1.BY:A manse, B ragais, C ledera

2. The first recorded manufacture of soap was in 600BC. A soap-like material found in clay cylinders during theexcavation of ancient Babylon is evidence that soap-making was known as early as 2800 B.C. Such materialswere later used as hair styling aids. Records show that ancient Egyptians bathed regularly. The Ebers Papyrus, a medical document from about1500 B.C., describes combining animal and vegetableoils with alkaline salts to form a soap-like material usedfor treating skin diseases, as well as for washing. 3. At about the same time, Moses gave the Israelitesdetailed laws governing personal cleanliness. He alsorelated cleanliness to health and religious purification. Soap got its name, according to an ancient Romanlegend, from Mount Sapo, where animals were sacrificed. Rain washed a mixture of melted animal fat, or tallow,and wood ashes down into the clay soil along the TiberRiver. Women found that this clay mixture (soap) madetheir wash cleaner with much less effort. 4. The first of the famous Roman baths, supplied with waterfrom their aqueducts, was built about 312 B.C. The bathswere luxurious, and bathing became very popular. By the second century A.D., the Greek physician, Galen,recommended soap for both medicinal and cleansingpurposes. After the fall of Rome in 467 A.D. and the resultingdecline in bathing habits, much of Europe felt the impactof filth upon public health. This lack of personalcleanliness and related unsanitary living conditionscontributed heavily to the great plagues of the MiddleAges, and especially to the Black Death of the 14thcentury. 5. It wasnt until the 17th century that cleanliness andbathing started to come back into fashion in much ofEurope.History of SoapMaking___________________ Soap-making was an established craft in Europe by theseventh century. Vegetable and animal oils were usedwith ashes of plants, along with fragrance. Italy, Spain and France were early centres of soapmanufacturing, due to their ready supply of raw materialssuch as oil from olive trees. 6. History of Soap Making _ Italy, Spain and France were early centres of soapmanufacturing, due to their ready supply of raw materialssuch as oil from olive trees. The English began making soap during the 12th century. The soap business was so good that in 1622, KingJames I granted a monopoly to a soap-maker for$100,000 a year. In the 19th century, soap was heavily taxed as a luxuryitem in several countries. When the high tax wasremoved, soap became available to ordinary people, andcleanliness standards improved. 7. History of Soap Making _ A major step toward large-scale commercial soap-makingoccurred in 1791 when a French chemist, NicholasLeblanc, patented a process for making soda ash*, orsodium carbonate, from common salt. 20 years later - The science of modern soap-making wasborn with the discovery by Michel Eugene Chevreul,(another French chemist), of the chemical nature andrelationship of fats, glycerine and fatty acids. mid-1800s - Ernest Solvay (Belgian chemist)- theammonia process, which used common table salt, orsodium chloride, to make soda ash. Solvays process 8. History of Soap Making_ 1850 - soap-making, one of North Americas fastest-growing industries. Its broad availability changed soapfrom a luxury item to an everyday necessity. 9. Soap is a cleansing agent created by the chemical reactionof a fatty acid with an alkali metal hydroxide. water-soluble sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids made from fats and oils, or their fatty acids, by treating themchemically with a strong alkali has the general chemical formula RCOOX. COMPONENTS The three main components of soap by both cost andvolume are oils, caustic and perfumes. 10. The typical composition of a couple of common classes ofcommercial soap are: Tallow soaps: 40-45% oleate, 25-30% palmitate, 15-20% stearate Coconut oil soaps (even more impure): 45-50% various C12 carboxylates, 16-20% various C14 carboxylates, 8-10% various C16 carboxylates, 5-6% oleate, 10-15% various C12 or shorter carboxylates 11. A soap molecule has twoends with differentproperties:1. A long hydrocarbon part which is hydrophobic (i.e. it dissolves in hydrocarbon).2. A short ionic part containing COO-Na+ which is hydrophilic (i.e. it dissolves in water). 12. Fats and Oils- used in soap-making come from animal or plant sources.Each fat or oil is made up of a distinctive mixture of severaldifferent triglycerides. In a triglyceride molecule, three fatty acid molecules areattached to one molecule of glycerine. There are many types oftriglycerides; each type consists of its own particularcombination of fatty acids. Fatty acids are the components offats and oils that are used in making soap. They are weak acidscomposed of two parts: A carboxylic acid group consisting ofone hydrogen (H) atom, two oxygen (O) atoms, and one carbon(C) atom, plus a hydrocarbon chain attached to the carboxylicacid group. Generally, it is made up of a long straight chain ofcarbon (C) atoms each carrying two hydrogen (H) atoms. 13. Alkali- An alkali is a soluble salt of an alkali metal likesodium or potassium. Originally, the alkalis used in soap-making were obtained from the ashes of plants, but theyare now made commercially. Today, the term alkalidescribes a substance that chemically is a base (theopposite of an acid) and that reacts with and neutralizesan acid. The common alkalis used in soap-making are sodiumhydroxide (NaOH), also called caustic soda; andpotassium hydroxide (KOH), also called caustic potash. 14. Soaps are the product of the reaction between a fat andsodiumhydroxide: 15. Soap is produced industrially in four basic steps:1. Saponification- A mixture of tallow (animal fat) and coconut oil ismixed with sodium hydroxide and heated. The soapproduced is the salt of a long chain carboxylic acid.*Saponification - process of making soap by the hydrolysis of fats and oils with alkalies 16. 2. Glycerine removal - Glycerine is more valuable than soap, so most of itis removed. Some is left in the soap to help make it softand smooth. Soap is not very soluble in salt water,whereas glycerine is, so salt is added to the wet soapcausing it to separate out into soap and glycerine in saltwater.3. Soap purification- Any remaining sodium hydroxide is neutralizedwith a weak acid such as citric acid and two thirds of theremaining water removed. 17. 4. Finishing - Additives such as preservatives, colour andperfume are added and mixed in with the soap and it isshaped into bars for sale. 18. THE COLGATE-PALMOLIVE SOAP MANUFACTURING PROCESS 19. This is a continuous process(Figure 1) which uses a plantbuilt by Binacchi & Co. Theprocess is best understood interms of two streams: soapflowing in the order given belowagainst a counter-current of lye. 20. This reaction is exothermic, and progresses quickly and efficiently ataround 125oC inside an autoclave type reactor. 21. The raw materials are continually fed into a reactor infixed proportions. Assuming a production rate of 1000 kgwet soap per hour and a 80:20 tallow:coconut oil mix. These ingredients alone would give a low water, highglycerine soap. Soap needs to be about 30% water to beeasily pumpable, and even then needs to be held ataround 70oC, so excess lye is added to hydrate the soapand dissolve out some of the glycerine. The lye added isknown as "half spent lye" and is the lye discharged fromthe washing column (see below). This lye alreadycontains some glycerine, but it is further enriched by thatformed in the saponification reaction. 22. The wet soap is pumped to a "static separator" - asettling vessel which does not use any mechanicalaction. The soap / lye mix is pumped into the tank whereit separates out on the basis of weight. The spent lyesettles to the bottom from where it is piped off to theglycerine recovery unit, while the soap rises to the topand is piped away for further processing. 23. The soap still contains most of its glycerine at this stage, andthis is removed with fresh lye in a washing column. Thecolumn has rings fixed on its inside surface. The soapsolution is added near the bottom of the column and the lyenear the top. As the lye flows down the column through thecentre, a series of rotating disks keeps the soap / lye mixtureagitated between the rings. This creates enough turbulenceto ensure good mixing between the two solutions. The rate of glycerine production is calculated and the rate atwhich fresh lye is added to the washing column then set suchthat the spent lye is 25 - 35 % glycerine. Glycerine is almostinfinitely soluble in brine, but at greater than 35% glycerinethe lye no longer efficiently removes glycerine from the soap.The soap is allowed to overflow from the top of the columnand the lye ("half spent lye") is pumped away from the bottomat a controlled rate and added to the reactor. 24. The lye is added at the top of the washing column, andthe soap removed from the column as overflow. As thelye is added near the overflow pipe the washed soap isabout 20% fresh lye, giving the soap unacceptably highwater and caustic levels. Separating off the lye lowersthe electrolyte levels to acceptable limits. The soap andlye are separated in a centrifuge, leaving a soap which is0.5% NaCl and 0.3% NaOH, and about 31% water. Thelye removed is used as fresh lye. 25. Although the caustic levels are quite low, they are stillunacceptably high for toilet and laundry soap. The NaOHis removed by reaction with a weak acid such as coconutoil (which contains significant levels of free fatty acids),coconut oil fatty acids, citric acid or phosphoric acid, withthe choice of acid being made largely on economicgrounds. Some preservative is also added at this stage. 26. Sodium stearate (Chemical formula: C17H35COO-Na+) Sodium palmitate (Chemical formula: C15H31COO-Na+) Sodium oleate (Chemical formula: C17H33COO-Na+) 27. Cheaper Toilet Soaps Mercury Soap Run and Glued Up Castile SoapSoaps Eschweger Soap Curd Soap Transparent Soap Cold made toilet soaps Shaying Soap Medicinal Soap Pumice/ Sand Soap Sulphur Soap Liquid Soap Tar Soap Textile Soap Carbolic Soap Wool Throwers Peroxide Soap 28. Glycerine recoveryAs has already been stated, glycerine is more valuablethan the soap itself, and so as much of it as possible isextracted from the soap. This is done in a three stepprocess. Step 1 - Soap removal The spent lye contains a small quantity of dissolvedsoap which must be removed before the evaporationprocess. This is done by treating the spent lye withferrous chloride. 29. Step 2 - Salt removalWater is removed from the lye in a vacuumevaporator, causing the salt to crystallize out as thesolution becomes supersaturated. This is removed in acentrifuge, dissolved in hot water and stored for use asfresh lye. When the glycerine content of the solutionreaches 80 - 85% it is pumped to the crude settling tankwhere more salt separates out. 30. Step 3 - Glycerine purification A small amount of caustic soda is added to thecrude glycerine and the solution then distilled undervacuum in a heated still. Two fractions are taken off - oneof pure glycerine and one of glycerine and water. Theglycerine thus extracted is bleached with carbon black thentransferred to drums for sale, while the water/glycerinefraction is mixed with the incoming spent lye and repeatsthe treatment cycle. 31. The lye is a main effluent source in this industry and itmainly consists of unreacted fatty matter, caustic soda,sodium chloride and glycerol. According to the above effluent analysis, it is shown thatthe effluent is highly polluted and that it should not bedischarged into the surface drains. The effluent should betreated to satisfy the tolerance levels specified fordischarge into inland surface waters. Treatment could be done either to recover glycerol andsodium chloride from spent lye or by increasing theglycerol content of the spent lye to an economical level. 32. Advantages Disadvantages Very effective as a Oils and perfume arebactericide immiscible in water and if It will form gels, emulsify spilled create havoc,oil and lower the surfacesalthough the oils dotension of water. solidify at room Excellent everydaytemperature.cleaning agent. When used in hard water, Good biodegradability soap can produced ascum.**Soaps, will react with metal ions in the waterand can form insoluble precipitates (soap scum). 33. _________History of Detergents/DetergentMaking__________ The chemistry of soap manufacturing stayed essentiallythe same until 1916, when the first synthetic detergentwas developed in Germany in response to a World War I-related shortage of fats for making soap. Known today simply as detergents, synthetic detergentsare washing and cleaning products without soap,"synthesized" or put together chemically from a variety ofraw materials. 34. Household detergent production in North America began in theearly 1930s, but did not really take off until after World War II. The first detergents were used chiefly for hand dishwashingand fine fabric laundering. The breakthrough in the development of detergents for all-purpose laundry uses came in 1946, when the first "built"detergent (containing a surfactant/builder combination) wasintroduced in the United States. By 1953, sales of detergents in the United States hadsurpassed those of soap. Now detergents have all butreplaced soap-based products for laundering, dishwashingand household cleaning. Detergents (alone or in combinationwith soap) are also found in many of the bars and liquids usedfor personal cleansing. 35. Detergents are the sodium salts of long chain benzenesulphuric acids. uses a synthetic surfactant in place of the metal fatty acidsalts used in soaps both in powder and liquid form, and sold as laundrypowders, hard surface cleansers, dish washing liquids,fabric conditioners etc. primarily surfactants, which could be produced easily frompetrochemicals. *Surfactants lower the surface tension ofwater, essentially making it wetter so that it is less likely tostick to itself and more likely to interact with oil and grease. * SURFACTANTS - SURFACE ACTIV AGENTS 36. The cleansing action is exactly similar to that of soapswhereby the formation of micelles followed byemulsification occurs.STRUCTURE *Detergents are similar in structure and function to soap,and for most uses they are more efficient than soap and so are more commonly used. In addition to the actual detergent molecule, detergents usually incorporate a variety of other ingredients that act as water softeners,free-flowing agents etc. 37. petrochemicals 38. TYPICAL INGREDIENTS: Sodium carbonate Encapsulated enzymes Sodium bicarbonate Colored beads Sodium perborate Anti-foaming powder Sodium sulphate Polymers that release Tetrahydratestains Sodium tripolyphosphate Polymers that prevent new Sodium silicatesstains Sodium percarbonate Sodium silicates Anionics 39. The first self-acting laundry detergentwas launched by Henkel in the Germanmarket on June 6, 1907, and was giventhe name Persil.The name derived from the two mostimportant chemical raw materials in theproduct, perborate and silicate.Today, both Henkel and Unilevermanufacture their own formulations. Persilis Unilevers premium brand in the UnitedKingdom and the Republic of Ireland. 40. (DETERGENT) 41. Step 1 - Slurry making The solid and liquid raw ingredients are dropped into a large tank known as a slurry mixer. As the ingredients are added the mixture heats up as a result of two exothermic reactions: the hydration of sodium tripolyphosphate and the reaction between caustic soda and linear alkylbenzenesulphonic acid. The mixture is then further heated to 85oC and stirred until it forms a homogeneous slurry. 42. Step 2 - Spray drying The slurry is deaerated in a vacuum chamber andthen separated by an atomiser into finely divided droplets.These are sprayed into a column of air at 425oC, wherethey dry instantaneously. The resultant powder is knownas base powder, and its exact treatment from this point ondepends on the product being made. 43. Step 3 - Post dosing Other ingredients are now added, and the airblown through the mixture in a fluidiser to mix them into ahomogeneous powder. Typical ingredients are listed inTable 3. 44. Step 1 - Soap premix manufactureLiquid detergent contains soap as well assynthetic surfactants. This is usually made first as apremix, then other ingredients are blended into it. This stepsimply consists of neutralising fatty acids (rather than fatsthemselves) with either caustic soda (NaOH) or potassiumhydroxide. 45. Step 2 - Ingredient mixingAll ingredients except enzymes are addedand mixed at high temperature. The ingredients used inliquid detergent manufacture are typically sodiumtripolyphosphate, caustic soda, sulphonic acid, perfumeand water. The functions of these ingredients has beencovered above. 46. Step 3 - Enzyme addition The mixture is cooled and milled, and theenzymes added in powder form. 47. AdvantagesDisadvantages biodegradable Their elimination from municipal wastewaters by do not decompose inthe usual treatments is aacidic medium. problem. have a tendency to produce As detergents are derivedstable foams in rivers thatfrom petroleum they save extend over several hundredon natural vegetable oils. meters of the river water. danger to aquatic life. can lather well even in Some surfactants arehard water*incompletely broken down with conventional treatment processes inhibit oxidation* 48. Phosphate Builders Excess of detergent foam Effluent Excess chemicals 49. Within the plant, all the process areas are also bunded,and the trade waste from there piped to an interceptiontank before draining to the councils trade waste system. The contents of the interception tank are continuouslymonitored for acidity or alkalinity, and is designed tosettle out excess solids or light phase chemicals. If a spill is detected in the plant itself, a portion of theinterception tank can be isolated off and the effects of thespill neutralized before the waste is dumped. Often an off-spec product can be reprocessed andblended rather than dumped, and even washout watercan be reprocessed to minimised the discharges from theplant. 50. Phosphates can be removed from sewage and recycled,either back into industrial products, or into foodproduction. They are thus the only recyclable detergent ingredient. 51. PHYSICALThis information applies to ingredientsprocessed through household septic tanksystems as well as municipal treatmentplants.Two basic steps occur in the treatment ofwastewater in both systems.: The first step, called primary treatment,consists of the removal of solid material,such as grit or grease, from the wastewaterby physical means, i.e., settling andflotation in tanks. The second step, called secondarytreatment, removes the dissolved materialby biological means, i.e., consumption by 52. Any small amounts of chemicals whichare not biodegraded or removed duringsewage treatment are diluted in surfacewaters, soil and the ocean. Theycontinue to biodegrade or be removedfrom water by attaching to solids, aprocess known as adsorption. 53. The manufacturing process itself is closely monitored toensure any losses are kept to a minimum. Continuousmeasurements of key properties such as electrolytelevels and moisture both ensure that the final product isbeing made to spec, and ensures the manufacturingprocess is working as it was designed to. Hence thelosses in the plant will indirectly be minimised becausethe process itself is being monitored. 54. To determine the safety of a cleaning product ingredient,industry scientists evaluate the toxicity of the ingredient.Number of Factors Affecting Exposure:- duration and frequency of exposure to the ingredient- the concentration of the ingredient at the time of exposure- the route and manner in which the exposure occurs 55. Manufacturers constantly monitor the quality of their detergents,and they utilize the same testing methods to assess theeffectiveness of new products. In one method, light is shined onto apiece of fabric that has been soiled and then washed in the testdetergent. The amount of light reflected, compared to the amountreflected by a sample of the original fabric, is a measure ofcleanliness. A reflection rate of 98 percent is considered quite goodand indicates that the detergent has cleaned properly. Another method involves laboratory burning of a small amount ofmaterial that has been soiled and then laundered. The weight of theashes, plus the weight of the gaseous results of the burning, revealhow much of the dirt remained in the fabric after laundering. Aresult that is much higher than a clean test sample indicates that asignificant amount of dirt was retained in the laundered sample.Naturally, the goal is to come as close to the weight of a cleancontrol sample as possible. 56. Personal Cleansinglaundry dishwashing HouseholdCleaning 57. Four General Categories: Personal Cleansing include bar soaps, gels, liquid soapsand heavy duty hand cleaners. Laundry available as liquids, powders, gels, sticks, spraypumps, sheets and bars Dishwashing include detergents for hand and machinedishwashing as well as some specialty products. (liquids,gels, powders, solids) Household Cleaning available as liquids, gels, powders,sheets and pads for use on painted, plastic, metal,porcelain, glass and other surfaces, and on washable floorcoverings. 58. IN THE PHILIPPINES 59. The origins of the chemical industry in the Philippines canbe traced back during the 19th century. This mainlyinvolved the small-scale and rudimentary productioninvolving some chemical processes. As early as the 1950s, leather for slippers, harness, andsoles were already being produced in Meycauayan,Bulacan, with the leather being tanned through the use ofvegetable oil tannin extract from guamachili tree, orkamachile. Shortly after, around 1875, soap making as a trade --involving the mixing of coconut oil with alkali (lye)obtained from leaching wood ashes in small iron pots --started in the country. 60. It was not until the early 20th century that moresignificant and advanced chemical activities began totake place. In 1911, the first modern soap factory was built, followedquickly by others. Intensive sales and advertising drivesdeveloped the Philippines market for soap. By the time World War II broke out, there were already135 soap establishments in the country, with only threeprocessors using modern methods. 61. THE COMPARISON 62. SOAP DETERGENT They are metal salts of These are sodium salts oflong chain higher fattylong chain hydrocarbonsacids. like alkyl sulphates or prepared from vegetablealkyl benzeneoils and animal fats.sulphonates. cannot be used effectively prepared fromin hard water as theyhydrocarbons ofproduce scum i.e., petroleum or coal.insoluble precipitates of do not produce insolubleCa2+, Mg2+, Fe2+ etc.precipitates in hard water. They are effective in soft, hard or salt water. more soluble in water 63. Chemical Process Industries 2012