1

Traditional Hydraulic Systems in Algeria TKWRM 2012, International Conference on Traditional Knowledge for Water Resources

Management. 21-23 February 2012 Yazd, Iran

A. Dahmen*

* Department of architecture, University Saad Dahlab of Blida, route de Soumaa Blida Algeria, DZ

(E-mail: abdahmen@gmail.com)

Abstract

Algeria has experienced the development of several traditional hydraulic systems. Situated mainly

in arid and semi arid zones, groundwater has been for centuries the sustainable solution for human

settlements water supply in Saharan regions.

People used to seek water following its modes of availability and eventually develop a local know

how. Hydro geological conditions are thus relevant in the rise of various hydraulic systems. For

centuries, these systems have provided life and prosperity in the Saharan oases. They contributed

to develop knowledge, traditions and even a cultural heritage in relation to water. The discovery of

the oil fields and underground water of the intercalary Continental (IC) named also the Albian

aquifer at the beginning of second half twentieth century led upheaval in both life and

development of these territories and, therefore, in the relationship of Saharan societies with water.

While traditional systems were able to manage the shortage and scarcity of water, modern

development programs often manage abundance with difficulty. To this fact, a better

understanding of this heritage, still remaining in use for a good part, could be a great inspiration

for new challenges related to water issues.

Keywords

Water; Traditional Hydraulic Systems; Algeria; Water Heritage

INTRODUCTION

The study of ancient hydraulic systems finds its significance in the fact that these systems are

identified in arid areas where water is generally lacking. Through history, water scarcity has not

prevented prosperity of a huge of towns and settlements. Water challenge has enhanced

development of both oasis and territory connection in a network of routes enabling trade and

cooperation between oasis settlements and neighboring civilizations such as Roma, Africa

(Carthage).

Trade connection made this territory known very early. Herodotus1 related in the fifth century B.C

this area he calls Libya where nomad tribes and sedentary populations were living. He described a

desert territory made of sand, salt and water. It is the furthest testimony in the history that we

reported the presence of settlement of these desert counties where water available but through

ingenious efforts. After Herodotus, other authors have described or reported descriptions of these

areas prosperity, agricultural and commercial activities with the Mediterranean and black African

kingdoms.

In these arid territories, it is excluded that human settlements can live without irrigated agriculture.

Descriptions in old written sources are not accurate enough about hydraulic systems of these arid

territories. The only reference which is known to us is that of Ibn-Khaldun2 which describes how

1 See [HERODOTUS, 484 B.C], French translation.

2 See [IBN KHALDOUN, 1377] French translation.

2

Fig. 1, Algeria Hydrographic Scheme

digging artesian wells in the area of Oued Righ. However, the existing proof of prosperous

territories since 25 centuries confirms local hydraulic know how as a precondition. Geographical

and geological diversity was attested since these early times; due to the interrelation hydrogeology-

water systems, systems, it is possible that hydraulic systems diversity is very old.

When water flows in surface, continuous or discontinuously, it is collected and used for irrigation

and domestic requirements. When there is no water on the ground, people explore underground and

accurate their techniques to ensure water availability. Algerian Sahara presents diverse traditional

hydraulic systems: foggaras (Qanats), artesian wells, water sources, dams, inferoflow, bour system

and finally the Mzab wells systems. We will see all this with details.

STUDY FOCUS: TRADITINAL HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

This study focuses on hydraulic systems as they exist in their genuine environment before French

invasion. We will focus our work on the documentary resources describing these systems. Most of

these documents are old and date of colonial era, those from before, we have seen; do not provide

enough details of traditional water systems.

The Maghreb is based on three major regions, a thin coastal Mediterranean climate zone called the

Sahel. It is limited by the chain of tellian Atlas Mountains. Then a second region called the

Highlands, with 250 km from north to south. The region is limited by the chain of the Saharan Atlas

Mountains and characterized by a semi-arid climate. Both tellian and Saharan atlas chains are quite

parallel with a northeast southwest inclination doing almost 30 ° with latitudes. The third region is

the southern side which is the Sahara with its

arid climate.

In Algeria, the Sahara presents a variety of

landforms (Fig. 1): down Sahara to the

Northeast, the Zouzfana and Saoura valleys in

the Northwest, the Tademait plateau in the

centre, the two great ergs to the East and to the

West, the mountains of Ahaggar South,

Southeast Tassili plateau and the Tanezrouft

Southwest. Each of these sub region has its

geographical, hydrological and climate

characteristics.

Ground waters in the Sahara come from the

southern slope of the Saharan Atlas chain which

presents Saharan rivers called wadi, the most

important is the Saoura River with its two

confluents the Guir and the Zouzfana beginning

in the high Moroccan atlas. The slopes of the

central plateau of the Tademait give birth to

small rivers; the most important element is Oued

Mya. The more curious hydrological fact in

Algerian Sahara is certainly the Igharghar river,

a fossil river of nearly 2000km long beginning in

the Ahaggar mountains south (central Sahara)

and ending in Chott Melghigh (lower Sahara) at

3

an altitude of -40 m. So in the West the Saoura river streams south southeast while in the East the

Igharghar is heading north.

Underground water wasn’t quite unknown by the past. The lower Sahara has early used artesian

wells dug essentially in the Terminal Complex aquifer. The deeper aquifer of the Continental

intercalary was only known around the Tademait plateau on north, west and south sides north. In

these sub regions, consecutively the Gourara, Tuat and Tidikelt regions, the aquifer water table

becomes a few meters depth. This region is exclusively for the foggara system.

Geographical conditions promote one or more systems in each region, the table above shows the

different systems according to the geographical Saharan regions. It is rare to note a single system in

a given area (Fig. 2). This is explained by the systematic quest for any water resource even limited.

Moulias said3: "the multiplicity of modes of use (of water) is verified everywhere where it is

possible".

Regions/Systems Foggara Artesian Sources Dikes Inferoflux Bour Wells

Laghouat X X

Zibans X X X

Oued Righ X X

Souf X X

Saoura X X X

Gourara_Touat-Tidikelt X X X

Hoggar-Tassili X X

Fig. 2, Traditional hydraulic systems distribution by region

Hydraulic studies began properly two decades after French invasion of Algiers. Wanting to

consolidate the colonization of the whole Algeria, the military administration, which was ruling the

south territories, had to accurate its domination through a relevant territory control and a sufficient

knowledge. Hydraulic studies grew then with the expansion of colonization process.

Historians consider that Saharan territory domination began with the capture of Laghouat in

December 1852. Already in 1851 Adrien Berbrugger4 was appointed by the General Governor of

Algeria to undertake a broad investigation into the artesian structures in northeast Sahara; the work

took two years (1851-1852). In the late 19th century (23 January 1896) the General Government of

Algeria (GGA) sent a statement to the mayors to undertake a search about ancient hydraulic

structures in Algeria. The investigation has not led too much; work was resumed by Stéphane Gsell5

that he published in 1902. The work was essentially about agricultural hydraulics in North Algeria.

(Its work reached the region of Biskra, door of Eastern Sahara, and Wadi Djedi pp119-143).

With the quite total colonization by the end of the nineteenth century, some works have been

achieved classifying the Saharan regions due to their hydraulic organization. We can cite as not

exhaustive but quite significant, the Rolland works on Sahara hydrology (Rolland G. 1894), those

of Hähnel6 involving all the Maghreb on the morphology and hydrography of the oasis and the work

of Brunhes7 in a study of human geography, published in 1902 on irrigation in Iberian Peninsula

and North Africa. Twenty-five years after, Daniel Moulias, head of the Office of indigenous affairs

and doctor in law, published a book on hydraulic organization of Saharan oases. Each of these

3 See [MOULIAS, 1927] p-37. 4[BERBRUGGER, 1862] 5 [GSELL, 1902] See particularly pp-104-114.

6 [HÄHNEL, 1895]

7 [BRUNHES, 1902]

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studies is based on different criteria assessing hydraulic organization, geographic, hydrographic or

legal criteria. Even though, none took as classification criterion the hydraulic system itself.

If water presence conditions influence the choice of water techniques, practice finishes with time to

consolidate hydraulic systems perfectly recognizable. We will see in the description that follows

several systems which will appear sometimes similar due to some aspects, but we will notice in

other cases some major differences.

FOGGARA SYSTEM

The foggara8 is the equivalent of the qanat or kahrez in East, it has another name « ifli » or « iffeli »

in Amazigh (Berber) language; in Morocco, and it is called "khettara". The principle is to drain by

gravity groundwater to the surface of a lower soil. From this point begins the distribution with what

it requires organization, management, and works.

The foggaras are present in Algeria on the Western limits of the Continental Intercalary aquifer. The

three sub regions of Gourara, Tuat and Tidikelt are surrounding the Tademait plateau, a highland

situated at the country middle. These regions have respectively for capital Timimoun, Adrar and

Ain Salah. In these regions as noticed before, underground water table comes almost in touch with

the ground.

The foggaras exist elsewhere following the southern boundaries of the great Western erg (Ouled

Aissa), on the southwest slopes of Saharan Atlas (Beni Ounif) and also in the Hoggar

(Tamanrasset). The resource can be a flowing river, a river bed, or the shallow water in the sands of

the Great erg. Algeria counts more than 1400

foggaras, almost 900 are still being in use (source

ABHS), in the wilaya of Adrar, almost half of the

agricultural land is irrigated by foggaras.

On a map we can see from Gourara to Tidikelt how

the gallery lines, underlined by the shafts, seem like

rays going from Tademait plateau through the

surrounding territory (Fig. 3). Gallery comes to the

surface where first distribution takes place (Kesria)

in a location in the village (ksar). Then canals share

water through the ksar to reach below and irrigate

the gardens. Through the ksar, channel supply

houses, mosques and public laundries.

Water distribution is in general by volume of flow

(note on other distributions). Water ownership is

different from land ownership which is different

from palm ownership. A part of water could be

acquired either by assignment of a right due to a

contribution in the works of digging, reviving or

extension of the foggara, by inheritance or

commercial transactions. It is curious to note the

importance of waqf shares in water distribution (an

inalienable property of public utility) which benefits 8 Foggara is singular, fegaguir in plural.

Fig. 3, Timimoun at the center with foggara radial lines

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of the mosques, Coranic schools, zaouia scholars or other.

Foggara flow is shared using a copper plate called Hallafa or Chakfa, which includes holes of

measures9. The basic unit is called Habba or Madjel or Kherga. This unit is divided as follows:

1 Habba = 24 Kirat 1 Wedjba = 12 Hours

1 Kirat = 3 Thelt (third) 1 Thelt = 8 Kirat-El-Kirat

1 Kirat = 4 Rebaâ (quarter) 1 Rebaâ = 6 Kirat-El-Kirat

1 Kirat = 6 Soudus (sixth) 1 Soudus = 4 Kirat-El-Kirat

1 Kirat = 8 Thmen (eighth) 1 Thmen = 3 Kirat-El-Kirat

1 Kirat = 24 Kirat-El-Kirat

The management of water rights is transcribed in a written document called zmam. All zmams are

required by an official called Bab-n-zmam (literally father, or owner, of the zmam) or even

Mqeddem. The person is appointed collegially and the function does not go to his inheritants. The

zmams are kept in a local. In Timimoun, the local was in Ouled Brahim village neighborhood, then

in Mechouar village; the zmams have again changed hand after the Mqaddem death in the 1970s.

The foggara system presents other functions which contribute to the management. The Khabir (the

expert) is a Manager to whom is assigned the foggara responsibility, and the Kyyel, (Measurer)

expert in measurements of flows. The Kyyel is not assigned to an appropriate foggara or oasis but

for a group of oasis. The last Kyyel known in Timimoun region is El-Hadj Abdesselam Messahel.

For the revitalization works of Amokane foggara, the oldest foggara in Timimoun, hydraulics

services appointed khabir Mohamed Boullel as technical advisor to follow the works.

Distribution channels are made of gullies, hewn stones in a quarry near a former bath Hammam

Q’bou in Tin-Sayin old village ruins in Timimoun Northeast. In other oasis, especially in the erg,

channels are built of stones bound with lime; the sand sediments in the canal form eventually with

the limestone dissolved in water an impermeable layer that prevents leaks.

Maintenance is always needed and thus is part of common life in the oasis. More specific still repair

works after a gallery or a well collapse. Then alert is given and every person able to work

participates in the works that can take all night. The operation stops when the water flows again. It

is to note women participation particularly during the evacuation of the sands of the collapse. They

bring water to moisten the sand to keep from going down again.

The foggara exists also in the Hoggar region where they are dug within river valleys. River floods

may cause cyclic destruction but they are restored by Touiza self help. With limited size and,

foggaras have been introduced in Hoggar region at least for one century10

.

ARTESIAN SYSTEM

The artesian system is based on the simple rule to allow underground water under pressure to come

on the ground. The existence of artesian system is very old; the oldest known source is the Ibn-

Khaldun which is a description of the achievement of wells in the 14th century in the region of

Oued Righ.

9 The name is depending of the region; it is Habba in North Gourara; Kherga in the Auguerout; Thmen in Timimoun

and Madjel in Tuat region. See: [MERCADIER, 1946] p-25. 10

This is according to local witnesses.

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The artesian system is the most appropriate that identify the Lower Sahara (Northeast) from the

Ziban region (Biskra) at the foot of Saharan atlas to Oued Righ (Ouargla) in the south. El-Golea is

the more western artesian oasis. Artesian water comes from the Terminal Complex aquifer. One

oasis which has long prospered with this system is Touggourt, capital of Oued Righ. The most

ancient historical sources witnessed its longevity.

Water availability seems more easy and abundant in artesian region; it explains early interests of

French occupation to enhance water resources in order to consolidate more crops and European

permanent presence. The region offers a huge of lakes called sebkha attesting water abundance.

In general artesian wells are flowing; in Oued Righ the

well has a depth from 45 m to 80 m. Wells are dug

through different layers, almost limestone and clay. In

order to prevent sand and saltwater, the parts of the well

which are not through stone layers have to be covered by

sections of palm tree11

(Fig. 4). The wells are 0, 7 to 1m

large12

.

Digging artesian wells is a very hard work, so it is always

undertook collectively. No artesian well could be found

with one single owner; water division is the common

rule. A network of canals ensures water distribution

through the palm tree gardens while other wells supply

water for the village. Water sharing system is based on

time division, it is the main rule in Algerian Sahara.

The artesian system has a particular aspect due to the

necessity to drain water irrigation away from the oasis.

Drain water is not waste but has to be took away. There

are two kinds of canals; irrigating canals and draining

canals. The first network supply water irrigation for the

gardens, the second discharge water after irrigation to a

sebkha, in this case the sebkha is called chemoura.

In the case of Touggourt, where is the most concentrated

artesian wells, water drain is collected in a main canal

called Hemmala which conduct water to Timimoun’s

chemmoura. While the Hemmala canal goes close to

Tebesbest village, it is used to irrigate a great part of its

gardens. Tebestest used to irrigate its gardens by a simple

derivation from Hemmala canal. The result is a double

benefit: recuperation of excess water from Timimoun and

supply water irrigation for free.

Artesian wells need a hard work to be dug and to remain in use. The first menace is infected water

from some layers through the well depth. The second is more difficult when sand, carried by

11

[LAURENT, 1859] 12

Over Ibn-Khaldoun citation, Berbrugger has witnessed the dig of a new artesian well at Nezla Oasis. The responsible

of works, Megueddem Bouchmal has sent him forward to Algiers all the details about senses end costs to let him

compare costs with European digging methods.

Fig. 4, Longitudinal Section of an artesian

well in Oued-Righ region. LAURENT 1859.

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artesian water, is deposited progressively in the well to seal it completely. A group of Ghattassin,

local divers, will strive to clear the sand up to reopen the well again. Water pressure can be so

strong that the worker can die asphyxiated. Having learned to prevent danger, divers have

developed a knowledge do to keep them alive even if they carry out no more than three or four

round-trip to excavate each time approximately 10 kg of sand.

The artesian well can live more than a century when it is dug in stoned site without a sand layer or

bad waters intermediate aquifer; in worst cases, it lives almost for five years. Oases can live in

prosperity if artesian wells remain in use and maintenance works are ensured. When some wells

stop carrying water even after hard works reviving it, gardens irrigated will collapse. French sources

give a witness of Tamerna oasis, between Djamaâ and Touggourt, which became in ruins for more

than its half since 1849. French engineering conducted the first works with European equipments;

they finally gave the oasis a new life when the first French artesian well was dug 60 m depth and

gives flowing water in date of June 9th

1956 with a flow of 3600 l/mn first to reach 4500 l/mn after

days. It was a great event for French occupation and celebrated a year later by the Imperial

Academy by a poesy competition13

.

This good result has boosted both French and Algerian enthusiasm. A huge of artesian wells have

been dug in Oued Righ, Ziban, El-Golea, Tidikelt, Tuat, other regions also as Ghardaia but with less

success. By time they realize that more wells may not ensure more resources. After almost sixty

years of artesian digging campaigns, French authority took the decision to limit digging new

artesian wells in Oued Righ and the Ziban with respect to new conditions preserving existing well

flood. This happened in July 3rd

1915.

WATER SOURCE SYSTEM

Water sources exist as single cases in various regions due to particular water availability. This fact

is not a special feature of southern regions; Algiers is originally a town of sources. But there is a

region where water sources are globally numerous14

as the main hydraulic system for all a region:

the Ziban region15

which Biskra is the capital. The Ziban region is the northern part of lower

Sahara. It is limited by Saharan atlas foot north and the big depression of Chott Melghigh south.

Two facts are responsible of this particular situation; the mass of water carried by the southern slope

of Saharan Atlas and the important aquifer called Terminal Complex which provides pressure

flowing its underground water into surface. There are two major groups of oases, first the sub

region of Zab Dhahraoui around Tolga oasis; the second is the sub region of Zab Guebli around

Melili and Oumache oases. Both two regions are serial lines at the foot of Saharan Atlas.

Water sources could be situated within the oases like in Zab Dhahraoui, or far from the oases as in

Zab Guebli. The group of Mlili-Ourellal-Bigou oases is situated in Zab Guebli; however they are

supplied from sources situated in Metref Mountain in Zab Dhahraoui. The oases receive water by a

canal of 7 km long16

. The oasis of Oumache receives water by a canal from sources situated 12 km

far. As we have seen in artesian system, the oasis of Lioua from Zab Guebli uses water surplus from

Tolga by a canal 10 km long. Small water sorces are often grouped together in order to give

relevant flow.

13

[CHAVANNE, 1858] 14

In 1908, Flamand has counted 114 water sources; the great part is in Zab Dhahraoui. See [Flamand 1908], p-47. 15

Ziban in plural, Zab means Oasis in berber language so Ziban means oases. 16

In 1907, Flamand notices a flow of 450 l/s.

8

Tolga oasis has six principal water sources covering almost the total needs of the oasis. These

sources are from south to north17

: Sedoud, Mernaneche, Foultana, Rassouta, Mrara and Zaouia.

With the increase of water needs, artesian wells have been dug by the beginning of the twentieth

century. After first years of euphoria, some works confirmed that water sources and artesian wells

could come from a same local aquifer. In February 9th

1913, when Ben-Tobbi artesian well flowed

for the first time, Rassouta water source has almost stopped working. At the opposite, during the

same year, the digging of Buchère artesian well allowed more flow at Foultana water source.

Water division is basically calculated on time, the round tour is function of water source

importance. More generally the round tour is 14 days. It is 12 days for Sedoud or Oum-Es-Saïeg

water sources and only 4 days in the case of small water sources. The tour is called Oudjba or

Nouba; there is a day tour and a night tour. The Oudjba is divided in 12 Sâa, literally hour. This

system has been applied for artesian wells; in some cases due to flow importance, the Oudjba is

divided in 24 Sâa. Water part owner has a document proving his ownership. In some cases,

divisions are gathered in a common document called Zmam.

DIKE SYSTEM

The dike system, or river system, is the proper of

oases located near a river coming from the southern

slope of tellian Atlas. There are two principal

groups of oases; at the west, the Saoura river group

where water comes from the higher atlas at

Southeast of Morocco, a good rainfall region which

causes periodic floods. The second group is east at

the Aures region where some rivers carrying

mountain rains into the south. Most known are the

permanent flow rivers: El-Abiodh River, El-Arab,

Abdi and Fedhala. Rainfall is almost good and

floods less periodic than in the west.

While the high Moroccan atlas is not very

populated, the southern slope of Aures Mountains is

relatively populated. Water is therefore shared

between mountain settlements and Saharan oases. If

mountain settlements use all water they need

directly from the river, oases settlements have to

share the exceeding water river coming from

mountains.

Sidi-Okba oasis, a famous oasis18

, used to live

exclusively on El-Abiodh River among particular

distribution networks. It shares the river flow with

other oases through a system of canals19

called in

singular Seguia. Foum-El-Gherza Gorge marks by a

17 There are other small water sources : Belelmi, Oubarech, El-Gueber, Metamir, Oum-Es-Saïg and more recently

Amara which looks like a foggara, and Belkacem-ben-Hamoud. See [MOULIAS, 1927] pp 47-48. 18 Sidi-Okba is the name of the Muslim conqueror and Prophet Companion, Okba-Ibn-Nafî Al-Fihri, died in 683 and

buried in this oasis which took his name. Sidi-Okba is considered as the holy city and religious capital of Ziban region. 19 [FELIU, 1896], pp 56-63.

Fig. 5, Sidi-Okba region water canals network

9

dam the first water distribution on two canals (Fig. 5), Saguia Gartia to Garta oasis and Fehal-

Ezzab to Sidi-Okba, Tehouda, Seriana oases and south Garta. The distribution is valid from

September 28th

to May 27th

. During summer, when the river has less flow, Fehal-Ezzab distributes

only for Sidi-Okba, Tehouda, and Seriana.

The rule of distribution is based on volume distribution between oases. In Sidi-Okba, El-Mecidia

canal is distributed through five canals; this distribution is also in volume. Over that, all divisions

are by time. The volume unit division is called Lokza, clenched fist in Arabic20

. It is the water flow

of a hole made by a clenched fist. Summer apart, the entire river volume measures 77, 5 Lokza

distributed to the four oases.

Time division is used only between gardens. In Sidi-Okba time division is organized in a principal

unit is the day and night or 24 hours, it is called Semeche. The tour comes back after nine days

(rotation period). The day, or Semeche, is divided to:

1 Semeche = 2 Wedjba 1 Wedjba = 12 Hours

1 Wedjba = 2 Thmen 1 Thmen = 6 Hours

1 Thmen = 2 Kharrouba 1 Kharrouba = 3 Hours

1 Kharrouba = 2 Tounsia 1 Tounsia = 1 Hour, 30 Minutes

1 Tounsia = 7,5 Dirham 1 Dirham = 12 Minutes

Each canal is controlled by a person appointed by the Djemâa, traditional social organization in

almost all Maghreb. Measurements are made by day with the controller shadow counted by his feet.

By night measurement is made by a water clock called Mechkouda, a conical copper container with

a hole in its bottom. Put in water, it fills after a time that serves as a fixed time unit measurement. It

is the equivalent of Gaddous of Ghadames oasis in Libya or Clepsydra in Iran.

Due to night variation following the year, the number of Mechkouda per hour will be different in

each season. For example one hour is equal to 8 Mechkouda during autumn and spring, 9 in winter

and 7 in summer. Even though, the real water quantity for each shareholder will vary with the river

water flow. We have seen how Fehal-Ezzab water volume varies from 62 Lokza to 22, 5 Lokza in

summer.

Because of flow variation, sometimes water flow becomes so low that shares can no longer be used

for irrigation. In accordance with the Djemâa, shareholders may decide offer for sale at public

auction all of the flow which can then be sufficient to irrigate a garden. Default share water, the

owners share the sale price. The purchaser has to drive water through the main canal through the

houses to allow inhabitants for their domestic needs.

At the opposite, when river floods, the opportunity concerns all people. Water floods are seemed as

a wedding gift which may benefits more widely. From flood announcers, music group to the last

participant in diverting works; all will receive a part of the flood even those non shareholders.

20 The distribution is : Gartia (15,5), Fehal_Ezzab (62) divided itself, from septembre 28

th to May 27

th on : El-

Ouarchania (15,25) ; Benia (7) ; Tehoudia (14,25) ; El-Mecidia (16,5) and Ksar-Errouah (9). From May 28th

to

September 27th

Fehal_Ezzab divides only 22,5 Lokza between only three canals : Benia (2) ; Tehoudia (3) and El-

Mecidia (16,5). Only Sidi-Okba canal remains with same flow because of its palm trees which need to be irrigated

continuously. See [MOULIAS, 1927] pp 76-79.

10

Another kind of transaction between oases is the pre-colonial agreement between Sidi-Okba and

Sidi-Khelil oases. Sidi-Okba has bought a part of Bezania water source which is 12 km far. From

June to October, Sidi-Okba uses all Bezania water source 25 days a month21

. In 1891 military

administration, ruling south territories, has asked the General Government in Algiers for a special

budget for works on Bezania water source and its canal to improve more water flow to Sidi-Okba

oasis22

.

MZAB SYSTEM

Mzab region seems to be very particular due to its geography and hydrography, but also for the

genuine works people achieved for centuries. The Mzab system may be considered the most

artificial historical hydraulic system in the whole Sahara.

The Mzab is located some 600 km South of Algiers. The area is served by a limestone plateau with

an altitude of 250 to 750 m. Average rainfall does not exceed 100 mm per year, however the stone

plateau, being waterproof and sloping to the South, flows water to the region by a group of rivers:

Mzab, Metlili, Seb-Seb, N’sa and Zeghrir. Flows are not permanent but when doing, they run fast

enough to avoid evaporation and infiltration in the soil. It is this network of rivers which form the

network more known as Chebka du M'zab. With its underground water situated up to 55 m depth,

the valley enables viable settlements through irrigation efforts.

At first view, temptation is to consider Mzab region as a dike system as it lives on rivers. However

reality is more complicated. River flooding is not frequent enough to ensure prosperity. Here

appears the Mozabites23

genius achievement. The principle is basically to divert water from flood to

the river aquifer in order to be reused continuously thereafter. This requires such organization and

some engineering implementation.

Mozabites have organized the territory of the Valley in a set of five cities built since early 11th

century24

on the rocky hills along the river; these are El-Ateuf, Bounoura, Melika, Beni-Izguen and

finally the most famous Ghardaia (Fig. 6). Every city has its date palm gardens within the valley.

When flood comes to Ghardaia valley,

it is first blocked by a system of dikes

upstream. The dikes are equipped with

floodgates which allow controlling

flow downstream. Through the dykes,

water is conducted into main canals

that direct water to a dam or a

floodgate called Tissembad sharing in

six galleries. Galleries distribute water

to the date palm gardens according to

a system of canals dividing repartition

which define each owner a definite

part of water volume.

21 Sidi-Okba oasis tried without success to achieve a similar agreement with Mechouneche oasis situated northeast. 22 See :[CONSEIL SUPERIEUR DU GOUVERNEMENT, 1889] pp 80-81. 23 Mzab citizens are called Mozabites. 24 The first city to be built is El-Ateuf in 1012 and Bounoura in 1046.

Fig. 6, Ghardaia region with its five cities on the river escarpments. It

more known as Mzab Pentapole

11

Thus the most important flood is used to complete the dikes, dam and irrigate the gardens by the

canals network. A particular important flood may allow even to directly fill in the wells; the valley

aquifer is then not loaded only by infiltration but more quickly through the wells. If flood is

particularly important, there are overflow parts on the canal boards to redirect water back to the

river. By the past, this system prevents Mzab cities from scarcity for up to seven dry years25

.

All this implementation is managed by a group of controllers called Oumana-Essayl, under the

authority of the Djemâa26

called here Azzaba. Oumana-Essayl expect the climate changes, expect

the rain, ensure coordination and change information from gardens to the first dikes using mirror

signs during the day and fire signs by night.

Flood waters are exceptional and its division is by volume. More often, water irrigation comes from

well extraction. Division in gardens is always needed due to successive inheritance; a single garden

called Ghaba, is divided into several parts called Haouza, means forest, with an average of 50 palm

trees. A single well distributes in some cases up to twenty shareholders; water division is therefore

by time27

. Each day is divided in 24 units called kharrouba; division continues then like this:

1 day/ night = 24 Kharrouba 1 Kharrouba = 1 Hour

1 Kharrouba = 8 Thmen 1 Thmen = 7,5 Minutes

1 Thmen = 3 Mouzouna 1 Mouzouna = 2,5 Minutes

1 Mouzouna = 30 Dirhem 1 Dirhem = 5 seconds

These units are called white or black due to day or night sharing. In practice, only Kharrouba units

are applicable, the other units serve for calculation. Whatever the daily share value is, it is gathered

up to reach a quarter day and given in one time. Time shares are defined shadow measurement by

day and stars positons by night.

The Mzab wells are more than 3000 with various flows, more than 1700 are in Ghardaia. As citied

are quite separated from the gardens, each city has its wells for domestic use. Wells have 8 to 55 m

depth. Additional galleries are dug horizontally from the well to reinforce its drain capacity. Some

people used to work in water issues witness that some of these galleries make an underground

connection28

. Charlet has classified wells into four categories:

A:

B:

C:

D:

302 wells giving water up to six months after a river flood,

900 wells giving water up to one year and half to two years of drought,

490 wells giving water during a long drought period but with less flow?

19 wells called Warwara giving water with good flow whenever;

As Ghardaia is surrounded by artesian regions, such as Touggourt Northeast or El-Golea Southwest,

several times Mozabites, and French military administration after, tried to find an artesian aquifer

without any success. These unsuccessful episodes show to what extent people can spend efforts and

money to reach more water resources.

25 Witnesses reported by the author in Ghardaia after the devastating floods of 2008. 26 Two groups of traditional agents manage life in the Mzab, first group is Oumana-Essayl in charge of water issues,

and the second is Oumana-El-Kasr in charge of the city issues. 27 This division is described in [MOULIAS, 1927] p-195, Charlet gives a more simple description; the well daily water

is divided in 16 Kharrouba. During summer water is scarce, parts are therefore counted by basin volume units; see

[CHARLET, 1905] p-49. 28 The experience is practiced in several regions: a coloured powder, mainly red colour, is put in a well upstream, it is

expected to colour water in wells situated down.

12

INFEROFLOW SYSTEM

This system is also related to rivers with this difference that extraction is done locally by simple

wells dug within the valley river. The system exists in general in Saoura region or in some oases in

the Ziban region as a secondary system; but it becomes principal one in Central Sahara settlements

like Djanet in Tassili plateau and Tamanrasset in the Hoggar Mountains.

Djanet oasis as an example is situated at the southwest limit of Tassili rocky plateau. Due to its

altitude (1600-1800 m) and while the sandstones do not absorb water, Djanet receives almost the

entire rainwater coming from the plateau by Edjeriou29

river. The site is a part of the river where

rocky escarpments are on both sides. The west side escarpment goes south till it becomes a cliff.

Every four years, Djanet registers an average of 3.5

flood days per year and one major flood event per

four years. It is easy to see then water arriving from

the plateau by the river (Oued Edjeriou). Water

noise acts as a warning system to prevent people

away from the floods. Major floods can some years

be catastrophic.

The subsoil water of the river, or inferoflow, is 3 to

7 m deep and sometimes less during good seasons.

The alluvial river water consists of sand and

sandstone rubble, its thickness varies between 10

and 25 m, the width of the valley up 700 to 800 m.

The situation helps to keep water in the subsoil; this

may, in case of a good year, ensure life oasis for two

years. When annual rainfall average is good, water

reappears sufficiently on the ground few kilometers

above in a small lake at a place called In-Debirene.

Djanet is a group of three villages called Ksar

(ksour in plural) situated on both Edjeriou

riversides. Azzelouaz and El-Mihane are on the east

side and Adjahil on the opposite (Fig. 7). Tin-

Khatma is the town center, a former Libyan

Senoussya religious school30

(zaouia). All of them

are built on the rocky escarpments; gardens are

situated on the higher river area out of the floods.

Floods periodicity plays a major role keeping Djanet

in its genuine system.

In these conditions, a well of few meters deep may irrigate gardens using a balancer. Each garden

has its own well to avoid recourse to the sharing of the water. The west part is irrigated also by a

series of water sources raising right the cliff31

. The flow of water sources is relatively low. Two

sources were exceptionally important: Oueltedez and Telmezaiste. Each garden is irrigated by a well

29 It is called also Djanet River. 30

Khatma, literally the End, is when scholars end reading the holy Kur’an. 31 There are more than 60 small sources on the southwest side; see [DAHMEN, 1996] p-

Fig. 7, Djanet oasis on Edjeriou river in Tassili

13

or a water source. Gardens situated in the southwest part close to the cliff are irrigated by a water

supply distributing from the two big water sources. Water distribution in inferoflow system is

generally useless.

Water is carried from gardens to the villages for domestic use; there was no water supply. Adjahil

village is more linked to gardens. Garden water supplies coming from the two major sources are

used for some domestic activities like washing clothes.

BOUR SYSTEM

In Arabic, Bour means agriculture without irrigation. The Bour system seems therefore the simplest

hydraulic system it may exist; in spite to supply water to irrigate gardens, mainly date palms,

gardens are driven below up to water table that trees become irrigated directly by the aquifer itself.

Of course there is no need to develop any implementation organizing water distribution or

managing water shares.

The Bour system exists mainly on the board of

the two great Ergs. The Erg is a sea of

uninterrupted sand dunes; it is the most difficult

area to cross in Sahara. At the verge of ergs,

some aquifers may exist under the sand. In the

western Great Erg, oases often present foggara

and bour systems, however at the North side of

the Eastern Great Erg, oases are exclusively

organized by the Bour system. This region is the

south part of the lower Sahara; it is called Souf

region; its capital is El-Oued. It is the main oasis

in a sery of sites which mark the Northern

fringes of the Eastern Great Erg. The territory is

called the Souf and El Oued is its capital.

In Souf region, water is located under sand

dunes; the ground is characterized by gypsum

presence. This makes water going in a very low

flow; wells give therefore a very limited flow. In

1950 it was noted that the largest wells empty

for some 150 water seals. The well should take

four or five hours till the water get back to its

equilibrium level32

. It is just enough to irrigate a

small garden of vegetables but not palm trees

needing water even during summer.

This fact led to overthrow the usual logic in oasis spaces, rather than bring water to the palm trees;

it takes palm trees closer to water. To do this, excavations are made in the sand of the erg; they are

called Ghout or Houdh. The principle is to achieve first a limited excavation in the sand arriving

near to the level of water. Then a well is dug to irrigate a small garden. The small garden is enlarged

thus by successive excavations. Gardens finally form together a Ghout network constituing a

cellular shape (Fig. 8).

32

See [BATAILLON, 1956] pp 12-13.

Fig. 8, El-Oued oasis in Souf region surrounded by

Ghouts. BATAILLON 1956

14

The operation requires a lot of efforts; thousands of cubic meters of sand are excavated manually in

a collective self-help form called Touiza. According to local tradition, the Ghout takes the name of

the family that owns it. It usually takes round elliptical and a variable surface area exceeding one

hectare planted exclusively of Palm trees.

The ghout represents a land unit in the soil ownership system. A small water supply may exist in the

Ghout (Fig. 7) where several gardens can be grouped. Each garden is irrigated by a well called

Khettara, a well with appropriate traditional handling system to non deep wells. Other deeper wells

are dug in the village for domestic use.

GENERAL OUTLINES

This overview through Algerian historic hydraulic systems enables to dress the following outlines.

Saharan settlements have been prospered for a very long time according two major reasons: local

irrigated agriculture enabled, by appropriate hydraulic systems, to ensure subsistence; and trade

exchanges keeping relationships with the surrounded civilizations in both African and

Mediterranean sides. The exchange ensures complement needs and at least new know how

necessary to continue water source investigation. Complement needs are not only for domestic life;

water is extracted by animals often brought by caravans from southern African cities.

Hydraulic systems exist together even there is always a major system. Nevertheless, there is a case

of single system in south Gourara where only foggara system is in use. In Djanet, People have tried

to dig a foggara but results were not successful. In Ghardaia explorations were undertook aiming to

find any artesian aquifer. In Tolga water source system was the sole system until 1903 when begun

artesian discovery in its region33

. This means where exists a single system, the reason is that no

other possibility for another system. The important issue is to look for more water resources, and

when found, the appropriate system would be found and implemented.

Some oases present a double system of equal importance, Djanet (Inferoflow-Source), Ngoussa near

Ouargla (Artesian-Bour), Beni-Abbes (Foggara-Source), Ghardaia (Dike, well),..Etc. this fact has a

major influence on oasis organization. Ngoussa is situated near a small part of Eastern Great Erg on

its south side, the example is interesting ; artesian wells enables to group in quite juxtaposition all

gardens as a same peace ; while bour system requires to dig ghouts. Oasis landscape appears

therefore in two side parts : continuous land on west side and cellular lands on east side ; it is not

meaningless if eastside’s name is El-Bour.

Most prosperous oases are those having continuous resources without any need to extraction. It is

more obvious in the case of water source oases, water is always available and no great efforts are

needed. Tolga is one of the oldest oases known before the roman period34

. The second kind is

artesian system which ensures much water without extraction but a genius maintenance is required

to keep artesian wells in use ; Touggourt and Ouargla used to be famous Saharan cities for a very

long time. The third kind is for sure foggara system ; water is always available ; important efforts

are required to remain foggaras in use, but no extraction efforts are needed.

Ownership system considers separately: water, palms and land. The priority order of importance is

different and no common rule is found out. In foggara system water ownership has is priority ; in

Gharadaia however, palm trees are sold with specification of its surrounding land called Horma and

33

French administration created artesian wells since 1903 and 1902 in Ain-Salah in Tidikelt. 34

We can cite also Biskra, Laghouat and Beni-Abbes in Algeria ; Figuig in South Morocco ; and Ghadames in Libya.

15

its water part. In Laghouat in northern Sahara, shareholders receive water in accordance to their

land size. Just these three examples show how diverse are priorities order ; finally the single

common rule is ownership separation between land, palm tree and water.

Water division is more generally managed by time with diverse details in the processing way ; the

tour is therefore a variable number of days35

. Nevertheless we have seen in dike systems how both

volume and time divisions are used in complementary way. We noticed also in Mzab region during

summer how time shares are converted in corresponding volume through appropriate number of

basin water volume. Volume division is the particular method of foggara system. But we may add

that some foggara regions keep a singular rule of volume or time division : in Tamentit, an oasis

close to Adrar in Tuat region, Hennou foggara is almost the oldest, division time is still being the

rule. It is also the case in Tabelbala oasis situated on Bechar south .

Water division may concern more than one oasis in the case of dike system. We have seen also that

oases can negotiate agreements to buy water shares as between Sidi-Okba and Sidi-Khelil. More

generally, water can transit from one oasis to another; Touggourt drained water is partly used by

Tebestbest oasis and Tolga exceeding water diverted to Lioua oasis.

Names are often interchangeable; khettara is used to designate a well in Mzab region or the

traditional extraction system for non deep well dug in a river bed or in Souf or Saoura regions, it is

also the foggara name in Moroccan oases. Water clock is called Mechkouda in Northeast and

Taghyra in western oases. Kharrouba or Dirham are water division units but may be used for

different values in different places. This fact leads to consider more generally that people are

regardless to toponimy.

Women participation in water works may be the most unexpected feature. Women participate in

maintenance works, different helps considered as necessary contribution in waterworks. This fact is

witnessed in Gourara, Tuat and Oued Righ.

In Sahara, we can conclude obviously that human settlements follow water sources. If the water

level goes down in the sources or in the foggaras, people use khettaras in order to bring water up to

the level used to be irrigated; otherwise they bring down garden level to continue irrigating by

gravitation. These adaptations are achieved permanently since water becomes very scarce or

disappears. People look therefore to find a new resource elsewhere and a new oasis is created.

CONCLUSION

This presentation has tried to show how diverse and particular the history of traditional hydraulic

systems in Algeria as the largest Maghreb country. The seven systems described may exist in all

Maghreb and we have no details about other traditional systems elsewhere.

Water systems used to be central regarding to oases life. Water is the first and the most important

wealth a man can own in Sahara. Water sharing units in foggara system are divided in a report of 1

to 24. Curiously, it is similar to gold weight units. Water takes importance also from its public

character. Water challenges are directly linked to community life.

This historical importance has not found proportional interest in search fields. The interest has

begun slowly almost two decades before and needs are great for systematic investigation to preserve

35

More commonly, the tour is after 14 days; it is much easy if each share comes the same day of the week.

16

this common heritage. The authorities will to ensure much water available went sometimes through

the collapse of traditional hydraulic systems36

.

Two years ago, in Timimoun, I met Cheikh Abdesselam Da Sidi, the responsible of Amokane

foggara, the oldest foggara in the oasis37

. After first timid responses he finally said: “during our life

and especially since independence, we faced three major threats. The first was the Agrarian

Revolution when we did face much turbulence in our agricultural and commercial process. The

second was agriculture development programs which enabled everybody to undertake new projects

without any regards to traditional activity. The third was more catastrophic by digging albian deep

wells which disturbed foggara water”.

The positive aspect in this worst situation is that brings finally more alerts through civil actions

towards people and administration to stop the damage. The hope is to see increasing interest

through academic works, public programs and educational and cultural activities to improve

common feeling about how relevant is to preserve this millenary heritage.

36

Drinking water rate in Timimoun oasis is 458 litres/day.inhabitant; in Zeggour oasis it reaches 1038. The whole

Timimoun county average is 544 litres/day.inhabitant; so it is three times and half the national average. There is one

explanation: water is not only used for drinking but more often for irrigation. 37

Amokane foggara is more than 13 centuries old, 7 kilometre length and 700 shafts.

17

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