlement,exacerbatingdeforestationaswell

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Fig.7.Forestssurroundingthisoneareunder

threatbyPeruviandamproposals(J.Calles).


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associalunrest.Finally,thesheercostofthedamscomparedtotherelativelyfewjobstheyproduce

renderthempoordevelopmentprojects.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Whatthedevelopedworldmustfirstdoisferventlyresistthegreenwashingofhydropowerin

tropicalareas.PriorevidencemakesitpainfullyclearthathydroelectricdamsintheAmazonhelp

neitherconservationeffortsnoreffortsfordevelopment,sustainableorotherwise.Abadpublicimage

ofAmazonianhydropowercoulddiscourageinvestmentand,ifstrongenough,affectgovernmental

policiesinBrazil,Peru,andotherAmazoniannations.ItistoolatetostoptheconstructionofBeloMonte

Dam,butenoughforcesagainstfuturedamsmayhaltplansforconstructingtheRioMadieracomplex

andtheInambariDaminPeru,locatednearoneoftheworldsgreatesthotspotsofbiodiversity.Andfor

existingdamsandthoseslatedforconstruction,communitydevelopmenteffortsforindigenous

communitiesmustnotbeoverlooked.Inorderforthemtosucceed,theymustinvolvetheindigenous

communitiesdirectlyinthedecision-makingprocessandmustnotassumethatassimilativepractices

arethebestoptionforthegroups.Governmentswillhavetoputconsiderableresourcesintomaking

relocationassmoothaspossiblefornon-indigenouscommunitiesaswell,sincepoorrelocationefforts

onlyleadtoslash-and-burndeforestation.

Butthequestionremains,howwillBrazilsatisfyitsconstantlygrowingdemandforelectricity?

AstudybyWWF-Brazilclaimsthatby2020Brazilcouldcutitsexpecteddemandforelectricityby40%

byinvestmentsinenergyefficiencyequivalentto14BeloMonteDams(Yan2010:11).Whilesuch

investmentsshoulddefinitelybeencouraged,implementationtothatdegreecouldhardlyberealistically

expected.Brazilmustturntootherformsofenergyaswell,includingwind,forwhichBrazils7,400-km

windycoastlinehasgreatpotential.Mostrealistically,perhaps,andwithanodtoGaia-theoristJames

Lovelock,wouldbethedevelopmentofnuclearpower.Technologyexiststoproducelargeamountsof

electricityfromnuclearwithrelativelylowsafetyandenvironmentalrisks.Althoughnuclearhasstalled

inBrazilinthepastduetoshakyeconomicfactors,fundsdivertedfromhydropowerprojectscouldease

nuclearssafeandeffectiveexpansion(WorldNuclearAssn.2010).Therisksinherentwithnuclear

powercannotmatchthedestructivecapabilitiesofexpansionoflarge-scalehydropower.

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Damming the Rain Forest- The Social and Environmental Costs of Hydro Power in the Amazon

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