CROSS-CULTURAL ETHNOBOTANICAL EXPLORATION OF...
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NeBIO I www.nebio.in I March 2019 I 10(1): 35-46
Received 3 June 2018 I Accepted 13 March 2019 I Published online 31 March 2019
Citation: Teron. 2019. Cross-cultural ethnobotanical exploration of diversity and utilization of medicinal plants in Karbi Anglong district, Assam,
Northeast India. NeBIO 10(1): 35-46
Acknowledgements
This study was undertaken with financial grant provided by University Grants Commission, New Delhi as Research Award (2016-18). Also, the
Institutional Biotech Hub (Department of Biotechnology, Govt. of India), Department of Life Science & Bioinformatics, Assam University- Diphu
Campus, is acknowledged for infrastructural support.
Copyright © Teron. 2019. NECEER, Imphal allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of this article in any medium by adequate credit
to the author(s) and the source of publication.
NeBIO, An International Journal of Environment and Biodiversity Official publication of North East Centre for Environmental Education (NECEER), Imphal I ISSN 2278-2281 (Online), 0976-3597 (Print) I www.nebio.in
CROSS-CULTURAL ETHNOBOTANICAL EXPLORATION OF DIVERSITY AND UTILIZATION OF
MEDICINAL PLANTS IN KARBI ANGLONG DISTRICT, ASSAM, NORTHEAST INDIA
Robindra Teron Department of Life Science & Bioinformatics, Assam University- Diphu Campus, Diphu, Karbi Anglong, Assam- 782 462, India
Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Northeastern region of India, with diverse human races and cultures coupled with enormous biodiversity, presents a fertile ground for
ethnobotanical research. In the present communication, a comparative account of medicinal plants used among the Karbi, Tiwa and
Pnar ethnic groups of Karbi Anglong, Assam is discussed. Field study was undertaken during May 2016 to December 2017 and data
was collected following group discussion, semi-structured interview and participant observation methods. This study documented 201
medicinal plants under 173 genera and belonging to 74 botanical families. Cross-cultural analysis of results revealed the Karbis use
184 (91%) medicinal plants followed by the Pnar and Tiwa with 41 (20.4%) and 34 (16.9%) plants respectively. There is similarity in
medicinal plant use- 23 (11.4%) plants between Karbi-Tiwa, 28 (13.9%) plants between Karbi-Pnar and 13 (6.5%) medicinal plants
between Tiwa-Pnar. Thirteen medicinal plants are common among the three ethnic groups studied. The medicinal plants are used for
treatment of 22 disease conditions/ailments. The result shows 85 (42.3%) medicinal plants are used for dietary purpose. Cross-cultural
ethnobotanical study reflects the pattern of plant use in different societies and exchange of local knowledge (dynamism). It has
implications for protection of intellectual property of vulnerable indigenous people.
KEYWORDS: Cross-cultural ethnobotany, medicinal plants, diversity, utilization.
Introduction
Northeastern region of Indian, a landlocked region comprising of
eight states namely Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Mizoram,
Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripura and Sikkim, is acclaimed
for harbouring human and cultural diversity. About 130 major
tribal groups are settled in the region (Dutta and Dutta, 2005).
Gifted with diverse topographic and climatic conditions resulting
in a great range of ecological habitats, the region also includes
two global biodiversity hotspots, the Eastern Himalaya and Indo-
Burma. Among other heritages, the ethnic communities are rich
repository of traditional knowledge and their healing practices are
as diverse as their culture (Ramashanker et al., 2015). People of the region possess vast knowledge of medicinal plants which is
the chief source of primary healthcare. The diversity of medicinal
plants is extraordinary but despite sincere efforts documentation
of folk medicinal knowledge is far from complete for which the
Northeast India still remained ethnic storehouse of unexplored
medicinal plants (Chakraborty et al., 2012). With unique quality of diverse human races and cultures coupled with enormous
biodiversity, the region is considered as a fertile ground for
ethnobotanical and anthropological research. Ethnobotany
(ethnos: people; botany: plants), deals with the total natural and traditional relationship and the interactions between man and his
surrounding plant wealth that includes the use of plants by both
tribal and non-tribal communities without any implication of
primitive or developed societies (Jain, 1976b; Wickens, 1990).
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Probably the oldest science known to mankind, ethnobotany today
is a multidisciplinary science forging strong linkages with many
disciplines. Ethnobotany is built on strong foundation of people-
plant interactions that centers on the knowledge of utilization and
management of biodiversity referred as Traditional Knowledge
(TK). This knowledge is acquired through long years of
observations and trial and error and is not substantiated by any
scientific hypothesis and experiments. It is not static but highly
dynamic; any change, whether loss in, or addition to TK among
any human society is referred as dynamism of TK (Jain, 2005).
Ethnomedicines and healthcare practices of the ethnic groups in
Karbi Anglong have not been properly investigated. But
ethnomedicinal knowledge and traditional healthcare practices
among different cultures is gradually declining for various
reasons. No comprehensive description of the flora as well as
medicinal plants of the district is available except a few mentions
in the flora of undivided Assam, Flora of Assam in 5 volumes
(Kanjilal et al., 1934-40) and Assam’s Flora (Chowdhory, 2005). Destruction of natural habitats due to jhum (slash and burn)
practice and monoculture has put medicinal plants at risk of
extinction. There is urgent need to study and document valuable
traditional knowledge of medicinal plants of different ethnic
groups before it is lost. Scattered information on ethnomedicinal
plants of Karbi Anglong have been reported from time to time
(Borthakur, 1976a; Gogoi et al., 2005; Teron and Borthakur, 2013,
2016; Terangpi et al., 2014; Teronpi et al., 2015).
In the present communication, a comparative account of
medicinal plants used among the Karbi, Tiwa and Pnar ethnic
groups is discussed. Ethnobotany has been increasingly used to
study pattern of plant-use by human societies in different
ecological zones of the world. Since antiquity, human have
exploited plants as source of primary healthcare practices. Over
80% people of the developing countries are still dependent upon
traditional medicine derived from natural resources (Fansworth et al., 1985), yet less than 10% of the plant species have been examined for their pharmaceutical properties (Stix, 1993). A
comparative study of ethnobotany of four tribes of the Amazon
was reported by Prance (1973). Similar cross-cultural study of
ethnic knowledge on medicinal plants was also undertaken
among the tribal groups of the Nilgiris in Western Ghats, India
(Navaneethan et al., 2011). A cross-cultural comparison was made to prepare database of medicinal floras used against
snakebites and to identify candidate families and genera for
further studies (Molandera et al., 2012) and for bioprospecting strategies (Saslis-Lagoudakis et al., 2011). In a recent study, cross-cultural study of folk plant uses was conducted among
Albanians, Bosnaiks, Gorani and Turks in south Kosovo (Mustafa
et al., 2015).
Material and methods
Study site and the people
Karbi Anglong district with its Headquarter at Diphu, represents
one of the hill districts of Assam. The district lies between
latitudes 250 30' to 26036' N and longitudes 920 90' to 93054' E
covering a geographical area of 10,434 sq km. It is bounded by
Nagaland in the east, Meghalaya in the west, Golaghat and
Nagaon districts in the north and Dima Hasao district in the south.
The district comprises of two detached parts – the Western part
also referred as Hamren subdivision with its Headquarter at
Hamren and the eastern part comprising of Diphu and Bokajan
subdivisions with their respective Headquaters at Diphu and
Bokajan (Fig. 1).
Figure 1. Map of Karbi Anglong district, Assam where the present
study was undertaken.
Karbi Anglong is inhabited by many ethnic groups such as Karbi,
Dimasa, Tiwa, Pnar, Rengma Naga, Kuki, and other plain tribes.
For historical reasons, the Karbi, Tiwa and Pnar ethnic groups
have been considered for the present study. They are recognized
as Scheduled Tribes (Hills) in Assam state. While the Karbis are
distributed all over the district, Tiwa and Pnar are mostly
concentrated in Hamren subdivisional area but the three groups
since history have settled in the same geographical area and
maintained cordial relationships. The Karbi follow patriarchal
system of family whereas Tiwa and Pnar maintain matrilineal
family system. They practice traditional customs and traditions
unique and distinct from each other. But there is striking similarity
in healthcare and beliefs related to health. One important
semblance among the people is the belief in of multiplicity of
gods/deities and considers these deities as the causes of
diseases and illness. They perform many magico-religious
practices to appease deities in return for recovery of the patient.
In addition, they also use many plants as well as animal products
to manage scores of ailments and disease conditions. Common
form of healing practices include rituals, topical or local
application, oral therapy, aroma therapy, bathing, charms and
other forms of administration.
Ethnobotanical field study and data collection
A cross-cultural ethnobotanical exploration was conducted among
the Karbi, Tiwa and Pnar ethnic tribes and document plant
knowledge with special reference to medicinal plants. During the
period (May 2016 t0 December 2017) the following places was
visited for field study-Hamren, Dokmoka, Lumbajong Development
Block, Bakalia, Chowkihola, Tumpreng, Baithalangso, Ulukunchi
and Bakhu. Group discussion, semi-structured interview and
participant observation methods (Alexiades, 1996; Cunningham,
2001; Martin, 1995) was employed to collect data on medicinal
plants and healthcare practices from informants of different age
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groups and gender. Permission from village heads was obtained
for conducting field study and prior consent of informants was
also obtained in accordance with ethics of ethnobiological
research (ISE, 2006). Medicinal plants were collected with the
help of informants and identified using floras (Hooker, 1875-1897;
Kanjilal et al., 1934-1940; Balakrishnan 1981, 1983). Nomenclature of medicinal plants was updated using online
database, www.theplantlist.org.
Result and discussion
Taxonomic diversity of medicinal plants:
The number of medicinal plants documented during cross-cultural
ethnobotanical exercise among three ethnic groups (Karbi, Tiwa
and Pnar) of Karbi Anglong district, Assam is presented in Table 1.
The result shows 201 medicinal plants under 173 genera and
belonging to 74 botanical families are used by the ethnic groups.
The result also reveals greater number of medicinal plants have
been recorded among the Karbi with 184 species (91%) followed
by the Pnar and Tiwa with 41 (20.4%) and 34 (16.9%) plants
respectively (Fig. 2). This unequal distribution of plant knowledge
probably may be attributed to prevalence of Karbi settlements all
over the district and access to more natural resources than the
Tiwa and Pnar who have restricted distribution in the district. The
list of medicinal plants included four members of pteridophytes
namely Hippochaete debilis (Equisetaceae), Helminthostachys zeylanica (Ophioglossaceae), Pyrosia obovata (Polypodiaceae) and
Amblovenatum opulentum (Thelypteridaceae). The family Leguminosae has largest representation with thirteen species.
Cross-cultural perspective of medicinal plant exploitation:
Medicinal plants are used for management of various ailments or
disease conditions and there is variation in distribution of
medicinal plant knowledge across culture. While the Karbi use
184 medicinal plants for health management, the Tiwa and Pnar
people use 34 and 41 medicinal plants respectively. The list of
medicinal plants however, is not exhaustive as many medicinal
plants may still remain to be recorded. Recognition of plants as
medicinal varies as also the use of same plant for different
ailments. However, there is certain amount of overlapping of
medicinal use of plants among the people- 23 (11.4%) plants
between Karbi-Tiwa, 28 (13.9%) plants between Karbi-Pnar and
13 (6.5%) medicinal plants between Tiwa-Pnar. Thirteen plants
have common use for healthcare among the three ethnic groups
studied. A total of 22 disease conditions/ailments have been
categorised and the number of medicinal plants recorded for each
category is given in parenthesis (Fig. 3) - body pain (03), ulcer (01),
gastrointestinal problems (44), antipyretic (14), urinary problems
(09), masticatory (02), cosmetics (01), piles (01), tonic (02),
galactagogue (02), beverage (10), gynaecology (04), antidote (24),
cuts & wounds (22), anti-inflammatory (10), insecticide (09),
antihelminthic (02), dermatitis/allergy (12), analgesic (20),
appetizer/food additive (17), cold & cough (10) and jaundice (16).
Plant medicines are administered through one of these methods:
topical or local application, oral therapy, aroma therapy, bathing
and charms. Two plants namely Allium sativum and Schefflera venulosa are used in magico-religious practices for negation of evil influence. Among other significant results, is dietary use of
medicinal plants though the consumers may be ignorant about the
health benefits of such edible medicinal plants. In the present
study also 85 (42.3%) medicinal plants are exploited as food. This
result reiterates the food-medicine nexus and the blurred
boundary between the two use categories. It also suggests the
health benefits of traditional foods and the pressing need for
investigation of edible wild plants and their management by
indigenous people around the world.
Figure 2. Utilization of medicinal plant among Karbi, Tiwa and
Pnar of Karbi Anglong, Assam.
Figure 3. Medicinal plants by ethnic groups of Karbi Anglong, Assam for management of various ailments.
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Table 1. Diversity of medicinal plants used by ethnic groups of Karbi Anglong district, Assam.
Sl. no. Medicinal Plants Parts used Prescription
Karbi Tiwa Pnar
ACANTHACEAE
1 Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Wall. Leaf Stomachache & fever
2 Strobilanthes cusia (Nees) Kuntze Leaf Antidote for dog bite
3 Eranthemum suffruticosum Roxb. Lead Skin infection
4 Justicia gendarussa Burm.f. Root Antidote
5 Justicia comata (L.) Lam. Leaf Ringworm
6 Phlogacanthus thyrsiformis (Hardw.) Mabb. Flower Stomach pain Stomachache, dysentery Stomachache, fever
7 Thunbergia grandiflora (Roxb. ex Rottl.) Roxb. Leaf, stem Antidote; sore eye Blood coagulant
ACHARIACEAE
8 Gynocardia odorata R. Br. Fruit Insecticide
9 Hydnocarpus kurzii (King) Warb. Fruit Insecticide
ACORACEAE
10 Acorus calamus L. Rhizome Constipation Constipation Constipation, stomachache
AMARYLLIDACEAE
11 Allium sativum L. Leaf Snake & spider bites, cuts & wounds Sleeplessnes, condiment Condiment, caterpillar antidote
12 Allium tuberosum Rottler ex Spreng. Leaf Appetizer
ANACARDIACEAE
13 Mangifera indica L. Fruit Dysentery Antidote
14 Rhus chinensis Mill. Fruit Constipation, dysentery
APIACEAE
15 Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Leaf Constipation Constipation and gastritis
16 Coriandrum sativum L. Stem Jaundice
17 Eryngium foetidum L. Leaf Appetizer, condiment Flavour Flavor
APOCYNACEAE
18 Holarrhena pubescens Wall. ex G.Don Bark, latex Dysentery; cut & wound
19 Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz Root Fever, cough, stomach pain Stomach ailments Stomachache, fever
20 Wrightia tinctoria R.Br. Bark Stomachache
ARACEAE
21 Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Petiole Cuts & wound
22 Homalomena aromatica (Spreng.) Schott Rhizome Influenza
23 Lasia spinosa (L.) Thwaites Root, rhizome Jaundice
ARALIACEAE
24 Aralia armata (Wall. ex G.Don) Seem. Leaf Appetizer
25 Schefflera venulosa (Wight & Arn.) Harms Stem Negation of evil spirit
ARECACEAE
26 Areca catechu L. Fruit Food additive
27 Caryota urens L. Shoot Food additive
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ARISTOLOCHIACEAE
28 Aristolochia indica L. Root Stomachache Stomachache
29 Aristolochia saccata Wall. Leaf, root Stomachache; fever; sprain & fracture Dysentery Constipation, stomachache
ASCLEPIADACEAE
30 Hoya globulosa Hk. f. Leaf Wound & cut
31 Marsdenia tinctoria R. Br. Leaf Dog bite
ASPARAGACEAE
32 Dracaena angustifolia (Medik.) Roxb. Leaf Cut & wound
BALSAMINACEAE
33 Impatiens balsamina L. Flower Anti-leech Infection of fingers
BASELLACEAE
34 Basella alba L. Whole plant Jaundice
BEGONIACEAE
35 Begonia roxburghii A.DC. Rhizome Dermatitis Skin infection
36 Begonia hatacoa Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don Rhizome Cut & wound; dysentery
37 Begonia thomsonii A.DC. Rhizome Cuts & burns Plant dermatitis
BIGNONIACEAE
38 Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz. Bark, leaf Jaundice; stomachache Stomachache
BRASIICACEAE
39 Brassica sp. (Jangho) Seed Drowsiness
CAMPANULACEAE
40 Lobelia nummularia Lam. Fruit Headache
CAPPARACEAE
41 Crateva religiosa G.Forst. Bark Urinary complaints
CARICACEAE
42 Carica papaya L. Fruit Food additive Food additive
CARYOPHYLLACEAE
43 Drymaria cordata (L.) Willd. ex Schult. Whole plant Dysentery, stomachache
CHLORANTHACEAE
44 Chloranthus elatior Link Leaf Smooth delivery
CLUSIACEAE
45 Garcinia lanceifolia Roxb. Leaf, fruit Pox Dysentery
46 Garcinia pedunculata Roxb. ex Buch.-Ham. Pericarp Antidote Dysentery
COMBRETACEAE
47 Combretum album Pers. Bark Masticatory
48 Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Fruit Constipation; dysentery
49 Terminalia chebula Retz. Fruit Stomachache; cough, fever, flu
COMMELINACEAE
50 Floscopa scandens Lour. Shoot Smooth child delivery
COMPOSITAE
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51 Ageratum conyzoides (L.) L. Leaf Cuts & wounds Cuts & wounds Cuts & wounds
52 Bidens pilosa L. Fruit Beverage
53 Conyza japonica (Thunb.) Less. Whole plant Insect repellant
54 Elephantopus scaber L. Whole plant, root Fracture Stomach pain
55 Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC. ex DC. Tender shoot Dysentery
56 Eupatorium cannabinum L. Leaf Skin infection
57 Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King & H.Rob. Leaf Cut & wound
58 Mikania micrantha Kunth Leaf Blood coagulant
59 Acmella paniculata (Wall. ex DC.) R.K.Jansen. Head Toothache
60 Tagetes erecta L. Shoot Jaundice
61 Vernonia sp. Leaf Energy booster for pregnant woman
CONVOLVULACEAE
62 Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Stem Jaundice
CRASSULACEAE
63 Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Oken. Leaf Gall bladder stone
CUCURBITACEAE
64 Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn. Fruit Fever
65 Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt Tuber Stomachache
66 Cucumis melo L. Fruit Fever
67 Cucumis sativus L. Fruit Urinary complaints
68 Cucurbita moschata Duchense Leaf Fracture & sprain
69 Cucurbita pepo L. Fruit Urinary problem
70 Gymnopetalum chinense (Lour.) Merr. Fruit Dysentery
71 Hodgsonia macrocarpa (Blume) Cogn. Fruit dysentery
72 Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl. Leaf Wasp sting; fracture
DIOSCOREACEAE
73 Dioscorea alata L. Tuber Snake & spider bites
74 Dioscorea bulbifera L. Bulbil Snake bite
75 Dioscorea hispida Dennst. Tuber Insecticide
DIPTEROCARPACEAE
76 Shorea robusta Gaertn. Root Wound healing
77 Vatica lancaefolia (Roxburgh) Blume Bark Dysentery
EQUISETACEAE
78 Hippochaete debilis (Roxb. ex Vaucher) Ching Leaf Jaundice
EUPHORBIACEAE
79 Croton joufra Roxb. Leaf Beverage
80 Baliospermum solanifolium (Burm.) Suresh Leaf Beverage
81 Croton tiglium L. Fruit Clear bowels
82 Euphorbia hirta L. Tender shoot Galactagogue
83 Jatropha curcas L. Leaf, latex Headache; wound & cut Toothache; blood coagulant
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84 Ricinus communis L. Leaf Headache
85 Tragia involucrata L. Root Intestinal worms
HYPHOXIDACEAE
86 Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Rhizome Blood clotting, relieve pain
LAMIACEAE
87 Clinopodium umbrosum (M.Bieb.) Kuntze Leaf Condiment Condiment
88 Elsholtzia strobelifera (Benth.) Benth. Seed Condiment Flavor
89 Pogostemon linearis (Benth.) Kuntze Whole plant Headache
90 Ocimum killimandscharicum Gurke Leaf Condiment; insecticide Curry flavor Flavor, insecticide
91 Pogostemon pubescens Benth. Leaf Bodyache
92 Rotheca serrata (L.) Steane & Mabb. Leaf, flower Stomachache
93 Clerodendrum infortunatum L. Leaf Ringworm
94 Gmelina arborea Roxb. Flower, fruit Stomachache Toe infection
95 Premna pinguis C.B.Clarke. Tuber Toothache
96 Premna mollissima Roth Leaf Insecticide
97 Cinnamomum tamala (Buch.-Ham.) T.Nees & Eberm. Leaf Flavor
LECYTHIDACEAE
98 Careya arborea Roxb. Root Dysentery Diarrhoea, blood dysentery
LEGUMINOSAE
99 Erythrina stricta Roxb. Flower Tonic
100 Senna alata (L.) Roxb. Leaf Ringworm
101 Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. Shoot Jaundice
102 Crotalaria pallida Aiton Root Anti-inflammatory
103 Derris elliptica (Wall.) Benth. Leaf, root Antidote; ringworm
104 Hylodesmum podocarpum subsp. oxyphyllum (DC.)
H.Ohashi & R.R.Mill
Root Fracture
105 Entada rheedii Spreng. Seed Wound
106 Indigofera tinctoria L. Leaf Insecticide
107 Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet Root Jaundice
108 Mimosa pudica L. Root Jaundice; oral contraceptive Boils
109 Mucuna nigricans (Lour.) Steud. Seed Fever & cough
110 Tamarindus indica L. Leaf, fruit Antidote
111 Acacia pennata (L.) Willd. Bark Beverage
LINDERIACEAE
112 Picria fel-terrae Lour. Whole plant Fever Stomach pain, fever
MALVACEAE
113 Bombax ceiba L. Root Cough, urinary complaints
114 Hibiscus sabdariffa L. Whole plant Antidote, analgesic Antidote
115 Sterculia villosa Roxb. Bark Hydrocele
MARANTACEAE
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116 Maranta arundinacea L. Rhizome Galactagogue Galactagogue
117 Phrynium pubinerve Blume Root Ear pain
MELIACEAE
118 Azadirachta indica A.Juss. Leaf Pox
119 Dysoxylum gotadhora (Buch.-Ham.) Mabb. Seed Leprosy
MORACEAE
120 Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Leaf, bark Beverage; masticatory
121 Ficus religiosa L. Bark Jaundice
122 Morus australis Poir. Fruit Urinary problems
MUSACEAE
123 Musa balbisiana Coola Fruit, sap Loose motion; cut & wound
124 Musa paradisiaca L. Sap Blood coagulant
125 Musa velutina H.Wendl. & Drude Sap Blood coagulant
MYRTACEAE
126 Myrcia bracteata (Rich.) DC. Leaf Beverage
127 Psidium guajava L. Shoot Dysentery Stomachache
NYCTAGINACEAE
128 Mirabilis jalapa L. Leaf Millipede bite
OLACACEAE
129 Erythropalum scandens Blume Bark Piles
130 Olax acuminata Wall. ex Benth. Leaf Body ache
ONAGRACEAE
131 Ludwigia hyssopifolia (G.Don) Exell Twig Foot infection
OPHIOGLOSSACEAE
132 Helminthostachys zeylanica (L.) Hook. Root Millipede bite
ORCHIDACEAE
133 Bulbophyllum sp. Pseudobulb Wound & sprain Dysentery
134 Papilionanthe teres (Roxb.) Schltr. Stem Wound
OXALIDACEAE
135 Averrhoa carambola L. Fruit Jaundice Jaundice
PANDANACEAE
136 Pandanus minimus H.St.John Leaf Flavor
PASSIFLORACEAE
137 Passiflora foetida L. Fruit Tongue sore
PEDALIACEAE
138 Sesamum indicum L. Leaf, seed Hair wash; appetizer Condiment Food additive, plant dermatitis
PHYLLANTHACEAE
139 Phyllanthus fraternus G.L.Webster Whole plant Jaundice
140 Phyllanthus emblica L. Bark Stomachache
PIPERACEAE
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141 Piper nigrum L. Fruit Dog bite Toothache
142 Piper sp. Leaf Caterpillar allergy
PLANTAGINACEAE
143 Scoparia dulcis L. Leaf Colic pain; malaria; foot infection
PLUMBAGINACEAE
144 Plumbago indica L. Root Ringworm
145 Plumbago zeylanica L. Root Ringworm
POACEAE
146 Bambusa species Shoot Food additive
147 Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf Leaf Beverage
148 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Whole plant Jaundice
149 Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Ness & Arn. ex Munro Shoot Food additive
150 Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf Tuber Pharyngitis
151 Oryza sativa L. Grain Allergy; galactagogue
152 Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex Steud. Shoot Jaundice
153 Saccharum officinarum L. Stem juice Jaundice Jaundice Jaundice
154 Setaria sp. (Taradung) Shoot Hiccup
POLYGONACEAE
155 Polygonum affine D. Don Leaf Sinus; ulcer; antidote
156 Polygonum microcephalum D. Don Leaf Mushroom poisoning Antidote Wound
POLYPODIACEAE
157 Pyrrosia obovata (Bl.) Ching Leaf Blood coagulant
RUBIACEAE
158 Coffea benghalensis B.Heyne ex Schult. Root Antidote for dog bite
159 Hedyotis scandens Roxb. Whole plant Beverage
160 Ixora thwaitesii Hook.f. Leaf Wound; analgesic after child birth Wound healing Waist pain; urinary problems
161 Ophiorrhiza ochroleuca Hook. f. Leaf Cut & wound
162 Paederia foetida Roxb. Leaf Constipation; urinary problems; jaundice
163 Morinda anguistifolia Roxb. Leaf Giddiness; urinary problems; dysentery; fever; toothache
RUTACEAE
164 Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa Fruit Constipation, apptizer
165 Citrus aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle Leaf Condiment
166 Citrus hystrix DC. Rind Condiment
167 Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr. Rind Antidote
168 Citrus medica L. Rind Antidote
169 Citrus paradisi Macfad. Rind Antidote
170 Micromelum minutum (Forst. f.) Wt. & Arn. Stem Dysentery; to hasten process of delivery
171 Murraya koenigii (L.) Spr. Leaf Stomachache
172 Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack Root Labour pain; body pain; stomachache
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173 Zanthoxylum armatum DC. Shoot, root Intestinal worms; fever, cough Cough, fever Flavor, ringworm
SALICACEAE
174 Xylosma longifolia Clos Bark Dysentery
SAINDACEAE
175 Aesculus assamica Griff. Leaf Ear sore
SAURURACEAE
176 Houttuynia cordata Thunb. Leaf Bodyache
SIMAROUBACEAE
177 Brucea mollis Wall. ex Kurz Fruit, root Fever, dysentery
178 Picrasma javanica Blume Fruit Digestion
SOLANACEAE
179 Capsicum annuum L. Leaf, fruit Dysentery; stomach pain
180 Datura metel L. Fruit Dog bite
181 Physalis peruviana L. Fruit Analgesic
182 Solanum aculeatissinum Jacq. Fruit Toothache; insecticide
183 Solanum ferox L. Fruit Toothache
184 Solanum americanum Mill. Leaf Urinary problem; blood pressure
185 Solanum surattense Burm. f. Fruit Toothache
STERCULIACEAE
186 Rhamnus nepalensis (WaUich) M. Lawson Fruit Headache
THEACEAE
187 Camellia kissi Wall. Leaf Beverage
THELYPTERIDACEAE
188 Amblovenatum opulentum J.P. Roux Leaf Headache, rheumatism
THYMELAECEAE
189 Linostoma decandrum (Roxb.) Wall. ex Meisn. Root Ringworm
VITACEAE
190 Leea indica (Burm. f.) Merr. Root Expectorant
191 Cayratia pedata (Lam.) Gangnep. Leaf Antidote
192 Cissus quadrangularis L. Leaf, Stem Fracture & sprain Cut & wound
ZINGIBERACEAE
193 Boesenbergia rotunda (L.) Mansf. Rhizome Appetizer, fever
194 Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd. Rhizome Cough, flu & phryngitis
195 Amomum koenigii J.F.Gmel. Leaf Beverage
196 Cheilocostus speciosus (J.Koenig) C.D.Specht Rhizome Snake bite
197 Curcuma caesia Roxb. Rhizome Dysentery
198 Curcuma longa L. Rhizome Cut & wound, antiseptic
199 Hedychium coronarium J. Koenig Rhizome Snake bite
200 Kaempferia galanga L. Rhizome Dog & pig bites; condiment Flavor
201 Zingiber officinale Roscoe Leaf, rhizome Condiment; cough, fever, flu Flavor, sprain
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Conclusion
Today, traditional knowledge of indigenous people is at risk from
globalization and technology development. Acculturation and
systematic displacement of indigenous people from their natural
habitats may coerce people to abandon their traditional practices
and custom for western culture. There is need for more
aggressive ethnobotanical exploration among traditional societies
in various ecological regions of the world before their ingenious
plant knowledge is rendered to oblivion (Prance, 1991). One
apparent advantage of cross-cultural ethnobotanical study is it
can reflect the pattern of plant use in different societies and
exchange of local knowledge (dynamism) besides biodiversity
exploration, exploitation and conservation. It has implications for
protection of intellectual property of vulnerable indigenous
people. Ethnobotanical research should avoid misappropriation of
their resourceful knowledge instead give due recognition and
share benefits arising out of the research. The role of ethnobotany
in drug discovery is acknowledged by one and all (Cox and Balick,
1994: Fabricant and Farnsworth, 2001). Ethnobotany touches all
levels of biodiversity (genetic, species and ecosystem) including
subspecific categories of plants and thus, it can be a practical tool
for exploration, utilization and conservation of biodiversity in an
area or region.
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