Creativity - Nelson · 2008-12-10 · Creativity is elusive. Nevertheless, psychologists have...

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Creativity CREATIVE THINKING—DOWN ROADS LESS TRAVELLED Original ideas have changed the course of human history. Much of what we now take for granted in art, medicine, music, technology, and science was once regarded as radical or impossible. How do creative thinkers achieve the breakthroughs that carry us into new realms? Creativity is elusive. Nevertheless, psychologists have learned a great deal about how creativity occurs and how to promote it. We have seen that problem solving may be mechanical, insightful, or based on under- standing. To this we can add that thinking may be inductive (going from specific facts or observations to general principles) or deductive (going from general principles to specific sit- uations). Thinking may also be logical (proceeding from given information to new conclu- sions on the basis of explicit rules) or illogical (intuitive, associative, or personal). What distinguishes creative thinking from more routine problem solving? Creative thinking involves all of these thinking styles, plus fluency, flexibility, and originality. Let’s say that you would like to find creative uses for the millions of automobile tires discarded each year. The creativity of your suggestions could be rated in this way: Fluency is defined as the total number of suggestions you are able to make. Flexibility is the number of times you shift from one class of possible uses to another. Originality refers to how novel or unusual your ideas are. By counting the number of times you showed fluency, flexibility, and originality, we could rate your creativity, or capacity for divergent thinking (Baer, 1993). Divergent thinking is widely used to measure creativity. In routine problem solving or thinking, there is one correct answer, and the problem is to find it. This leads to convergent thinking (lines of thought converge on the answer). Divergent thinking (see Figure 1, page W–6) is the reverse, in which many possibilities are developed from one starting point (Baer, 1993). (See Table 1, page W–6, for some examples.) Rather than repeating learned solutions, creative thinking produces new answers, ideas, or patterns (Michalko, 1998). There is an active research area investigating possible links between children’s play and convergent or divergent thinking. For example, Bronwen Lloyd and Nina Howe at Concordia University in Montreal studied children in solitary play with either open-ended or close- ended toys. Close-ended toys are those which are intended for a specific purpose, such as wind-up toys. Open-ended toys such as blocks, in contrast, afford many possible uses. Lloyd and Howe distinguished between solitary active play (involving fantasy and pretence) and solitary passive play (exploring objects to learn more about them). Children who engaged in more solitary active play chose open-ended toys more than close-ended toys. They also used toys in non-intended ways more than children who preferred solitary passive play. Lloyd and Howe found a positive correlation between frequency of solitary active play and frequency of divergent thinking. The frequency of solitary passive play was not related to either convergent or divergent thinking (Lloyd & Howe, 2003). Further work is necessary, but these data suggest that solitary play can be useful in development, and imaginative play that gives practice involving new ways of using objects may foster creative thinking. W–5 NEL Survey Question: What is the nature of creative thinking? Inductive thought Thinking in which a general rule or principle is gathered from a series of specific examples; for instance, inferring the laws of gravity by observing many falling objects. Deductive thought Thought that applies a general set of rules to specific situations; for example, using the laws of gravity to predict the behaviour of a single falling object. Logical thought Drawing conclusions on the basis of formal principles of reasoning. Illogical thought Thought that is intu- itive, haphazard, or irrational. Fluency In tests of creativity, fluency refers to the total number of solutions produced. Flexibility In tests of creativity, flexibility is indicated by the number of different types of solutions produced. Originality In tests of creativity, origi- nality refers to how novel or unusual solu- tions are. Convergent thinking Thinking directed toward discovery of a single established cor- rect answer; conventional thinking. Divergent thinking Thinking that pro- duces many ideas or alternatives; a major element in original or creative thought.

Transcript of Creativity - Nelson · 2008-12-10 · Creativity is elusive. Nevertheless, psychologists have...

Page 1: Creativity - Nelson · 2008-12-10 · Creativity is elusive. Nevertheless, psychologists have learned a great deal about how creativity occurs and how to promote it. We have seen

CreativityCREATIVE THINKING—DOWN ROADS LESS TRAVELLEDOriginal ideas have changed the course of human history. Much of what we now take forgranted in art, medicine, music, technology, and science was once regarded as radical orimpossible. How do creative thinkers achieve the breakthroughs that carry us into new realms?Creativity is elusive. Nevertheless, psychologists have learned a great deal about how creativityoccurs and how to promote it.

We have seen that problem solving may be mechanical, insightful, or based on under-standing. To this we can add that thinking may be inductive (going from specific facts orobservations to general principles) or deductive (going from general principles to specific sit-uations). Thinking may also be logical (proceeding from given information to new conclu-sions on the basis of explicit rules) or illogical (intuitive, associative, or personal).

What distinguishes creative thinking from more routine problem solving? Creative thinkinginvolves all of these thinking styles, plus fluency, flexibility, and originality. Let’s say that youwould like to find creative uses for the millions of automobile tires discarded each year. Thecreativity of your suggestions could be rated in this way: Fluency is defined as the totalnumber of suggestions you are able to make. Flexibility is the number of times you shift fromone class of possible uses to another. Originality refers to how novel or unusual your ideas are.By counting the number of times you showed fluency, flexibility, and originality, we could rateyour creativity, or capacity for divergent thinking (Baer, 1993).

Divergent thinking is widely used to measure creativity. In routine problem solving orthinking, there is one correct answer, and the problem is to find it. This leads to convergentthinking (lines of thought converge on the answer). Divergent thinking (see ✦Figure 1,page W–6) is the reverse, in which many possibilities are developed from one starting point(Baer, 1993). (See ▲Table 1, page W–6, for some examples.) Rather than repeating learnedsolutions, creative thinking produces new answers, ideas, or patterns (Michalko, 1998).

There is an active research area investigating possible links between children’s play andconvergent or divergent thinking. For example, Bronwen Lloyd and Nina Howe at ConcordiaUniversity in Montreal studied children in solitary play with either open-ended or close-ended toys. Close-ended toys are those which are intended for a specific purpose, such aswind-up toys. Open-ended toys such as blocks, in contrast, afford many possible uses. Lloydand Howe distinguished between solitary active play (involving fantasy and pretence) andsolitary passive play (exploring objects to learn more about them). Children who engaged inmore solitary active play chose open-ended toys more than close-ended toys. They also usedtoys in non-intended ways more than children who preferred solitary passive play. Lloyd andHowe found a positive correlation between frequency of solitary active play and frequency ofdivergent thinking. The frequency of solitary passive play was not related to either convergentor divergent thinking (Lloyd & Howe, 2003). Further work is necessary, but these data suggestthat solitary play can be useful in development, and imaginative play that gives practiceinvolving new ways of using objects may foster creative thinking.

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S u r v e y Q u e s t i o n :■ What is the nature of

creative thinking?

Inductive thought Thinking in which ageneral rule or principle is gathered from aseries of specific examples; for instance,inferring the laws of gravity by observingmany falling objects.

Deductive thought Thought that applies ageneral set of rules to specific situations; forexample, using the laws of gravity to predictthe behaviour of a single falling object.

Logical thought Drawing conclusions onthe basis of formal principles of reasoning.

Illogical thought Thought that is intu-itive, haphazard, or irrational.

Fluency In tests of creativity, fluency refersto the total number of solutions produced.

Flexibility In tests of creativity, flexibilityis indicated by the number of different typesof solutions produced.

Originality In tests of creativity, origi-nality refers to how novel or unusual solu-tions are.

Convergent thinking Thinking directedtoward discovery of a single established cor-rect answer; conventional thinking.

Divergent thinking Thinking that pro-duces many ideas or alternatives; a majorelement in original or creative thought.

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Tests of CreativityThere are several ways to measure divergent thinking. In the Unusual Uses Test, you would beasked to think of as many uses as possible for some object, such as the tires mentioned earlier.In the Consequences Test, you would list the consequences that would follow a basic changein the world. For example, you might be asked “What would happen if everyone suddenly lostthe sense of balance and could no longer stay upright?” People try to list as many reactions aspossible. If you were to take the Anagrams Test, you would be given a word such as creativityand asked to make as many new words as possible by rearranging the letters. Each of these testscan be scored for fluency, flexibility, and originality. (For an example of other tests of diver-gent thinking, see ✦Figure 2.) Tests of divergent thinking seem to tap something quite dif-ferent from intelligence. Generally, there is little correlation between creativity tests and IQ testscores (Wallach, 1985).

Creativity tests have been useful, but they are not the whole story. If you want to predictwhether a person will be creative in the future, it helps to look at two more kinds of informa-tion (Feldhusen & Goh, 1995):

The products of creative thinking (such as essays, poems, drawings, or constructedobjects) are often more informative than test results. When creative people are asked to actu-ally produce something, others tend to judge their work as creative.

A simple listing of a person’s past creative activities and achievements is an excellent guideto the likelihood that she or he will be creative in the future.

Isn’t creativity more than divergent thought? What if a person comes up with a largenumber of useless answers to a problem? A good question. Divergent thinking is an importantpart of creativity, but there is more to it. To be creative, the solution to a problem must bemore than novel, unusual, or original (see ✦Figure 3). It must also be practical if it is aninvention and sensible if it is an idea (Finke, 1990). This is the dividing line between a “hare-brained scheme” and a “stroke of genius” (see ✦Figure 4, page W–8). In other words, the cre-ative person brings reasoning and critical thinking to bear on new ideas once they areproduced (Feldhusen, 1995).

Stages of Creative ThoughtIs there any pattern to creative thinking? Typically, five stages occur during creative problemsolving:

1. Orientation. As a first step, the person defines the problem and identifies its mostimportant dimensions.

2. Preparation. In the second stage, creative thinkers saturate themselves with as muchinformation about the problem as possible.

3. Incubation. Most major problems produce a period during which all attemptedsolutions will be futile. At this point, problem solving may proceed on a subcon-scious level: While the problem seems to have been set aside, it is still “cooking” inthe background.

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CONVERGENT PROBLEMS• What is the area of a triangle that is 3 metres wide at the base and 2 metres tall?• Erica is shorter than Zoey but taller than Carlo, and Carlo is taller than Jared. Who is the

second tallest?• If you simultaneously drop a baseball and a bowling ball from a tall building, which will hit

the ground first?

DIVERGENT PROBLEMS• What objects can you think of that begin with the letters BR?• How could discarded aluminum cans be put to use?• Write a poem about fire and ice.

▲TABLE 1 Convergent and Divergent Problems

Unusual Uses Test A test of creativity inwhich subjects try to think of new uses for acommon object.

Consequences Test A test of creativity inwhich subjects try to list as many conse-quences as possible that would follow ifsome basic change were made in the world.

Anagrams Test A test of creativity inwhich subjects try to make as many newwords as possible from the letters in a givenword.

✦FIGURE 1 The first paper clip waspatented in 1899. Competition for sales,combined with divergent thinking, hasresulted in a remarkable array ofalternative designs. These are drawings ofjust a few of the variations that haveappeared over the years. (After Kim,2000.)

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4. Illumination. The stage of incubation is often ended by a rapid insight or series ofinsights. These produce the “Aha!” experience, often depicted in cartoons as a light-bulb appearing over the thinker’s head.

5. Verification. The final step is to test and critically evaluate the solution obtainedduring the stage of illumination. If the solution proves faulty, the thinker reverts tothe stage of incubation.

Of course, creative thought is not always so neat. Nevertheless, the stages listed are a goodsummary of the most typical sequence of events.

You may find it helpful to relate the stages to the following more or less true story. Legendhas it that the king of Syracuse (a city in ancient Greece) once suspected that his goldsmithhad substituted cheaper metals for some of the gold in a crown and kept the extra gold.Archimedes, a famous mathematician and thinker, was given the problem of discoveringwhether the king had been cheated.

Archimedes began by defining the problem (orientation): “How can I tell what metals havebeen used in the crown without damaging it?” He then checked all known methods of analyzingmetals (preparation). All involved cutting or melting the crown, so he was forced to temporarilyset the problem aside (incubation). Then one day as he stepped into his bath, Archimedes sud-denly knew he had the solution (illumination). He was so excited he is said to have run nakedthrough the streets shouting, “Eureka, eureka!” (I have found it, I have found it!).

On observing his own body floating in the bath, Archimedes realized that differentmetals of equal weight would displace different amounts of water. A kilogram of brass, forexample, occupies more space than a kilogram of gold, which is denser. All that remained wasto test the solution (verification). Archimedes placed an amount of gold (equal in weight tothat given the goldsmith) in a tub of water. He marked the water level and removed the gold.He then placed the crown in the water. Was the crown pure gold? If it was, it would raise thewater to exactly the same level. Unfortunately, the purity of the crown and the fate of the gold-smith are to this day unknown!

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Complete this drawing

Ordinary response(b)

Creative subjects

Unique: "Foot and toes"Common: "Table with things on top"

Unique: "Two haystacks on a flying carpet"Common: "Two igloos"

Unique: "Lollipop bursting into pieces"Common: "Flower"

(a)

✦FIGURE 2 Some tests of divergent thinking. Creative responses are more original and more complex.(a) after Wallach & Kogan, 1965; (b) after Barron, 1958.

✦FIGURE 3 Hat-tipping device. According tothe patent, it is for “automatically effectingpolite salutations by the elevation and rotationof the hat on the head of the saluting partywhen said person bows to the person orpersons saluted.” In addition to being originalor novel, a creative solution must fit thedemands of the problem. Is this a creativesolution to the “problem” of hat tipping?

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The preceding account isa good general description ofcreative thinking. However,creative thinking can behighly complex. Some authorsbelieve that truly exceptionalcreativity requires a rare com-bination of thinking skills,personality, and a supportivesocial environment. This mix,they believe, accounts for cre-ative giants such as Edison,Freud, Mozart, Picasso, Tol-stoy, and others (Tardif &Sternberg, 1988).

The Creative PersonalityWhat makes a person creative? According to the popular stereotype, highly creative people areeccentric, introverted, neurotic, socially inept, unbalanced in their interests, and on the edgeof madness. Although some artists and musicians cultivate this public image, there is littletruth in it. York University researcher Elizabeth Ralevski asked exactly this question in herdoctoral dissertation. She measured aspects of personality, creativity of word associations, andemotional tone (for example, tendency to moodiness, irritability, or depression) in 80 suc-cessful European and North American artists and 34 control subjects. She found that successamong the artists was related to narcissism and isolation. In addition, more depressed artistsgave more original responses on the word association test, but this was not true for the controls (Ralevski, 2001). (See Clinical File: “Madness and Creativity” for additional insightsinto this issue.)

1. For people of normal intelligence, there is a small positive correlation between cre-ativity and IQ. In other words, smarter people have a slight tendency to be morecreative. But, for the most part, at any given level of IQ, some people are creativeand some are not. An average IQ is 100. The average college graduate has an IQ of120. This is more than high enough to allow a person to write novels, do scientificresearch, or pursue other creative work (Finke, 1990). IQs above 120 do not seem toadd anything more to creative ability (Sternberg & Lubart, 1995).

2. Creative people usually have a greater-than-average range of knowledge and inter-ests, and they are more fluent in combining ideas from various sources. They arealso good at using mental images and metaphors in thinking (Riquelme, 2002).

3. Creative people are open to a wide variety of experiences. They accept irrationalthoughts and are uninhibited about their feelings and fantasies (McCrae, 1987). Theytend to use broad categories, to question assumptions, and to break mental sets, andthey find order in chaos. They also experience more unusual states of consciousness,such as vivid dreams and mystical experiences (Ayers, Beaton, & Hunt, 1999).

4. Creative people enjoy symbolic thought, ideas, concepts, and possibilities. They tendto be interested in truth, form, and beauty, rather than in fame or success. Their cre-ative work is an end in itself (Sternberg & Lubart, 1995).

5. Highly creative people value their independence and prefer complexity. However,they are unconventional and nonconforming primarily in their work; otherwisethey do not have unusual, outlandish, or bizarre personalities.

CLINICAL FILECould film director David Cronenberg manage the Edmonton Oilers? Probably not. It is

widely accepted that people tend to be creative in particular skills or pursuits. For example, aperson who is a creative writer might be an uncreative artist or businessperson. Perhaps thisis because creativity favours a prepared mind. Those who are creative in a particular field oftenbuild on a large store of existing knowledge (Kaufman & Baer, 2002). Yoshiro NakaMats, aJapanese inventor who holds more than 2,000 patents, sees such preparation as a way to gainthe freedom to think creatively.

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Imaginativeideas

Creativeideas

Practicalideas

Trivialideas

Degree offeasibility

Deg

ree

of

ori

ginal

ity

✦FIGURE 4 Creative ideas combine originality with feasibility.(Adapted from McMullan & Stocking, 1978.)

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Can creativity be learned? It is beginning to look as if some creative thinking skills canbe taught. In particular, you can become more creative by practising divergent thinking andby taking risks, analyzing ideas, and seeking unusual connections between ideas (Baer, 1993;Sternberg, 2001).

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You’ve probably heard that “genius is next to insanity.” Is therereally any link between madness and creativity? Generally, theanswer is no. The vast majority of creative people do not sufferfrom mental disorders. (The jury is out on Ozzy Osbourne, however.)And, most people who are mentally ill are not especially creative(Ghadirian, Gregoire, & Kosmidis, 2001).

A notable exception to the preceding conclusion concerns mooddisorders. A person with a mood disorder may be manic (agitated,elated, and hyperactive), depressed, or both. (See Chapter 12 for moreinformation.) Many of history’s renowned artists, writers, poets, andcomposers apparently suffered from mood disorders (Jamison, 1999).For example, the composer Robert Schumann wrote most of his musicduring several “high” periods when he was mildly manic. When he wasdepressed, his output plunged. Similar patterns marked the work ofVincent van Gogh, Edgar Allan Poe, Emily Dickinson, Ernest Hemingway, and many others (Jamison, 1999; McDermott, 2001).

The connection between mood swings and creativity may bemainly a matter of productivity. It’s easy to understand why cre-ative persons would more actively paint, write, or compose whenthey are manic and have boundless energy. Also, people who aremanic tend to have illogical thoughts. Such thinking can enhancecreativity by promoting unusual connections among ideas (Anderegg& Gartner, 2001).

Again, it is important to emphasize that most creative people arenot mentally disturbed, and most mentally disturbed people are notcreative. Nevertheless, a few talented (and often miserable) individ-uals do appear to ride an emotional roller coaster to highs and lowsof creativity (Kaufman, 2001).

Madness and CreativityCLINICALFILE

RELATEMake up a question that would require convergent thinking toanswer. Now do the same for divergent thinking.

Which of the tests of creativity described in the text do youthink you would do best on? (Look back if you can’t rememberthem all.)

To better remember the stages of creative thinking, make up ashort story that includes these words: orient, prepare, in Cuba, illu-minate, verify.

LEARNING CHECK1. Fluency, flexibility, and originality are characteristics of

a. convergent thought b. deductive thinkingc. creative thought d. trial-and-error solutions

2. List the typical stages of creative thinking in the correct order._______________ _______________ ______________________________ _______________

3. Reasoning and critical thinking tend to block creativity; theseare non-creative qualities. T or F?

4. To be creative, an original idea must also be practical or fea-sible. T or F?

5. Intelligence and creativity are highly correlated; the higher aperson’s IQ, the more likely he or she is to be creative. T or F?

1. c 2. orientation, preparation, incubation, illumination, verification 3. F 4. T 5. F

ANSWERS

STUDYBREAK Creative Thinking

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REFERENCESAnderegg, D., & Gartner, G. (2001). Manic dedifferentiation and the creative process. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 18(2),

365–379.

Ayers, L., Beaton, S., & Hunt, H. (1999). The significance of transpersonal experiences, emotional conflict, and cognitiveabilities in creativity. Empirical Studies of the Arts, 17(1), 73–82.

Baer, J. M. (1993). Creativity and divergent thinking. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Barron, E. (1958). The psychology of imagination. Scientific American, 199(33), 150–170.

Feldhusen, J. F. (1995). Creativity: A knowledge base, metacognitive skills, and personality factors. Journal of CreativeBehavior, 29(4), 255–268.

Feldhusen, J. F., & Goh, B. E. (1995). Assessing and accessing creativity: An integrative review of theory, research, and devel-opment. Creativity Research Journal, 8(3), 231–247.

Finke, R. A. (1990). Creative imagery: Discoveries and inventions in visualization. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Ghadirian, A-M., Gregoire, P., & Kosmidis, H. (2001). Creativity and the evolution of psychopathologies. CreativityResearch Journal, 13(2), 145–148.

Jamison, K. R. (1999). A magical orange grove in a nightmare: Creativity and mood disorders. In R. Cohen (Ed.), States ofmind. New York: Wiley.

Kim, S. (2000, December). Bogglers. Discover, 98.

Kaufman, J. C. (2001). The Sylvia Plath effect: Mental illness in eminent creative writers. Journal of Creative Behavior, 35(1),37–50.

Kaufman, J. C., & Baer, J. (2002). Could Steven Spielberg manage the Yankees?: Creative thinking in different domains.Korean Journal of Thinking & Problem Solving, 12(2), 5–14.

Lloyd, B., & Howe, N. (2003). Solitary play and convergent and divergent thinking skills in preschool children. Early Child-hood Research Quarterly, 18, 22–41.

McCrae, R. R. (1987). Creativity, divergent thinking, and openness to experience. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology,52(6), 1258–1265.

McDermott, J. F. (2001). Emily Dickinson revisited: A study of periodicity in her work. American Journal of Psychiatry,158(5), 686–690.

McMullan, W. E., & Stocking, J. R. (1978). Conceptualizing creativity in three dimensions. The Journal of Creative Behavior,12, 161–167.

Michalko, M. (1998). Cracking creativity. Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press.

Ralevski, E. (2001). A study of the relationship between creativity and psychopathology. Dissertation Abstracts International,Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. Vol. 61(12–B), 6751.

Riquelme, H. (2002). Can people creative in imagery interpret ambiguous figures faster than people less creative inimagery? Journal of Creative Behavior, 36(2), 105–116.

Sternberg, R. J. (2001). What is the common thread of creativity? American Psychologist, 56(4), 360–362.

Sternberg, R. J., & Lubart, T. I. (1995). Defying the crowd. New York: The Free Press.

Tardif, T. Z., & Sternberg, R. J. (1988). What do we know about creativity? In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), The nature of creativity.New York: Cambridge University Press.

Wallach, M. A. (1985). Creativity testing and giftedness. In F. D. Horowitz & M. O’Brien (Eds.), The gifted and talented:Developmental perspectives (pp. 99–123). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Wallach, M. A., & Kogan, N. (1965). Modes of thinking in young children. New York: Holt.

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