CUSTODIAL STRIP SEARCHES OF JUVENILES: HOW ......F.3d at 233. 20 See N.G., 382 F.3d at 238, 244–45...

CUSTODIAL STRIP SEARCHES OF JUVENILES: HOW SAFFORD INFORMS A

NEW TWO-TIERED STANDARD OF REVIEW

Abstract: In its 2009 decision in Safford Unified School District No. 1 v. Red-ding, the U.S. Supreme Court first ruled on the constitutionality of strip searches in public schools. The Court held that the strip search of a mid-dle school girl who had allegedly brought painkillers to school violated the Fourth Amendment’s protection against unreasonable searches and seizures. The Court, however, has never addressed the constitutionality of strip searches in juvenile detention centers (“JDCs”). Strip searches in JDCs are particularly troubling because they may exacerbate the already damaging psychological and emotional impact of detention on youth. Al-though lower courts appear to agree that the standard for such searches should fall between the standards for school searches and prison searches, courts are still confused about the proper standard, leading to broad dis-cretion by JDC officials who conduct searches. This Note applies the rea-soning in Safford to urge courts to consider the age and sex of the of-fender as well as the nature of the offense committed when considering the constitutionality of strip searches of juveniles who have committed minor offenses. The Note proposes a two-tiered standard of review, based on the level of offense, for determining whether the strip search of a ju-venile in a JDC is unconstitutional.

Introduction

In August 1999, sixteen-year-old Jodi Smook was arrested and brought to a juvenile detention facility (a “JDC”) for violating local cur-few laws.1 A JDC official asked Smook to strip down to her undergar-ments in order to search her for drugs and weapons.2 In 2006, in Smook v. Minnehaha County, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit upheld this strip search as reasonable under the Fourth Amendment.3 The court reasoned that the search of Smook was less intrusive than a full strip search—analogizing her nudity to wearing a bathing suit at

1 Smook v. Minnehaha County, 457 F.3d 806, 808 (8th Cir. 2006). 2 Id. at 808, 811. 3 Id. at 812.

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340 Boston College Law Review [Vol. 52:339

the beach—and was necessary in light of the state’s responsibility to act as a guardian of juveniles in state custody.4 In October 2003, four years after Smook’s strip search, a middle school assistant principal called thirteen-year-old Savana Redding into his office due to a report that she had distributed common painkiller pills to other students.5 School officials asked Redding to strip down to her undergarments in order to search her for pills.6 In 2009, in Safford Unified School District No. 1 v. Redding, the U.S. Supreme Court held this strip search to be impermissible.7 Justice Souter, writing his final opin-ion for the Court, emphasized the humiliating nature of the search and refused to equate Redding’s nudity with the exposure involved in changing for gym class.8 Schools and JDCs, as represented by Safford and Smook, are two significant contexts in which courts have applied the Fourth Amend-ment to juveniles.9 Yet it is difficult to reconcile the opinions in Safford and Smook because both cases involved intrusive strip searches of juve-niles accused of minor offenses.10 On one hand, Smook is a disappoint-ment to civil liberties advocates because it exposed a wide gap between the Fourth Amendment protections afforded to adults as compared with children.11 On the other hand, Safford is a victory for civil liberties advocates, and for schoolchildren and parents.12 In the last several dec-

4 Id. at 811–12. 5 Safford Unified Sch. Dist. No. 1 v. Redding, 129 S. Ct. 2633, 2638, 2642 (2009). 6 Id. at 2638. 7 Id. at 2644. 8 Id. at 2641–42; Press Release, ACLU, Justice Souter Ends a Distinguished Career As

U.S. Supreme Court Concludes a Relatively Quiet Term, ( June 29, 2009), available at http://www.aclu.org/organization-news-and-highlights/justice-souter-ends-distinguished-career-us-supreme-court-concludes (“Justice Souter’s final opinion for the Court was a memorable one.”).

9 See Safford, 129 S. Ct. at 2639–43; Smook, 457 F.3d at 812. 10 See Safford, 129 S. Ct. at 2642 (asserting that pills the assistant principal showed to

Redding were ibuprofen and naproxen— “common pain relievers equivalent to two Advil, or one Aleve” —and that he must have known these pills posed only a limited threat); Smook, 457 F.3d at 808 (noting that the district court included curfew violations in its defi-nition of “minor offenses”).

11 See Alliance for Justice, Stripping Justice Bare, Full Court Press (Aug. 16, 2006, 10:06 EST), http://fullcourtpressblog.blogspot.com/2006_08_01_archive.html (questioning why the Eighth Circuit allowed officials to conduct suspicionless searches of juveniles like Smook, while adults arrested for low-level offenses are afforded greater Fourth Amend-ment protection).

12 See Adam Liptak, Strip Search of Girl by School Officials Seeking Drugs Was Illegal, Justices Rule, N.Y. Times, June 26, 2009, at A16 (writing that Safford attracted national attention from parents who were angry about the intrusiveness of the search, although some parents were also concerned about limiting school officials’ ability to keep their children safe);

2011] Custodial Strip Searches of Juveniles 341

ades, juveniles’ constitutional rights have been curtailed, with youths held to adult standards of accountability yet denied the constitutional protections received by adults.13 Thus, the Court’s decision in Safford may suggest signs of renewed compassion and empathy for juveniles.14 The difficulty of reconciling Safford with Smook results, in part, from the fact that the U.S. Supreme Court has never considered the constitutionality of strip searches of juveniles in JDCs.15 By contrast, the Court has ruled on two major school search cases—including Safford— in the last twenty-five years, establishing a balancing test that weighs a student’s privacy rights against the school’s security interests.16 Al-though this balancing test will not always present a clear-cut resolution to school search cases, the Court has established at least modest Fourth Amendment boundaries for school officials.17 Given that the Supreme Court has never established a framework for considering strip searches of juveniles in JDCs,18 lower courts ap-pear uncertain about what standard and precedent to apply when con-sidering such searches.19 Moreover, state officials are given substantial

Press Release, Alliance for Justice, Court Ruling in Safford v. Redding Victory for Constitu-tion ( June 25, 2009), http://www.afj.org/press/court-ruling-in-safford.html; Press Release, ACLU, supra note 8 (“The 8–1 ruling in Redding was a rare and important victory for stu-dents’ rights in the Supreme Court.”); Frank D. LoMonte, Safford v. Redding Analysis: High Court Surprises with Some Support for Students’ Constitutional Rights, ACSblog, http:// www.acslaw.org/node/13649 ( June 25, 2009, 5:32 PM) (“Up to now, however, the Court has treated the Bill of Rights like the good Scotch that gets pulled down off the tippy-top shelf only after the kids have gone to bed.”).

13 See Christopher Smith, Casenote, N.G. ex rel. S.C. v. Connecticut: The Strip Searches of Two Juveniles and the Need for Individualized Suspicion, 24 Quinnipiac L. Rev. 467, 520 (2006); see also Irene Merker Rosenberg, The Rights of Delinquents in Juvenile Court: Why Not Equal Pro-tection?, 45 Crim. L. Bull. 723, 724–25, 738–43 (2009). For example, alleged juvenile delin-quents have been denied the right to a jury trial in the juvenile court’s adjudicative stage. McKeiver v. Pennsylvania, 403 U.S. 528, 545 (1971). The Supreme Court also upheld a state statute, under the Due Process Clause, authorizing pretrial detention of accused delinquents based on a finding of “serious risk” that the juvenile may commit an adult crime before the return date. Schall v. Martin, 467 U.S. 253, 263, 281 (1984). One year later, the Court held that school officials need not obtain a warrant to search a student, but could search based on a less stringent reasonableness standard. New Jersey v. T.L.O., 469 U.S. 325, 341 (1985).

14 See The Supreme Court, 2008 Term—Leading Cases, 123 Harv. L. Rev. 153, 170 (2009) (positing that, since Justice Ginsberg was the only female justice on the Court and had thus experienced life as a thirteen-year-old female, she empathized with the humiliation Savana Redding felt when she was searched).

15 See Smook, 457 F.3d 806, cert. denied, 549 U.S. 1317 (2007). 16 See Safford, 129 S. Ct. at 2639, 2642; T.L.O., 469 U.S. at 341–42. 17 See T.L.O., 469 U.S. at 341–42. 18 See Smook, 457 F.3d 806, cert. denied, 549 U.S. 1317 (2007). 19 Compare Justice v. City of Peachtree, 961 F.2d 188, 190–93 (11th Cir. 1992), with N.G.

ex rel. S.C. v. Connecticut, 382 F.3d 225, 236–37 (2d Cir. 2004). In considering the strip searches of youths detained for truancy and loitering in Justice v. City of Peachtree, the U.S.


deference to determine when to conduct a juvenile search, and such deference can lead to unbridled discretion and serious privacy inva-sions.20 The need for a clear standard is further illuminated by the dis-parity in the way some courts address strip searches of juveniles as op-posed to adults.21 Some courts will find the search of an adult detained for a minor offense to be impermissible without reasonable suspicion that he or she possessed contraband, but will uphold the strip search of a juvenile detained for a minor offense as constitutional, even in the absence of individualized suspicion.22 Although youth strip searches are a serious issue in any context, strip searches in JDCs can be particularly damaging because of their potential to exacerbate the already detri-mental impact of detention and incarceration on vulnerable youth: even absent the trauma of a strip search, incarceration in crowded ju-venile facilities can lead to psychiatric problems, suicidal tendencies, aggressive adult behavior, and poor development of social skills.23 This Note proposes that lower courts adopt a two-tiered standard of review for determining the constitutionality of strip searches of juve-niles in JDCs that is based upon the level of offense committed by the juvenile.24 This standard aims to diminish confusion by lower courts, heighten juveniles’ privacy rights, and curb discretion by officials who

Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit applied the balancing test set out by the Su-preme Court in Bell v. Wolfish, and held detained juveniles to the same “reasonableness” standard as adults—which requires reasonable suspicion that a juvenile lawfully in custody is concealing contraband or weapons in order to conduct a strip search. Peachtree, 961 F.2d at 190–93. See generally Bell v. Wolfish 441 U.S. 520 (1979). By contrast, in N.G. ex rel. S.C. v. Connecticut, the Second Circuit relied on the “special needs” standard set forth in Board of Education v. Earls, and upheld strip searches of juveniles upon intake to a juvenile facility. N.G., 382 F.3d at 236–37; see Bd. of Educ. v. Earls, 536 U.S. 822, 829 (2002). The Second Circuit, however, noted the “pertinent but not precisely governing case law . . . .” N.G., 382 F.3d at 233.

20 See N.G., 382 F.3d at 238, 244–45 (Sotomayor, J., dissenting) (asserting that strip searches of detained juveniles were conducted without individualized suspicion, by the prison officials, that they possessed contraband).

21 Compare id. at 244–45 (asserting that majority should not have justified the juvenile strip searches at issue without individualized suspicion), with Miller v. Kennebec County, 219 F.3d 8, 12–13 (1st Cir. 2000) (requiring reasonable suspicion for a search after the defendant failed to pay a fine), and Masters v. Crouch, 872 F.2d 1248, 1249–50, 1253–55 (6th Cir. 1989) (requiring reasonable suspicion for a strip search after the defendant failed to appear in court for motor vehicle violations).

22 Compare N.G., 382 F.3d at 244–45 (Sotomayor, J., dissenting), with Miller, 219 F.3d at 12–13 (requiring reasonable suspicion for a search after the defendant failed to pay a fine), and Masters, 872 F.2d at 1249–50, 1253 (requiring reasonable suspicion for a strip search after the defendant failed to appear in court for motor vehicle violations).

23 See infra notes 185–189. 24 See infra notes 164–307 and accompanying text.


conduct such searches.25 The Note argues that courts should more strongly weigh the intrusiveness of juvenile strip searches when consid-ering their constitutionality and should apply critical reasoning from school search cases to establish a clear standard of review for JDC searches.26 Part I examines the development of the juvenile justice sys-tem in order to highlight important policy considerations concerning the treatment of incarcerated juveniles.27 Part II presents the relevant Fourth Amendment doctrine, including the central cases governing juvenile searches in the school and JDC contexts.28 Part III highlights the core similarities between schools and JDCs, which permit the appli-cation of reasoning from school search cases to the custodial context.29 Part III then shows how two Supreme Court school search cases inform a two-tiered standard of review for determining the constitutionality of strip searches of juveniles in JDCs.30

I. Juvenile Justice: From Rehabilitation to Punishment

With the creation of the first juvenile31 court in the United States in 1899, the juvenile justice system formally emerged as a separate insti-tution from the adult justice system.32 Juvenile courts were grounded in the idea that misbehaving children were psychologically troubled—as a consequence of a pathological environment rather than intrinsic evil— and that the state should act as a surrogate parent to foster growth in such children.33 Initially guided by the common law doctrine of parens

25 See infra notes 164–307 and accompanying text. 26 See infra notes 220–307 and accompanying text. 27 See infra notes 31–64 and accompanying text. 28 See infra notes 65–163 and accompanying text. 29 See infra notes 164–215 and accompanying text 30 See infra notes 220–307 and accompanying text. 31 A “juvenile,” also known as a minor, is defined as a person who has not reached the

age at which one should be treated as an adult by the criminal-justice system. Black’s Law Dictionary 945 (9th ed. 2009). This age is usually eighteen. Id.

32 Office of Juvenile Justice & Delinquency Prevention, Statistical Briefing Book: Juvenile Justice System Structure & Process, U.S. Dep’t of Justice, http://ojjdp.ncjrs.gov/ojstatbb/ structure_process/overview.html (last visited Jan. 25, 2011). There are actually fifty-one dif-ferent juvenile justice systems in the United States, as each state (and the District of Colum-bia) has its own set of juvenile laws and policies. Melanie King, Nat’l Ctr. for Juvenile Justice, Guide to the State Juvenile Justice Profiles 1 (2006), available at http://www. ncjjservehttp.org/NCJJWebsite/pdf/taspecialbulletinstateprofiles.pdf. Only ten states place control of juvenile correctional services within the adult corrections agency; the others, rec-ognizing the separate missions of the two systems, place authority in either a separate juvenile justice agency or a human or social services agency. Id.

33 Aaron Kupchik, Judging Juveniles: Prosecuting Adolescents in Adult and Juvenile Courts 1, 1, 11 (2006); Elizabeth Scott & Thomas Grisso, The Evolution of Adoles-


patriae,34 the state’s aim was to protect society and rehabilitate juveniles, not to impose criminal guilt and punishment.35 Despite the benevolent intentions that inspired the juvenile sys-tem, its rehabilitative model has crumbled in the last several decades and has been replaced by an adult-like system of prosecution and pun-ishment.36 In the 1970s and 1980s, skepticism about the potential for juvenile rehabilitation grew rapidly, along with heightened enthusiasm for holding children to adult standards of accountability.37 A sharp in-crease in juvenile homicides in the late 1980s and early 1990s also aroused fear of the delinquent “juvenile superpredator,” leading state legislatures to pass tougher juvenile laws.38 As a consequence of a revo-lution in “transfer laws” in the 1990s, younger children were often tried as adults for a broader spectrum of offenses.39 Moreover, transfer deci-sions were often placed in the hands of prosecutors and the legislature, not just the courts.40 Today, transfer statutes have expanded beyond judicial waiver laws to include two other types of laws: statutory exclu-sion laws, which automatically transfer particular classes of juvenile cas-es to criminal court, and concurrent jurisdiction laws, which allow prosecutors to file certain cases directly in criminal court.41 In addition

cence: A Developmental Perspective on Juvenile Justice Reform, 88 J. Crim. L. & Criminology 137, 138 (1997).

34 “Parens patriae” literally means “parent of his or her country” in Latin, and has been defined as “the state in its capacity as provider of protection to those unable to care for themselves.” Black’s Law Dictionary, supra note 31, at 1221. “This doctrine originated in the ancient duty of the English sovereign to protect all children within his or her realm” and, in the late 1800s, it was the driving factor behind the establishment of juvenile courts in the United States. Claudia Worrell, Note, Pretrial Detention of Juveniles: Denial of Equal Protection Masked by the Parens Patriae Doctrine, 95 Yale L.J. 174, 176 n.8 (1985).

35 Kent v. United States, 383 U.S. 541, 554–55 (1966). 36 Kupchik, supra note 33, at 1. 37 Scott & Grisso, supra note 33, at 138. 38 David S. Tanenhaus & Steven A. Drizen, “Owing to the Extreme Youth of the Accused”:

The Changing Legal Response to Juvenile Homicide, 92 J. Crim. L. & Criminology 641, 642 (2002). “Criminologist John Laub has argued that over the course of the twentieth century criminologists have invented new labels to describe basically the same population of seri-ous and violent juvenile offenders, and the term ‘superpredators’ was only the latest such label.” Id. at 643 n.9 (citing John Laub, A Century of Delinquency Research and Delinquency Theory, in A Century of Juvenile Justice 179, 186 (Margaret K. Rosenheim et al. eds., 2002)).

39 See id. at 664–66. For further background information on the changing nature of the juvenile justice system, see Hillary J. Massey, Note, Disposing of Children: The Eighth Amend-ment and Juvenile Life Without Parole After Roper, 47 B.C. L. Rev. 1083, 1086–89 (2006).

40 See Tanenhaus & Drizen, supra note 38, at 667. 41 See, e.g., Fla. Stat. Ann. § 985.556 (West 2007); Mass. Gen. Laws ch. 119, § 74 (2008);

Minn. Stat. Ann. § 260B.101 (West 2007); see also Benjamin Adams & Sean Addie, U.S. Dep’t of Justice, OJJDP Fact Sheet: Delinquency Cases Waived to Criminal Court,


to transfer laws, many new policies make juvenile records more widely accessible, open juvenile proceedings to the public,42 impose manda-tory minimum sentences on youth, and “require juveniles to register in sex-offender databases.”43 Despite this trend, however, juveniles have been denied the consti-tutional rights that should go hand-in-hand with increased accountabil-ity.44 Since the origins of the juvenile system, minors have been denied many procedural rights that were afforded to adults.45 For example, some states have denied juveniles the rights to bail, indictment by a grand jury, public trial, and trial by jury.46 Reformers who supported the creation of a separate juvenile system felt that juveniles should be shielded from the rigidities and harshness of both substantive and pro-cedural law in order to keep youths out of jails with hardened crimi-nals.47 In 1966, in Kent v. United States, the U.S. Supreme Court first stressed the importance of procedural protections for juveniles.48 In Kent, the Court held that a juvenile court could not transfer a juvenile to an adult criminal court without following certain procedures, includ-ing holding a hearing and providing effective assistance of counsel and

2005, at 1 (2009), available at http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/224539.pdf. The term “certified juvenile” refers to a juvenile who has been certified to be tried as an adult. Black’s Law Dictionary, supra note 31, at 945. As of 2007, fifteen states also had “juvenile blended sentencing” laws which permit a court to combine, for certain offenses, a juvenile disposition with a suspended criminal sentence; if the juvenile cooperates, he will remain in the juvenile system, but if not, he may be sent to the adult system. National Overviews: Which States Try Ju-veniles as Adults and Use Blended Sentencing?, Nat’l Ctr. for Juvenile Justice, http://70.89. 227.250:8080/stateprofiles/overviews/transfer_state_overview.asp (last visited Jan. 25, 2011). On the other hand, many states also have “reverse transfer” statutes that allow criminal court judges to send juveniles who were transferred to their court back to juvenile court. Tanen-haus & Drizen, supra note 38, at 693. These statutes are “especially important in jurisdictions that rely extensively on automatic transfer and direct-file.” Id.

42 Tanenhaus & Drizen, supra note 38, at 642. 43 Kristin Henning, What’s Wrong with Victims’ Rights in Juvenile Court?: Retributive Versus

Rehabilitative Systems of Justice, 97 Calif. L. Rev. 1107, 1113 (2009). 44 See Rosenberg, supra note 13, at 724–25. Rosenberg also argues that juveniles could

be afforded more constitutional rights under the Equal Protection Clause, rather than under the Due Process Clause. Id. at 727–28.

45 In re Gault, 387 U.S. 1, 14 (1967). 46 Id. In 1967, in In re Gault, the Supreme Court considered the constitutionality of the

Juvenile Code of Arizona, which denied juveniles several rights: “notice of the charges; right to counsel; right to confrontation and cross-examination; privilege against self-incrimination; right to a transcript of the proceedings; and right to appellate review.” Id. at 10 (numbering omitted).

47 See id. at 15–16. 48 See 383 U.S. 541, 554 (1966).


a statement of reasons.49 The Court emphasized that, although the sta-tute in question gave the juvenile court “a substantial degree of discre-tion” it did not confer “a license for arbitrary procedure.”50 In 1967, in In re Gault, the Supreme Court further highlighted the importance of procedural protections for youth.51 When considering the detention of a fifteen-year-old boy as a juvenile delinquent in a state industrial school,52 the Court held that certain due process rights apply equally to both juveniles and adults.53 Such rights include the right to counsel,54 adequate notice of the charges (comparable to the notice given in criminal or civil proceedings),55 the privilege against self-incrimination,56 and the right to confrontation and sworn testimony by witnesses available for cross-examination.57 The Court hoped to intro-duce procedural regularity, fairness, and orderliness into the juvenile system,58 emphasizing that “unbridled discretion [was] a poor substi-tute for principle and procedure.”59 Yet the early promises of procedural rights for youth articulated in Kent and Gault are still unfulfilled, such that juveniles are held to adult accountability standards but denied similar constitutional rights.60 For example, state agents have great discretion to determine when to detain juveniles because statutes governing when to detain accused individuals before trial are less precise for minors than for adults.61 Moreover, in McKeiver v. Pennsylvania, decided by the Supreme Court in 1976, the plurality opinion held that juveniles have no constitutional right to a trial by jury in the juvenile court’s adjudicative stage.62 A recent consti-

49 Id. at 553–54. 50 See id. at 553. 51 See 387 U.S. at 26–28. 52 Id. at 4. 53 See id. at 26–28. 54 Id. at 41. 55 Id. at 33–34. 56 Id. at 55. 57 Gault, 387 U.S. at 56. 58 Id. at 27–28. 59 Id. at 18. 60 See Kupchik, supra note 33, at 1. 61 See Worrell, supra note 34, at 176–77. Worrell argues that a state may use the parens

patriae doctrine to mask a motive that does not protect a juvenile or the community, such as subjecting juveniles to harsh pretrial detention strategies to create the appearance of being tough on crime. Id. at 181–82.

62 403 U.S. 528, 545 (1971) (plurality opinion). The Court in McKeiver stated that ju-veniles need not be given all constitutional rights given to adults in a criminal proceeding, noting that a jury trial could transform the ideally intimate and informal juvenile proceed-ing into a fully adversarial process. Id. Moreover, the Court determined that abuses in the


tutional debate over juveniles’ constitutional rights and needs for pro-tection concerns strip searches of juveniles—the subject of this Note.63 Invasive strip searches present some of the most serious constitutional issues because they infringe both on due process rights and on personal privacy rights.64

II. Application of the Fourth Amendment to Juveniles in Public Schools and Juvenile Detention Centers

The Fourth Amendment provides protection against unreasonable searches and seizures and states that “no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause.”65 The Supreme Court, however, has carved out excep-tions to the probable cause requirement, especially in situations that require swift police action such that obtaining a warrant would be im-practicable.66 One exception recognized by the Supreme Court is the “special needs” doctrine.67 In the context of safety and administrative regulations, the Court has held that a search may be reasonable “where ‘special needs,’ beyond the normal need for law enforcement, make

juvenile system relate to a lack of resources and dedication, rather than unfairness. Id. at 547–48. In doing so, the Court was reluctant to acknowledge that the juvenile system had failed in its rehabilitative goals and hoped that states would experiment in seeking new ways of handling youthful offenders. Id. at 547. Contra In re L.M., 186 P.3d 164, 170 (Kan. 2008) (reasoning that the juvenile justice system is now patterned after the adult criminal system, such that McKeiver is no longer binding precedent, and thus determining that ju-veniles have a constitutional right to a jury trial under the Sixth and Fourteenth Amend-ments).

63 See generally Safford Unified Sch. Dist. No. 1 v. Redding, 129 S. Ct. 2633 (2009); Smook v. Minnehaha County, 457 F.3d 806 (8th Cir. 2006).

64 See N.G. ex rel. S.C. v. Connecticut, 382 F.3d 225, 232 (2d Cir. 2004) (writing that the adverse psychological effect of a strip search may be more serious for a child than an adult); see also John Does 1–100 v. Boyd, 613 F. Supp. 1514, 1522 (D. Minn. 1985) (“The experience of disrobing and exposing one’s self for visual inspection by a stranger clothed with the uni-form and authority of the state, in an enclosed room inside a jail, can only be seen as thor-oughly degrading and frightening.”).

65 U.S. Const. amend. IV. The Fourth Amendment is made applicable to the states by the Fourteenth Amendment. U.S. Const. amend. XIV; Michigan v. Summers, 452 U.S. 692, 694 n.2 (1981).

66 Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 20 (1968). 67 Bd. of Educ. of Indep. Sch. Dist. No. 92 v. Earls, 536 U.S. 822, 829 (2002); Nat’l

Treasury Empls. Union v. Von Rabb, 489 U.S. 656, 668 (1989). A special need arises when the government has a compelling need to discover or prevent “latent or hidden condi-tions.” Von Rabb, 489 U.S. at 668. Traditionally, the “special needs” exception requires a “fact-specific balancing of the intrusion . . . against the promotion of legitimate govern-mental interests.” Smook v. Minnehaha County, 457 F.3d 806, 810 (8th Cir. 2006) (ellipsis in original) (quoting Earls, 536 U.S. at 830).


the warrant and probable cause requirement impracticable.”68 The Court has used this “special needs” reasoning to uphold warrantless searches in a variety of safety and administrative contexts,69 including employee drug testing,70 border checkpoints,71 automobile junk-yards,72 and searches in hospitals73 and schools.74 Schools, however, present “special needs” examples that are particularly important to the juvenile context because they implicate the delicate balance between a child’s privacy rights and the government’s custodial interests in pro-tecting the school environment.75

Two landmark Supreme Court decisions concern searches of pub-lic school students and help to inform jurisprudence concerning juve-nile searches in a custodial setting.76 In 1985, in New Jersey v. T.L.O., the U.S. Supreme Court held the search of a student’s purse for cigarettes to be constitutional under a reasonableness test.77 In 2009, in Safford Unified School District No. 1 v. Redding, the Court applied the T.L.O. stan-dard and held that the strip search of a female student, aimed at dis-covering drugs, was impermissible.78 The Court’s reasoning in Safford may have important consequences for juveniles’ rights in a JDC con-text, especially since the Court has never directly addressed the applica-tion of the Fourth Amendment to strip searches of juveniles in state custody.79 In 2004 and 2006, two federal circuit courts of appeals con-

68 Earls, 536 U.S. at 829; Griffin v. Wisconsin, 483 U.S. 868, 872–74 (1987); see also An-

toine McNamara, Note, The “Special Needs” of Prison, Probation, and Parole, 82 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 209, 210–11 (2007) (arguing that, although the Court has held the warrant requirement to be impractical when a “special need” arises, it has generally required “special needs” searches to be based on reasonable, individualized suspicion or conducted as part of a neutral, nondiscretionary plan). Commentators note the confusing nature of the “special needs” exception. See, e.g., McNamara, supra, at 215–16 (noting that “special needs are awkwardly defined” and the “scope of the exception is not perfectly defined”); Smith, su-pra note 13, at 482–86 (discussing the confusion surrounding the “special needs” doctrine and arguing that this “special needs” exception was never intended to uphold strip searches in prisons in the absence of individualized suspicion).

69 McNamara, supra note 68, at 212–13. 70 Skinner v. Ry. Labor Execs.’ Ass’n, 489 U.S. 602, 623 (1989). 71 United States v. Martinez-Fuerte, 428 U.S. 543, 560–62, 562 n.15 (1976). 72 New York v. Burger, 482 U.S. 691, 693, 703 (1987). 73 O’Connor v. Ortega, 480 U.S. 709, 725 (1987). 74 Vernonia Sch. Dist. 47J v. Acton, 515 U.S. 646, 653 (1995). 75 See Earls, 536 U.S. at 829–30. 76 Safford Unified Sch. Dist. No. 1 v. Redding, 129 S. Ct. 2633, 2641–42 (2009); New

Jersey v. T.L.O., 469 U.S. 325, 341–42 (1985). 77 469 U.S. at 343, 347. 78 129 S. Ct. at 2642–43. 79 See Safford, 1295 S. Ct. at 2641–43; Smook, 457 F.3d at 2642–44, cert. denied, 549 U.S.

1317 (2007).


sidered the constitutionality of custodial strip searches, with largely un-favorable results for juveniles’ privacy rights.80 Section A of this Part discusses the two landmark school search cases in which the Supreme Court established the standard governing the constitutionality of school officials’ search of a student.81 Section B then examines recent decisions by U.S. courts of appeals that consid-ered, and upheld as constitutional, strip searches of juveniles in state custody.82 Finally, Section C of this Part discusses the myriad of stan-dards created by the Supreme Court to govern prison regulations, a variety which amplifies the difficulty of lower courts in applying a clear test to the constitutionality of custodial searches of juveniles.83

A. Supreme Court Jurisprudence on the Constitutionality of Public School Searches

1. New Jersey v. T.L.O.: The Supreme Court Sets the School Search Standard

In 1985, in New Jersey v. T.L.O., the U.S. Supreme Court set forth the standard for determining whether a strip search of a student by a school official violates the Fourth Amendment.84 The plaintiff in T.L.O. was a female student whose purse was searched after school officials found her smoking in a school restroom.85 When school officials searched the purse for cigarettes, they uncovered marijuana and other evidence sug-gesting that she had been dealing marijuana.86 Considering the consti-tutionality of the search, the Court held that public school officials are governed by the Fourth Amendment because they act as “representa-tives of the State, not merely as surrogates of the parents.”87 The Court, however, declined to hold school officials to the probable cause stan-dard and instead balanced the student’s privacy interests against the government’s need to enforce order.88 The Court determined that the search of the purse was reasonable because it was “justified at its incep-

80 Smook, 457 F.3d at 812; N.G. ex rel. S.C. v. Connecticut, 382 F.3d 225, 237 (2d Cir.

2004). 81 See infra notes 84–109 and accompanying text. 82 See infra notes 110–145 and accompanying text. 83 See infra notes 146–163 and accompanying text. 84 469 U.S. at 341. 85 Id. at 328. 86 Id. 87 Id. 336–37. 88 Id. at 340–41.


tion” and the method was “reasonably related to the objectives of the search and not excessively intrusive in light of the age and sex of the student and nature of the infraction.”89 The Court in T.L.O. justified its decision, in part, by distinguishing the school from the prison setting.90 Emphasizing that the prisoner and the schoolchild are “separated by the harsh facts of criminal conviction and incarceration,”91 the Court held that schoolchildren do maintain a legitimate expectation of privacy that must be weighed against the gov-ernment’s need for the search.92 Thus, the Court considered actual criminal conviction—not necessarily merely incarceration or detain-ment—to be a key distinguishing factor between the rights of individu-als in schools and prisons.93

2. Safford Unified School District No. 1 v. Redding: The Supreme Court Continues to Define the School Search Standard

In 2009, in Safford, the U.S. Supreme Court continued to define the constitutional standards for school searches by holding that the strip search of a middle school female for prescription drugs was highly intrusive and unjustified.94 Unlike the plaintiff in T.L.O., the plaintiff in Safford did not merely have her belongings or outer clothing searched; instead, she was strip searched following reports that she was distribut-ing painkiller pills to fellow students.95 In October 2003, assistant mid-dle school principal Kerry Wilson called thirteen-year-old Savana Red-

89 Id. at 341–42, 347. The Court has applied this standard to uphold drug testing, by a

urine sample, of student athletes as well as random drug tests for students involved in extra-curricular activities, emphasizing the minimal intrusion imposed upon students and schools’ need for the searches. See Earls, 536 U.S. at 830–34; Vernonia, 515 U.S. at 646, 664–65.

90 T.L.O., 469 U.S. 338–39. 91 Id. at 338 (quoting Ingraham v. Wright, 430 U.S. 651, 669 (1977)). In Ingraham v

Wright, the Supreme Court held that the Cruel and Unusual Punishment Clause of the Eighth Amendment was intended to protect individuals convicted of a crime and does not apply to disciplinary corporal punishment in public schools, because community supervi-sion of public schools sufficiently protects students against abuses. 430 U.S. at 669–70. The Court emphasized that labeling a convicted prisoner as a “criminal” deprives him of asso-ciational freedoms and that the Eighth Amendment only protects him from “unnecessary and wanton,” but not all, prison brutality. Id.

92 See T.L.O., 469 U.S. at 337, 338. 93 See id. at 338–39. “Incarceration” is defined as the “act or process of confining some-

one.” Black’s Law Dictionary, supra note 31, at 828. By contrast, “conviction” means that an individual has been proven guilty of a crime. Id. at 384.

94 129 S. Ct. at 2642–43. 95 Id. at 2638.


ding into his office.96 Wilson showed her painkiller pills, which were banned under school rules, and said he had received a report that she had distributed pills to other students.97 When Redding denied know-ing about the pills, Wilson searched her backpack.98 This search un-covered no contraband, so he sent her to the nurse’s office, where the nurse and an administrative assistant—both female—asked her to strip down to her bra and underwear. 99 They then asked her to pull out her underwear and pull her bra to the side and shake it, partially revealing her breasts and pelvic area.100 This search uncovered no contraband.101 In considering the constitutionality of the search, the Court em-phasized the “quantum leap” from a search of the “outer clothes and backpacks to exposure of intimate parts.”102 Thus, the Court held the search of Redding’s backpack was constitutional but the strip search was not.103 In holding the strip search to be unlawful, the Court applied the standard it set out in T.L.O. and determined that, although the in-dignity of the search did not make it unlawful, the intrusiveness of the search outweighed the degree of suspicion about drug possession.104 Most importantly, however, the Court in Safford recognized a child’s subjective expectations of privacy and refused to quibble over the precise details of the strip search.105 The two female officials who conducted the search, a school nurse and an administrative assistant, stated that they did not see anything when Redding pulled out her bra and underwear.106 Yet the Court refused to define a strip search and Fourth Amendment rights in a way that would “guarantee litigation about who was looking and how much was seen.”107 In doing so, the Court held that any search which moves beyond the outer clothing and belongings is categorically distinct

96 Id. Assistant principal Kerry Wilson first questioned Redding by showing her a day

planner containing knives, lighters, and a cigarette. Id. Redding told him that the planner—but none of the items inside—belonged to her, and that she had let her friend borrow the planner a few days ago. Id. Wilson then proceeded to question her about the pills. Id.

97 Id. The pills were four 400-mg prescription-strength ibuprofen pills and one over-the-counter 200-mg naproxen pill. Id.

98 Id. 99 Id. 100 Safford, 129 S. Ct. at 2638. 101 Id. 102 Id. at 2643. 103 Id. at 2641, 2642. 104 Id. at 2642. The Court also granted qualified immunity to the school officials who

performed the search. Id. at 2644. 105 Id. at 2641. 106 Safford, 129 S. Ct. at 2641. 107 Id.


and requires special justification.108 Adolescents are uniquely vulnerable to embarrassment from an intrusive strip search, the Court continued, and thus should be protected by a “subjective expectation of privacy” prohibiting uncomfortable and frightening searches, even when the breasts and pelvic area are not fully exposed.109

B. A Mixed Bag: Cases Determining the Constitutionality of Strip Searches of Juveniles in State Custody

Courts have not shown the same sympathy for juveniles subjected to strip searches in the custodial setting.110 State officials have been af-forded substantial discretion in conducting such searches, justified by the unique, heightened security risks that exist in prisons and deten-tion centers.111 Moreover, some federal circuit courts require reason-able suspicion of contraband possession to justify a strip search of an adult detained for a minor offense, but require a less stringent standard to justify strip searches of juveniles.112

108 See id. This conception of a “strip search” is consistent with how the phrase has been

defined by state statutes and circuit courts. See, e.g., Conn. Gen. Stat. Ann. § 54-33K (West 2009) (defining a strip search to include removal of some or all clothing); N.J. Stat. Ann. § 2A:161A-3 (West 2009) (defining a “strip search” as the removal of clothing to visually inspect an individual’s underwear, buttocks, anus, genitals, or breasts); Wood v. Hancock Cnty. Sheriff’s Dep’t, 354 F.3d 57, 63 n.10 (1st Cir. 2003) (“[A] strip search may occur even when an inmate is not fully disrobed.”). The Supreme Court’s definition of the term in Safford is also consistent with the definition in Black’s Law Dictionary, as a “search of a per-son conducted after that person’s clothes have been removed, the purpose usu. being to find any contraband the person might be hiding.” Black’s Law Dictionary, supra note 31, at 1469.

109 See Safford, 129 S. Ct. at 2641. 110 See Smook, 457 F.3d at 811–12; N.G., 382 F.3d at 237. 111 See N.G., 382 F.3d at 244–45 (Sotomayor, J., dissenting) (decrying the fact that the

searches of young girls were conducted without individualized suspicion by the prison officials); cf. Hudson v. Palmer, 468 U.S. 517, 526 (1984) (stating in the adult context that “[i]nmates have necessarily shown a lapse in ability to control and conform their behavior to the legitimate standards of society . . . . Within this volatile ‘community,’ prison adminis-trators are to take all necessary steps to ensure the safety of not only the prison staffs and administrative personnel, but also visitors.”).

112 Compare N.G., 382 F.3d at 245 (Sotomayor, J., dissenting) (arguing that the majority should have required prison officials to have individualized suspicion that juveniles pos-sessed contraband before strip searching them), with Miller v. Kennebec County, 219 F.3d 8, 12–13 (1st Cir. 2000) (requiring reasonable suspicion for a search after the defendant failed to pay a fine), and Masters v. Crouch, 872 F.2d 1248, 1253–55 (6th Cir. 1989) (requir-ing reasonable suspicion for a search after the defendant failed to appear for a motor ve-hicle violation).


1. N.G. ex rel. S.C. v. Connecticut: The Second Circuit Applies the “Special Needs” Test to JDC Strip Searches

The Supreme Court has never ruled on the constitutionality of strip searches of juveniles in state custody.113 Accordingly, lower courts currently apply different standards when considering such searches.114 Two recent decisions by U.S. courts of appeals, for example, have used the “special needs” test to permit strip searches in the absence of indi-vidualized suspicion.115 In 2004, in N.G. ex rel. S.C. v. Connecticut, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit considered the custodial strip searches of two juveniles.116 S.C., who had a history of mental ill-ness, was confined for failing to obey court orders requiring her to stay at home or at institutions in which she was placed.117 T.W., who had a history of truancy, was confined for violating court orders requiring her to attend seventh grade.118 Thus, the plaintiffs had not been convicted of any crime and were not awaiting trial.119 The court separately con-sidered the constitutionality of the initial searches of the juveniles (upon intake to the facility) and the subsequent searches conducted after the youths were transferred to different facilities.120 The Second Circuit reached its decision by applying the “special needs” test and by distinguishing the JDC and school settings.121 In ap-plying the “special needs” test, the court upheld the initial intake searches—conducted when the juvenile-plaintiffs were admitted to the juvenile facility—but held the subsequent searches (conducted after transfer from one facility to another) to be unconstitutional.122 Al-though the court recognized the serious psychological impact of strip searches on juveniles,123 it supported its holding by distinguishing the JDC setting from the school context.124 In making this distinction, the court reasoned that “[t]he State has a more pervasive responsibility for

113 See Smook, 457 F.3d 806, cert. denied, 549 U.S. at 1317. 114 Compare N.G., 382 F.3d at 236 (relying on the “special needs” standard set forth in

Earls, 536 U.S. at 829), with Justice v. City of Peachtree, 961 F.2d 188, 191–93 (11th Cir. 1992) (applying a balancing test to hold detained juveniles to the same “reasonableness” standard as adults).

115 See Smook, 457 F.3d at 810; N.G., 382 F.3d at 236–37. 116 382 F.3d at 226. 117 Id. at 228. 118 Id. at 229. 119 Id. at 235. 120 Id. at 233. 121 See id. at 236–38. 122 N.G., 382 F.3d at 237, 238. 123 Id. at 232. 124 Id. at 236.


children in detention centers,” where children spend twenty-four hours each day, than it does in schools, where the state only has custody for a few hours.125 Thus, the court held that the government’s legitimate need to discover contraband, both to protect other inmates and to pre-vent self-mutilation, outweighed the juveniles’ privacy interests.126 Then-Judge Sotomayor’s127 dissenting opinion in N.G., however, revealed greater sympathy for the young girls’ privacy interests.128 Judge Sotomayor agreed that the court had applied the correct standard but would have held both the intake searches and the subsequent searches to be unlawful.129 She stated that because there was no individualized suspicion that these particular adolescents possessed contraband, the state had failed to show that the government interests of deterring con-traband and detecting child abuse outweighed the juveniles’ privacy interests.130 Importantly, Judge Sotomayor emphasized that no court has ever upheld a strip search, outside the prison context, in the absence of particularized suspicion.131

2. Smook v. Minnehaha County: The Eighth Circuit Applies the “Special Needs” Test to JDC Strip Searches

The Eighth Circuit has also curtailed the Fourth Amendment rights of detained juveniles in the last decade.132 In 2006, in Smook v. Minne-haha County, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit upheld the strip search of a juvenile who was arrested and brought to a detention facility for violating local curfew laws.133 There, when admitted to the juvenile facility, the juvenile plaintiff, Jodi Smook, was required to re-move all clothing except her underwear in the presence of a staff mem-ber.134 As did the Second Circuit in N.G., the Eighth Circuit applied the

125 Id. 126 Id. at 236, 237. 127 Justice Sonia Sotomayor served as a judge on the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Sec-

ond Circuit from 1998 to 2009. Biographies of Current Justices of the Supreme Court, Supreme Court of the United States, http://www.supremecourt.gov/about/biographies.aspx (last visited Jan. 25, 2011).

128 N.G., 382 F.3d at 239, 244–45 (Sotomayor, J., dissenting). 129 Id. at 238. 130 Id. at 242–45. Moreover, Sotomayor argued that the majority did not rely enough

on the Eleventh Circuit’s opinion in Peachtree, 961 F.3d at 193, which she felt was “the most closely analogous case” that the majority had cited. Id. at 241.

131 Id. at 241. 132 See Smook, 457 F.3d at 812. 133 Id. at 808, 812. 134 Id. at 808–09.


“special needs” balancing test and upheld the strip search.135 Using N.G. as a barometer of reasonableness, the Eighth Circuit reasoned that Smook’s constitutional claim was weaker than the juveniles’ claims in N.G. because Smook was not required to fully strip.136 A key factor in the court’s decision was that she was allowed to remain in her underwear— the court likened this to her being “at the beach in a swimsuit.”137

3. Justice v. City of Peachtree: The Eleventh Circuit Applies a Balancing Test to Custodial Strip Searches

Prior to N.G. and Smook, in the 1992 case of Justice v. City of Peach-tree, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit also decided a custodial strip search case by adopting a balancing test, established by the Supreme Court, which requires particularized suspicion of contra-band possession before conducting a strip search.138 Although the search at issue had occurred in a police station, not a JDC, it was closely analogous to a JDC search because the plaintiff was in state custody and was searched by state law enforcement officials.139 The Eleventh Circuit used this Supreme Court balancing test to uphold the strip searches of two juveniles.140 The juveniles in Peachtree were a male and female teen-ager, James Justice and Lazena Simon, whom the police found sitting inside a parked car in a church parking lot during school hours.141 The officers arrested the teenagers for loitering and truancy and subjected Simon to a strip search at the police station, but the search uncovered no contraband.142 In considering the constitutionality of the search, the Eleventh Circuit cited the balancing test that the U.S. Supreme Court had ap-plied in Bell v. Wolfish when it considered the strip searches of individu-als awaiting trial, sentencing, or transportation to federal prisons.143 In Bell, the Court balanced the state’s compelling need for the searches against the invasion of personal rights, considering the scope and manner of the intrusion, the place where the search is conducted, and

135 Id. at 810–12. 136 Id. at 811. Smook was taken to a private restroom and was directed by a female staff

member to remove all clothing except her undergarments. Id. 137 Id. 138 Peachtree, 961 F.2d at 191–92, 194. 139 See id. at 189–90. 140 Id. at 194. 141 Id. at 189. 142 Id. at 190. 143 Id. at 191.


the justification for conducting it.144 Applying this test, the court in Peachtree held the strip search of the juvenile to be reasonable because the officers had a “particularized and objective basis,” given the totality of circumstances, to believe Simon was hiding contraband.145

C. The Myriad of Supreme Court Standards Concerning the Constitutionality of Prison Regulations

A major concern underscored by cases like Smook and N.G. is the lack of a clear standard governing strip searches of juveniles in JDCs.146 Although T.L.O. and Safford provide some guidance to courts deciding school search cases, the lack of Supreme Court precedent on juvenile searches in state custody has resulted in confusion among circuit courts in determining the relevant standard.147 Similarly, this Section demon-strates that the Supreme Court has used a variety of frameworks to con-sider searches of adults in custody, providing limited guidance to lower courts in considering both adult prison searches and JDC searches.148

144 See Peachtree, 961 F.2d at 192 (citing Bell v. Wolfish, 441 U.S. 520, 559(1979)). 145 Id. The court held that the officers had a “particularized and objective basis” for the

search for the following reasons:

(1) the officers suspected that drinking and drug activity regularly occurred in the area in which they arrested the juveniles; (2) [an officer] saw Justice hand something to Simon; (3) Simon appeared extremely nervous; (4) [one of the officers] thought that females were more likely than males to conceal contraband on their persons; (5) Simon had a friend whose mother sus-pected her daughter of using drugs; and (6) [one officer] suspected that Si-mon might have contraband on her person.

Id. at 194. 146 See McNamara, supra note 68, at 211 (asserting that courts have “created a patch-

work of modified balancing tests and categorical rules” when considering prison cases). 147 Compare Peachtree, 961 F.2d at 193 (holding that law enforcement officers may “strip

search a juvenile in custody, even for a minor offense, based upon reasonable suspicion that the juvenile is concealing weapons or contraband”), and N.G., 382 F.3d at 241 (So-tomayor, J., dissenting) (asserting that strip searches should not be conducted in the ab-sence of reasonable suspicion), with N.G., 382 F.3d at 230–38 (majority opinion) (uphold-ing the strip search of a juvenile even in the absence of reasonable suspicion); see also McNamara, supra note 68, at 211 (asserting that courts have created a “patchwork of modi-fied balancing tests and categorical rules,” rather than analyzing penal cases under a con-sistent framework, and arguing that courts should be consistent by analyzing all prison cases under a “special needs” standard); supra notes 84–109 and accompanying text.

148 See infra notes 149–163 and accompanying text.


1. Bell v. Wolfish: The Supreme Court Establishes a Balancing Test to Evaluate Prison Searches

In 1979, the U.S. Supreme Court set forth a balancing test in Bell v. Wolfish, where it considered the constitutionality of visual body cavity searches of adults at a pretrial detention center after contact visits.149 In determining the reasonableness of the search, the Court balanced the state’s compelling need for the searches against the invasion of personal rights, considering the scope and manner of the intrusion, the place where the search was conducted, and the justification for conducting it.150 The Court concluded that, in some instances, strip searches could be conducted on a finding of less than probable cause without violating the Fourth Amendment.151

2. Hudson v. Palmer: The Supreme Court Establishes a Categorical Search Rule to Evaluate Prison Searches

In 1984, in Hudson v. Palmer, the Court established a new categori-cal rule allowing random searches of prison cells.152 The Court deter-mined that such searches are so imperative to institutional security that the government’s need for such searches outweighs a prisoner’s privacy rights.153 The Court reasoned that the government must manage ex-tremely serious hazards in prisons, and that random searches are essen-tial to mitigating the threat of drugs, weapons, and other contraband.154

3. Turner v. Safley: The Supreme Court Establishes a Four-Factor Test to Evaluate for Prison Searches

Finally, in 1987, in Turner v. Safley, the U.S. Supreme Court estab-lished another new, four-factor test to determine the constitutionality of prison regulations.155 Under the Turner test, a prison regulation that limits a prisoner’s constitutional rights is valid if it is “reasonably related to legitimate penological interests.”156 The Court established four fac-

149 441 U.S. at 559. Contact visits are “visits that permit inmates to touch their visitors.”

Miller v. Carson, 563 F.2d 741, 748 (1977). Such visits “occur in a glass-enclosed room and are continuously monitored by corrections officers.” Bell, 441 U.S. at 578.

150 Bell, 441 U.S. at 559. 151 Id. at 560. 152 See Hudson, 468 U.S. at 529–30; McNamara, supra note 68, at 211. 153 Hudson, 468 U.S. at 528–30. 154 See id. at 527. 155 482 U.S. 78, 89–90 (1987). 156 Id. at 89.


tors relevant to judging reasonableness: (1) whether there is a “valid, rational connection” between the regulation and a legitimate, neutral governmental interest; (2) whether alternative means of exercising the asserted right remain open to inmates; (3) whether accommodation of the asserted right will have an impact on prison staff, inmates’ liberty, and the allocation of limited prison resources; and (4) whether the reg-ulation represents an “‘exaggerated response’ to prison concerns.”157 Despite their differences, both Bell and Turner are very deferential to prison officials’ judgment.158 Lower courts are apparently unclear about the role Turner plays in prison cases, including whether Turner now replaces Bell, and thus have applied highly varied tests.159 Although the Supreme Court suggested that Turner applies to all constitutional challenges in prison, it has nev-er applied Turner’s factors to a Fourth Amendment case.160 Lower courts’ uncertainty about what standard applies to searches of adult inmates—particularly whether and how the Turner standard affects the analysis in Bell—makes it more difficult for these courts to decide what standard to apply when considering custodial strip searches of juve-niles.161 Indeed, the court in N.G. questioned whether it should apply the Turner standard, although ultimately it relied on the “special needs” test instead.162 Thus, these prison search cases do not clearly inform the standard which should govern searches of juveniles in state custody, although—as described below—it is questionable whether any type of prison standard should be applied to the unique context of a JDC.163

III. Applying Safford to the Custodial Setting: The Case for Heightened Constitutional Protections for Youths in JDCs

Courts clearly need an articulated constitutional standard of what Fourth Amendment protections apply to juveniles in state custody.164 The U.S. Supreme Court’s decisions in school search cases inform a

157 Id. at 89–90. 158 See id. at 89; Bell, 441 U.S. at 560. 159 See McNamara, supra note 68, at 229. McNamara argues that the Turner factors do

not fit well within Fourth Amendment doctrine because they do not provide any means to consider the costs of a search—namely, its intrusiveness—and because they devalue the humanity of prison inmates. See id. at 230, 232.

160 See id. at 229. 161 See N.G., 382 F.3d at 235–36; McNamara, supra note 68, at 211, 229–32. 162 N.G., 382 F.3d at 235, 236. 163 See infra notes 194–215 and accompanying text. 164 See Smook v. Minnehaha County, 457 F.3d 808, 812 (8th Cir. 2006); N.G. ex rel. S.C.

v. Connecticut, 382 F.3d 225, 236–37 (2d Cir. 2004); McNamara, supra note 68, at 229.


new analysis of this constitutional issue and should motivate lower courts to protect the delicate privacy interests of adolescents.165 Indeed, a recent federal district court case adopts reasoning from Safford and suggests courts’ willingness to heighten the constitutional standard for JDC strip searches.166 Section A of this Part addresses why schools and JDCs are sufficiently similar environments, such that the reasoning from the major school search cases is relevant to custodial searches in JDCs.167 Section B considers how the U.S. Supreme Court’s 2009 opin-ion in Safford Unified School District v. Redding informs the analysis of cases concerning strip searches in JDCs.168 Finally, Section C of this Part proposes a two-tiered system of review for JDC strip searches, based on Safford, under which juveniles detained for minor offenses would be afforded greater Fourth Amendment protection than many lower courts have provided.169

A. Key Similarities Between Schools and Juvenile Detention Centers for the Purposes of a Strip Search Analysis

The search standard established by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1985 in New Jersey v. T.L.O.—recently applied in Safford—did not explic-itly contemplate the JDC context.170 The Court in Safford, however, opened the door to the idea that T.L.O. can be applied more broadly to JDC strip search cases like N.G. ex rel. v. Connecticut—decided in 2004 by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit—and Smook v. Minne-haha County, decided in 2006 by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit.171 Because the Court in Safford limited its discussion to the school context, it is necessary to delineate the common characteris-tics of schools and JDCs that allow a similar standard to be applied to strip searches in both settings.172 The Second Circuit in N.G. reasoned that the legality of searches in schools cannot be compared to searches in JDCs because these set-tings are too dissimilar.173 One reason to distinguish these settings,

165See Safford Unified Sch. Dist. No. 1 v. Redding, 129 S. Ct. 2633, 2641–42 (2009);

New Jersey v. T.L.O., 469 U.S. 325, 341–46 (1985). 166 See Mashburn v. Yamhill County, 698 F. Supp. 2d 1233, 1237–38, 1244 (D. Or. 2010). 167 See infra notes 170–219 and accompanying text. 168 See infra notes 220–286 and accompanying text. 169 See infra notes 287–307 and accompanying text. 170 See Safford, 129 S. Ct. at 2641–43; T.L.O., 469 U.S. at 341–42. 171 See Safford, 129 S. Ct. at 2641–43; T.L.O., 469 U.S. at 341–42. See generally Smook, 457

F.3d 806; N.G., 382 F. 3d 225. 172 See Safford, 129 S. Ct. at 2641–42; infra notes 173–219 and accompanying text. 173 See N.G., 382 F.3d at 235.


which aligns with the concept of parens patriae, is that the state has a more pervasive responsibility for youths in JDCs because children are housed there twenty-four hours a day.174 By contrast, the state only has custody of schoolchildren for part of the day.175 A second ground for distinguishing these two settings is the higher security concerns that exist in JDCs compared with schools.176 The Second Circuit in N.G. equated the risks in prisons and JDCs, stating that “contraband such as a knife or drugs can pose a hazard to the security of an institution and the safety of inmates whether the institution houses adults convicted of crimes or juveniles in detention centers.”177 These differences, although not wholly inaccurate, do not merit a categorical distinction between schools and JDCs when considering strip searches.178 First, the fact that the state has more responsibility for supervising juveniles in JDCs than it does in schools does not justify searching juveniles absent suspicion that they possess drugs and con-traband.179 One flaw of the parens patriae doctrine is its assumption that minors’ incompetence diminishes their interest in freedom from state restraint.180 This assumption is erroneous because juveniles maintain due process rights despite their status as minors, and because such an assumption can result in serious breaches of basic human privacy inter-ests that may offset the positive benefits of the state's parens patriae care-taking role.181 Secondly, although contraband poses a similar hazard to JDCs and prisons, this does not imply that each individual who enters or resides in a JDC poses an equivalent risk, or that juveniles arrested for minor crimes pose an equivalent risk to prisoners with criminal convictions.182 JDCs, however, are more comparable to schools—and more distin-guishable from prisons—than appears at first blush for the purposes of examining the constitutionality of strip searches.183 First, the individu-

174 See id. at 236. 175 See id. 176 See id. at 235. 177 See id. 178 See infra notes 179–219 and accompanying text. 179 See N.G., 382 F.3d at 236. 180 Worrell, supra note 34, at 175, 191 (“In order to prevent the ingenuous use of the

‘best interests of the child’ rationale, the Juvenile Court should abandon the parens patriae justifications for pretrial detention and adopt an approach that keeps due process and caretaking concerns separate.”).

181 See id. 182 Contra N.G., 382 F.3d at 235. 183 See infra notes 184–197 and accompanying text.


als in both schools and JDCs are youths.184 Scientific and psychological research indicates that a traumatic strip search can have a lifelong im-pact on an adolescent’s developing mind.185 Even without the added trauma of a strip search, the incarceration of youth in crowded juvenile facilities can lead to psychiatric problems, increased suicidal tenden-cies, aggressive adult behavior, and poor development of social skills, compared with youth who remain in the community.186 The trauma of a strip search would likely exacerbate the negative effects of youth in-carceration.187 Research has shown that the part of the brain responsi-ble for rational decision making does not develop fully until an indi-vidual reaches his or her mid-twenties.188 Moreover, childhood trauma increases the likelihood of lifelong personality disorders, conduct dis-orders, depression, anxiety, learning disabilities, and school-related problems.189

Many courts, bolstered by such psychological research, have recog-nized that adolescents are distinctly vulnerable to the humiliation and threat posed by a strip search.190 In Safford, the Supreme Court empha-sized the “adolescent vulnerability” that intensifies the intrusiveness of a strip search.191 Similarly, in N.G., the Second Circuit noted that a strip search would likely have a more severe adverse effect on a child than an adult, and that youth are particularly susceptible to psychological trau-ma.192 Moreover, in 1985, in John Does 1–100 v. Boyd, the U.S. District Court for the District of Minnesota wrote that a strip search of one de-tained for a minor offense—as opposed to a serious offense—is more frightening because it likely will take the individual by surprise.193 Secondly, JDCs are more similar to schools, and more distinct from prisons, in terms of the reasons for which juveniles in JDCs are searched.194 Many of these reasons are quite different from the offenses

184 See Safford, 129 S. Ct. at 2641–42; N.G., 382 F.3d at 232. 185 See Erica J. Adams, Justice Policy Inst., Healing Invisible Wounds: Why Invest-

ing in Trauma-Informed Care for Children Makes Sense 2 (2010), available at http:// www.justicepolicy.org/images/upload/10-07_REP_HealingInvisibleWounds_JJ-PS.pdf.

186 See id. 187 See id. 188 Id. 189 Id. 190 See Safford, 129 S. Ct. at 2641–42; N.G., 382 F.3d at 232. 191 129 S. Ct. at 2641. 192 382 F.3d at 232. 193 See 613 F. Supp. 1514, 1522 (D. Minn. 1985). 194 See Safford, 129 S. Ct. at 2638 (searching a student based on an accusation that she

brought painkiller drugs to school); Smook, 457 F.3d at 808 (searching a student because she violated local curfew laws).


that result in criminal conviction in an adult court, and more similar to the “minor” offenses committed by juveniles in schools.195 As the Court noted in T.L.O., the prisoner and the schoolchild are “separated by the harsh facts of criminal conviction and incarceration,”196 suggesting that the strip search standard for juveniles in JDCs should fall somewhere in between the standards applied to prisoners and schoolchildren.197 In contrast to prison inmates, many juveniles who enter detention centers have not been criminally convicted.198 There are two distinct kinds of juvenile cases that may lead to detention.199 First, status offense cases involve offenses which, if committed by an adult, would not be considered a crime—such as curfew violations, running away, underage drinking, and truancy.200 Second, juvenile delinquency cases are those which would be tried in criminal court had the underlying offense been committed by an adult.201 Most juveniles, however, are not de-tained in JDCs for violent, serious offenses like rape and murder.202 Sta-tistics show, for example, that “[i]n 2005, only about 3% of cases heard in juvenile court involved violent offenses like robbery, rape, murder, and aggravated assault.”203 By contrast, approximately half of all juve-nile arrests are the result of theft, simple assault, drug abuse, disorderly conduct, and curfew violations.204 The courts in N.G. and Smook reiterated the reasons for which ju-veniles are detained, many of which can be considered “minor” of-fenses.205 The Second Circuit in N.G. acknowledged that, although ju-veniles are detained while awaiting trial for serious offenses, they are also detained for less serious offenses and status offenses.206 More ex-plicitly, the Eighth Circuit in Smook understood “minor offenses” to in-clude petty theft, liquor violations, being a runaway, and curfew viola-

195 See T.L.O., 469 U.S. at 338–39; supra notes 39–41 and accompanying text ( juveniles

who commit serious crimes may be automatically transferred to adult court). 196 See 469 U.S. at 338 (quoting Ingraham v. Wright, 430 U.S. 651, 669 (1977)). 197 See id. 198 See, e.g., N.G., 382 F.3d at 235. 199 Kathleen Michon, Juvenile Court: An Overview, NOLO, http://www.nolo.com/legal-

encyclopedia/article-32222.html (last visited Jan. 25, 2011). 200 Id. 201 Id. 202 See id. 203 Id. It should be noted, however, that juveniles who commit such violent offenses may

have been waived to criminal court and are not included in this statistic. See supra notes 39–41 and accompanying text.

204 Michon, supra note 199. 205 See Smook, 457 F.3d at 808–09; N.G., 382 F.3d at 227. 206 See id.; Michon, supra note 199.


tions, and understood “non-felony offenses” to include other non-violent offenses, such as truancy, contempt of court, disturbance of school, and damage to property.207 For example, in Smook, the plaintiff had been temporarily detained for violating local curfew laws.208 Simi-larly, in N.G., the plaintiffs had been detained for disobeying court or-ders to attend seventh grade and to not run away from home.209 Such “minor” and “non-felony” offenses are strikingly different in nature from the types of crimes that result in criminal conviction in adult court, and are more similar to the types of violations—like Savana Redding’s al-leged offense—that would occur in a school setting.210 This reasoning is consistent with then-Judge Sotomayor’s discus-sion in her dissenting opinion in N.G. of Fourth Amendment rights in prisons, JDCs, and schools.211 Like the Court in T.L.O., Judge So-tomayor recognized that juveniles cannot so easily be compared to prison inmates—whom she believes are the only individuals who may be strip searched without reasonable, individualized suspicion.212 Rea-soning that the strip searches of both juveniles in N.G. were unconstitu-tional, Judge Sotomayor stated:

[T]o hold that the strip searches of the two girls in the instant appeal were reasonable is equivalent to saying that these girls are entitled to the same level of Fourth Amendment protec-tion as prison inmates held on felony charges, and to decid-edly less protection than people crossing the border, jail inmates detained on misdemeanor charges, prison corrections officers, or students in public school.213

Although the majority in N.G. also suggested that prisons and JDCs are distinct, it gave less weight to this distinction and upheld the searches under the “special needs” test.214 By contrast, Judge Sotomayor’s dissent

207 457 F.3d at 808–09. 208 Id. at 808. 209 382 F.3d at 228–29. 210 See Safford, 129 S. Ct. at 2638; T.L.O., 469 U.S. at 338–39. 211 382 F.3d at 241 (Sotomayor, J., dissenting). 212 See id. 213 Id. (emphasis added). 214 Id. at 235–37 (majority opinion). The majority in N.G. only used the distinction be-

tween prisons and JDCs to rule out the application of the Turner “penological interests” standard to the juvenile custodial context. Id. at 235–36. As the Court stated:

No doubt a state has a legitimate interest in confining such juveniles in some circumstances, but it does not follow that by placing them in an institution where the state might be entitled, under Turner, to conduct strip searches of


suggested that juveniles detained on minor charges deserve more Fourth Amendment protection than prison inmates and possibly as much protection as public school children.215 A recent district court case properly placed the JDC strip search standard in relation to the standards applied in public schools and in adult prisons.216 In its 2010 opinion in Mashburn v. Yamhill County, the U.S. District Court for the District of Oregon wrote that, “On the con-stitutional spectrum, the standard for analyzing strip searches of chil-dren at the [detention facility] falls somewhere between the standards that govern searches of adult prison inmates and searches of school children.”217 The district court recognized the importance of compro-mising between the need to protect children (a concern present in the school) and the need for institutional security (a concern present in a prison), and thus used “the unique concerns of children and of the government, which have analogies in both prisons and schools,” to frame the analysis.218 The district court thus suggested the importance of the school-prison compromise that this Note aims to illuminate.219

B. Applying Safford to the JDC Context

The standard for determining the constitutionality of the search of a student by school officials, set forth in T.L.O. and applied in Safford, informs the standard that can be applied to JDC strip searches.220 The reasonableness standard in T.L.O. provides that the search must be “reasonably related in scope to the circumstances which justified the interference in the first place.”221 The scope is constitutional where it is “not excessively intrusive in light of the age and sex of the student and the nature of the infraction.”222 This type of reasonableness test is dif-

those convicted of adult-type crimes, a state may invoke Turner to justify strip searches of runaways and truants.

Id. at 235. The Court then, however, proceeded to examine and uphold the searches using the “special needs” justification. Id. at 236–37.

215 See id. at 241 (Sotomayor, J., dissenting). 216 See Mashburn, 698 F. Supp. 2d at 1238–39. 217 Id. at 1238. 218 Id. at 1238–39. 219 See id. 220 See Safford, 129 S. Ct. at 2641–42; T.L.O., 469 U.S. at 341–42. 221 T.L.O., 469 U.S. at 341. 222 Id. at 342.


ferent from the standards applied by lower courts to custodial strip searches of juveniles.223 When considering the strip searches of juveniles in custody, lower courts have often applied some form of balancing test.224 In N.G., for example, the Second Circuit applied the “special needs” test, which re-quires a fact-specific balancing of the intrusion of the search against the legitimate government interest at stake.225 There, the court upheld the intake searches because it determined that the government’s legitimate need to discover contraband, both to protect other inmates and to pre-vent self-mutilation, outweighed the juveniles’ privacy rights.226 Simi-larly, in Smook, the Eighth Circuit applied the “special needs” balancing test and upheld the intake strip search of the juvenile plaintiff.227 The Eighth Circuit held that the state’s in loco parentis need to protect juve-niles outweighed the invasiveness of the search.228 Finally, in 1992, in Justice v. City of Peachtree, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Cir-cuit applied the balancing test that the Supreme Court had applied in Bell v. Wolfish, which balances the government’s need for a search against the invasion of personal rights.229 The approach in Peachtree comes close to the T.L.O. and Safford standard because it considers whether, given the totality of the circumstances, there is a “particular-ized and objective basis” —i.e., individualized suspicion—that the par-ticular juvenile is hiding contraband.230 These types of balancing tests, which weigh a state’s interests against a juvenile’s privacy rights, present several concerns.231 The pri-mary concern lies with how courts have weighed a juvenile’s privacy rights—although the government interests which courts have proffered are also questionable.232 First, such a balancing test does not explicitly force courts to consider any of the following: (1) the juvenile’s age; (2) his or her gender; or (3) the offense for which he or she was de-tained.233 Second, in applying this balancing test, courts have too nar-

223 Compare Safford, 129 S. Ct. at 2641–42, and T.L.O., 469 U.S. at 341–42, with Smook,

457 F.3d at 811–12, and N.G. 382 F.3d at 236–37. 224 See Smook, 457 F.3d at 812; N.G., 382 F.3d at 237. 225 382 F.3d at 236–37. 226 Id. 227 457 F.3d at 810–12. 228 Id. at 812. 229 Peachtree, 961 F.2d at 191 (citing Bell v. Wolfish, 441 U.S. 520, 559 (1979)). 230 Id. at 194. 231 See infra notes 232–235 and accompanying text. 232 See Smook, 457 F.3d at 810–12; Peachtree, 961 F.2d at 191. 233 See Safford, 129 S. Ct. at 2642 (citing T.L.O., 469 U.S. at 342).


rowly defined an “intrusive” strip search and have thus given too little weight to the seriousness of such a search.234 The T.L.O. standard—and particularly its application to the strip search in Safford—not only sug-gests the importance of age, gender, and offense in considering the constitutionality of a strip search, but also gives a new meaning to the word “intrusive.”235 As opposed to a balancing test, this Note proposes a more clear-cut, two-tiered standard of review based on the level of the alleged ju-venile offense.236 Although such a two-tiered test has not been applied in the JDC setting, Mashburn suggests the appropriateness of a standard “based solely on categories of charged conduct” due to the difficulty of ascertaining reliable facts about each juvenile’s background that might otherwise inform the need to search him or her upon admission to the facility.237

1. Age, Gender, and Level of Offense

The search standards applied in the school context by the Su-preme Court in T.L.O. and Safford explicitly force courts to consider “the age and sex of the student and the nature of the infraction.”238 In considering the constitutionality of strip searches of juveniles in state custody, lower courts should more strongly weigh these three factors.239 Lower courts have acknowledged that the age and gender of an individ-ual affects the psychological and emotional impact of a strip search.240 The T.L.O. standard, however, forces courts explicitly to consider these two factors, and Safford reinforces their importance.241

234 See N.G., 382 F.3d at 244–45 (Sotomayor, J., dissenting). 235 See Safford, 129 S. Ct. at 2641 (“[W]e would not define strip search and its Fourth

Amendment consequences in a way that would guarantee litigation about who was looking and how much was seen.”); N.G., 382 F.3d at 239 (Sotomayor, J., dissenting) (discussing the "uniquely invasive and upsetting nature of strip searches," particularly for young girls who "have been victims of abuse or neglect, and may be more vulnerable mentally and emotionally than other youths their age.").

236 See infra notes 287–305 and accompanying text. 237 See 698 F. Supp. at 1240. 238 T.L.O., 469 U.S. at 342; accord Safford, 129 S. Ct. at 2642. 239 See Safford, 129 S. Ct. at 2642; T.L.O., 469 U.S. at 342. 240 See N.G., 382 F.3d at 232. 241 See Safford, 129 S. Ct. at 2641, 2642 (asserting that “adolescent vulnerability intensi-

fies the patent intrusiveness of the exposure” and that “a search down to the body of an adolescent requires some justification in suspected facts”); T.L.O., 469 U.S. at 342. A com-ment from Justice Ginsburg captured the Court’s concern about age and gender:

I think it makes people stop and think, [m]aybe a 13-year-old girl is different from a 13-year-old boy in terms of how humiliating it is to be seen undressed.


The “nature of the infraction” —how serious of an offense a juve-nile has committed or has been accused of committing—should also play a significant role in the Fourth Amendment protection he or she receives.242 The Court in Safford stated that Savana Redding was sub-jected to a full strip search because the assistant principal believed she possessed prescription strength ibuprofen and over-the-counter na-proxen—the equivalent of two Advil or one Aleve.243 Although possess-ing these painkillers violated school policy, the Court stated that the principal “must have been aware of the nature and limited threat of the specific drugs he was searching for” and “had no reason to suspect that large amounts of drugs were being passed around.”244 As discussed in Section A, juveniles are often detained in JDCs for low-level offenses, and have not been convicted of high-level criminal offenses that more reasonably warrant reduced Fourth Amendment protection.245 For example, Jodi Smook was fully strip searched after being detained in a JDC for violating local curfew laws.246 The juvenile plaintiffs in N.G. had been detained for disobeying court orders to at-tend seventh grade and to not run away from home.247 Consistent with the Court’s reasoning in Safford, the courts in N.G. and Smook should have afforded more importance to the relatively nonthreatening nature of the offenses for which the juveniles were detained before deciding that the highly invasive strip searches were warranted.248 The opinion in Mashburn by the federal district court in Oregon provides one example of how the standard set forth in T.L.O. and Saf-ford could be applied to the JDC setting.249 The plaintiffs in Mashburn

I think many of [the male justices] first thought of their own reaction. It came out in various questions. You change your clothes in the gym, what’s the big deal?

The Supreme Court 2008—Leading Cases, supra note 14, at 172 (citing Emily Bazelon, The Place of Women on the Court, N.Y. Times, July 12, 2009, § 6 (Magazine), at 22) The new pres-ence on the Court of Justice Sonia Sotomayor, the second female and the only dissenter in N.G., may heighten the Court’s interest in protecting vulnerable adolescent girls. See N.G., 382 F.3d at 238–45 (Sotomayor, J., dissenting).

242 See Safford, 129 S. Ct. at 2642. 243 Id. 244 Id. 245 See Smook, 457 F.3d at 808; N.G., 382 F.3d at 227–29; supra notes 194–204 and ac-

companying text. 246 Smook, 457 F.3d at 808. 247 382 F.3d at 228, 229. 248 Compare Safford, 129 S. Ct. at 2641–42, and T.L.O., 469 U.S. at 341–42, with Smook,

457 F.3d at 811–12, and N.G. 382 F.3d at 236–37. 249 See 698 F. Supp. 2d at 1237–38.


were minors who were strip searched upon entry into a JDC, which had a policy permitting strip searches of all juveniles upon admission to the center.250 In determining the constitutionality of this policy, the Mash-burn court cited the test applied by the U.S. Supreme Court in T.L.O. and Safford, which states that the scope of the search must not be ‘‘ex-cessively intrusive in light of the age and sex of the student and the na-ture of the infraction.’’251 The court held that the defendants pre-sented no “evidence to suggest that the scope of the . . . strip search policy is ‘not excessively intrusive in light of the age and sex of the [ju-venile detainee] and the nature of the infraction,’ or, in our case, the nature of the interest justifying the search.”252 The court reasoned that the JDC’s search policy was unreasonable in permitting the same full strip search—including inspection of the breasts or scrotum—of juve-niles who had been admitted for very different offenses, from commit-ting a felony to failing to obey a court order.253 Mashburn thus lends support to the more particularized strip search standard suggested in this Note as a means of “bridging the gap” between the standards ap-plied in schools and JDCs.254

2. A Broader Definition of “Intrusive”

The Supreme Court’s opinion in Safford demonstrates a stronger recognition of juveniles’ privacy interests than many lower courts have recognized.255 The Court’s emphasis on a juvenile’s subjective experi-ence of privacy is extremely important to how it characterized the in-trusiveness of a strip search.256 The Court reasoned that a strip search is “categorically distinct” and refused to split hairs over the precise nature of the search.257 Acknowledging adolescent vulnerability, the Court dis-tinguished the exposure involved in a strip search from the nudity in-volved in changing for gym.258 Moreover, the Court declined to equivo-cate over “who was looking and how much was seen.”259 Thus, the Court determined that the strip search of Redding was highly intrusive

250 Id. at 1235–36, 1240. 251 Id. 252 Id. at 1244. 253 See id. at 1235–36, 1239. 254 See id. at 1244. 255 See 129 S. Ct. at 2641–42. 256 Id. at 2641. 257 Id. 258 Id. at 2642. 259 Id. at 2641.


even though the search was conducted by two females in the privacy of a school nurse’s office, Redding remained in her underwear, and the school officials allegedly did not see her private parts.260 The Court’s strong recognition of adolescent vulnerability in Saf-ford contrasts sharply with how lower courts have characterized the in-trusiveness of a strip

CUSTODIAL STRIP SEARCHES OF JUVENILES: HOW ......F.3d at 233. 20 See N.G., 382 F.3d at 238, 244–45...

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Transcript of CUSTODIAL STRIP SEARCHES OF JUVENILES: HOW ......F.3d at 233. 20 See N.G., 382 F.3d at 238, 244–45...