Counseling Student With Special Problems

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American Educational Research Association

Counseling Students with Special ProblemsAuthor(s): D. David IslandSource: Review of Educational Research, Vol. 39, No. 2, Guidance and Counseling (Apr., 1969), pp.

239-250

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2/13

8: COUNSELING

STUDENTS

WITH

SPECIAL

PROBLEMS

D. David

Island*

University of

Washington

In

this

chapter,

research

reported

in

the

past

three

years

on

counseling

students

with

special problems

is

reviewed.

Problems

termed social-emotional

and educational

have served

as the

primary

focus,

although

some

attention

was

given

to

physical

and

intel-

lectual

problems.

A

special problem

was

defined

as

a

category

which

described

certain behavior

observed

in a

relatively

small

proportion

of

students.

Special

problem

was

not

used to

indicate

a

rigid,

unique

classi-

fication of

individuals.

In this

way,

the

interaction

between an

individual's

behavior and his environment was emphasized instead of stressing an

assumed

underlying

trait

or state.

Thus,

research

on

counseling

college-bound

students,

counseling

women,

or vocational

counseling,

for

example,

was not

searched and re-

viewed,

but

research

on

vocational

counseling

with

deaf students

or coun-

seling

students

with attendance

problems

was considered.

Experimental

research

articles

and

studies

pertaining

to

counseling

students with

special

problems

made

up

the

bulk of

the

material

reviewed.

Descriptive

studies,

theoretical

articles,

or

descriptions

of

guidance

and

counseling

programs

are

not

reviewed

here.

*Dr.

Kenneth

B.

Hoyt,

University

of

Iowa,

served

as

consultant

to Dr. Island

on

the

preparation

of

this

chapter.

http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp


3/13

240

REVIEW

OF EDUCATIONAL

RESEARCH

Special

Social and

Emotional

Problems

Research

on

counseling

students

who have

special

social

or

emotional

problems

was

unbalanced

and scattered.

Research

was either

scant

or

nonexistent on

counseling

students

with

many

kinds

of

special

social

or

emotional

problems.

For

example,

counseling

for

racial and

cultural

dis-

advantage

or

difference

and

the effects

of

poverty

or affluence

received

little

attention.

Student

nonconformity,

apathy,

alienation,

or

militancy

was

ignored.

Sexual

problems,

value

dilemmas

and

other

special

concerns

of students

were

not

investigated.

School Phobia

Recent advances in treating school phobia appear positively related

to

accurate

diagnosis

and careful

history-taking.

In

an

eight-year

study,

Kennedy

(1965)

found

that

fifty

school

phobic

cases

responded

to

treatment

with

complete

elimination

of

school

phobia.

The

therapy

described

by

Kennedy

involved:

1)

quick

referral,

2)

forced

school

attendance,

3)

brief

structured

interviews

with

parents

and

with

the

child,

and

4)

specific

instructions

to

parents

and

school

personnel

on

child

management.

A

careful

selection

of

subjects

for this

treatment

was no doubt

a

factor

in

its

success.

School

phobics

are

almost

always

treated

individually

with

a

specific

treatment.

Garvey

and Hegrenes (1966) demonstrated that systematic de-

sensitization

as

a

treatment of

choice

proved

successful.

For

twenty

consecu-

tive

days,

including Saturdays

and

Sundays,

a

therapist

worked

for

twenty

to

forty

minutes

with

a

seven-year

old

on a

step-by-step

desensitization

procedure

carried

out

entirely

in the school environment.

Getting

out of

a

car

at

school,

going

to the

steps,

walking

up

the

steps,

entering

school

and

approaching

the classroom constituted

some of

the minute

stages

of

therapy.

The entire

process

was

clearly

outlined

by

the authors.

No

subsequent

manifestations

of the

phobia

have

appeared

after

two

years.

The traditional approach to school phobia, typified by differential

diagnosis

and

individual

treatment,

may ultimately

serve

as

a

model

for

counseling

students

with

other

special

problems.

Behavior

Problems and

Delinquency

Systematic

exposure

to

identification

models who exhibit

socially

appropriate

behavior

can have a

positive

influence

in

changing

the behavior

of the

juvenile

offender.

Three

recent

studies

in

counseling

with

delinquents

illustrated

variations

of

social

modeling techniques

as

treatment

or as an

aspect

of treatment.

Persons and Pepinsky (1966) treated 41 boys at a reformatorymatched

with

controls on

age, intelligence,

race,

social

class

background,

number

of

arrests,

type

of

offense,

length

of incarceration to date and current

adjust-

ment.

For

twenty

weeks,

the

experimental boys

met twice

weekly

for

one

Vol.

39,

No. 2



4/13

COUNSELING

STUDENTS

WITH

SPECIAL

PROBLEMS 241

and

one-half

hours

of

group

therapy

plus

one

hour

of individual

therapy.

After each

session,

each

boy anonymously

identified

another

boy

in

his

group as the peer leader. Pre- and posttreatment measures taken on thera-

pists

and

subjects

included the

Taylor

Manifest

Anxiety

Scale,

Delinquency

Scale,

Minnesota

Multiphasic Personality

Inventory

and the Kuder

Prefer-

ence Record.

The

therapy,

described

as

encouraging

warm

interpersonal

relationships

with

each

boy, developing

an

understanding

and

supportive

atmosphere

and

developing

insight

into

behavior,

was

inadequately

outlined and

not

readily

replicable.

Thirty

of the

41

experimentals

(as

compared

to

12

of

the

41

controls)

were considered

successfully

treated

on the basis of behavioral

observations

and

test scores.

Test

scores for the

thirty successfully

treated

boys

moved more toward the scores of the

therapists

than toward those

of

the

perceived

peer

leaders. The

authors

warned

that

such

convergence

may

not be an

inevitable

concomitant of successful

treatment,

but

may

be

a

phenomenon

correlated

with

the

subjects judged

to

be

improved.

Sarason

(1968)

reported

pilot

studies of

counseling

with institutional-

ized

delinquents.

Control and

experimental groups

were

matched on

age,

intelligence,

and

severity

and

chronicity

of

delinquency. Experimental

groups

of

four

boys

met

for 15 sessions

with two

graduate

students

who

served

as

group

leaders-social

models. Treatment

consisted almost

entirely

of role-playing life situations of relevance to the boys, such as applying

for

a

job,

talking

with

a

policeman

and

dealing

with an

angry

father.

In

one

experimental

group

the

leader-models

acted

the

roles;

then the

boys

each

role-played

what

had been

modeled.

In

another

experimental

group,

only

the

boys

played

the

roles.

Controls received

no

treatment.

Measure-

ments

were taken

with

two

self-rating

forms of

the semantic

differential,

Wahler's

self

description

inventory,

a

cottage

behavior

rating

scale,

a

weekly

behavior

summary,

individual

diagnoses

and review

board

placement

decisions.

Preliminary analysis

showed,

in

general,

that

the

boys

who

received

the modeled

role-playing

treatment

changed

the

most

in

behaviors

and attitudes.

High

anxiety

and neuroticism were correlated with

higher

change

in the

modeling

groups.

Sarason

is

to be

commended

for his

explicit

and detailed

account

of

the

treatment

procedures

and for

conducting

a

continuing

sequence

of

experiments

over

time,

rather than

conducting

an

ad

hoc

study.

Truax et

al.

(1966)

treated

eight

groups

of ten

patients

each which

met

twice

weekly

for 24 one-hour

sessions

over

three

months. Four

groups

were

hospitalized

mental

patients;

four were

juvenile delinquents.

One half

of

the

group

received

Vicarious

Training

Pretherapy

(an

audio

tape

of

excerpts of ideal client behavior played for the group); the other half of

the

groups

received 14 extra

sessions,

starting

after the tenth

regular

session,

with the

therapist

absent. The

treatment,

labeled

group therapy,

was

not described.

Results

of

pre-post

Q-sorts

of

positive

and

negative

state-

Island



5/13

242

REVIEW

F

EDUCATIONAL

ESEARCH

ments

showed the mean

adjustment

was

in a

negative

direction for the

juvenile delinquents.

Effects

of

Vicarious

Training

Pretherapy

treatment,

however, suggested that the modeling tape facilitated change as measured

by

Q-sort.

The

use of

Q-sorts

leaves

unanswered how

and

to

what

extent,

if

at

all,

the

problem-related

behaviors

of

the

subjects

changed.

Complementing

the trend

toward the

use of

modeling

procedures

are

studies of individual

treatment

of

problem

behavior

with behavioral

tech-

niques,

illustrated

by

Wetzel

(1966).

One

boy's compulsive

stealing

be-

havior

was

virtually

eliminated

by

making

a

valued

relationship

with

a

friend

contingent

upon

certain

behavior. This

study

highlighted

the

impor-

tance

of total staff

involvement and

participation

in

the success of

any

behavior

modification

undertaking.

Cultural

and

Ethnic

Groups

Research

on

counseling

black students in

public

schools has

begun

to

appear

in

the

literature.

Gilliland

(1968)

found that black

adolescents

who

were

provided

small

group

counseling

significantly

increased

their

scores on the

Cooperative

English

Achievement

Tests,

Occupational Aspira-

tion

Scale,

and

Vocational

Development

Inventory;

they

also

improved

their Grade

Point

Average,

compared

to

nontreated controls. Two

experi-

mental

groups,

one

of

seven

boys

and

another

of

seven

girls,

received

something

called

group-centeredcounseling

once

a

week for the academic

year.

The results

seemed

altogether

too

sensational

to

be

attributed

solely

to

counseling.

What

actually

occurred

in the

weekly

sessions?

Impressive

findings

like these merit attention and

replication,

but

the treatment

was

so

vaguely

described

that

replication

would

prove

to

be most

difficult.

Schaeffer and

VonNessen

(1968)

described

a

non-experimental

study

in which

group counseling

and crisis-event

role-playing

were

used

with

acting-out

black adolescent

girls.

After four

group

sessions and

a

few

individual

contacts,

the

girls,

according

to

the

authors,

developed

skills

in

handling

aggression,

had better

relationships

with

peers

and

teachers,

and were not in any trouble requiring discipline. Unfortunately, no

objective

measures,

controls or

procedures

of

analysis

were

reported.

Thoresen

(1967)

used a behavioral

approach

in

counseling

one dis-

advantaged

black

youth

who

was not considered

college

material.

During

the student's first

year

at

a

junior

college,

he

participated

in

weekly

indi-

vidual

counseling (involving

selective

verbal and non-verbal

reinforcement

and modeled

role-playing), weekly

individual

tutoring

in

reading

and

writing,

and

had

part-time employment

as

an assistant in

a

laboratory;

he

was

paid

one dollar

per

hour for

attending

class,

taking

notes

and

being

tutored.

At

the end

of his first

year

the

student had a low B

average

in transfer level courses. This case study does not, of course, demonstrate

exactly

what combination of

activities

may

have

promoted

academic

success.

Experimentally

designed,

longitudinal

studies

could

answer some

important

questions

raised

by

this

case

study.

Vol.

39,

No.

2



6/13

COUNSELING

TUDENTS

WITH SPECIAL ROBLEMS

243

These

beginnings,

while

inadequate,

represent

a

significant

step

in

research

into areas

such as

counseling

black

students,

where counselors

need to know more about what to do and how to do it. Studies of counseling

with

ethnic and

cultural

minorities

will

undoubtedly

increase

dramatically

during

the next

few

years.

Additional

References:

Blakeman

(1967);

Day

(1967);

Duncan

(1965);

Hosford

(1968);

Kuntz

(1966);

Laxer

et

al.

(1967);

Mason

(1968);

Stewart

and

Moulton

(1966).

Special

Educational

Problems

Concern with the academic achievement of students has produced

a

deluge

of

writing

and research. Since

counseling

students with

special

educational

problems

has

historically

been

the forte of

the

counselor,

it

is

not

surprising

that

the bulk

of

material

found for

review

in

this

chapter

falls into this section.

During

the last three

years,

the

topic

of

under-

achievement

was

the most

popular

special problem

studied

(19

of the

39

research

articles

reviewed were on

underachievement).

In

contrast,

little

interest

was

displayed

in

counseling

students

with

special

educational

problems

involving

academic

attitudes,

motivation,

aspiration

levels and

decision-making.

The

inclusive characteristic

of underachievement as

a

construct has interfered

with

clearly

defining

other

educational

problems.

General

Academic

Achievement

Kramer

(1968)

in

working

with

college

students

successfully

increased

the

oral

participation

behaviors

of a

group

of

college

students.

Sixty

freshmen

in

a

study

skills course

were

assigned

to

six

groups,

three

experi-

mental

and three

control.

Each

group,

led

by

a male

counselor,

had three

men and

seven

women

in

it and met

for six one-hour sessions.

In

reinforce-

ment

counseling,

the

counselor

verbally

reinforced

responses

termed

Questioning, Responsibility and Positive; traditional counseling control

groups

emphasized

reflection,

clarification and

interpretation.

All

groups

listened

to a

social

model

tape

demonstrating

desired

responses

during

the

first

and

fourth

interview.

The

reinforcement

group

significantly

increased

their

participation

behaviors

compared

to the traditional

group,

although

most

of

the

increase

was

accounted

for

by

one

of

the three

treatment

counselors.

This

finding

pointed

out that counselor

responses

intended

to

be

reinforcing

stimuli

were not

equally

effective. Future

investigations

are

needed

to

explore

the

differential

effects

of counselor and client

charac-

teristics

as

well

as the

effects of

modeling

and

expectancy

to discover

why

some individuals change more than others. Growth curves which plot

ongoing

changes

of individual verbal

responses

would

provide

important

data

on

such

questions.

Brown

(1965),

using

scores

on the

Survey

of

Study

Habits

and

Atti-

Island



7/13

244

REVIEW

OP

EDUCATIONALESEARCH

tudes,

the.

Effective

Study

Test and Grade

Point

Average,

showed

that

peer

counselors

were

effective with

large

groups

of

college

freshmen.

Unfortunately, the treatment was not compared to a control or some

other

treatment,

nor

was

information

presented

on

what

happened

in

group counseling.

Despite

the serious

inadequacies

of

Brown's

report,

using

trained

peers

as

counselors deserves

further

investigation.

Underachievement

The notion of

underachievement is

very

confused and

complicated.

The causes

and

characteristics of

underachievement are

suggested

by

a

wealth of

labels such as

free-floating

anxiety,

negative

self-value,

hostility

toward

authority, high dependence-independence conflict and negative

interpersonal

relations

(Taylor,

1964;

Thelen

and

Harris,

1968).

Under-

achievement is

usually

defined

arbitrarily

by

the

investigator.

As

a

result,

depending

on

definition,

underachievement

is

found

both

among gifted

students

(Ewing

and

Gilbert,

1967)

and

low-ability

students

(LeMay

and

Weigel,

1966;

McGowan,

1968).

Subject

Variability

Different

methods of

selecting

subjects

not

only yield

different

types

of

underachievers,

but

also

significantly

influence

outcomes. The

study

by

Winkler et al.

(1965)

provided

an

example

of

negative

findings

due

to

improper subject

selection

and

poor

research

design.

A

group

of 121

heterogeneous

fourth-graders,

defined as

underachievers

by

a

derived GPA

and

WISC Verbal

Scale

IQ,

participated

in

one of

five

experimental

conditions. No

differences were

found,

probably

due

in

part

to

individual

differences.

Some

students

may

have had

reading

problems;

others

may

have needed individual

personal

attention;

others

may

have been

motivated

but

lacked certain academic skills.

Offering

a

treatment,

e.g.,

group

counseling,

to

a

mixed

group

is

highly likely

to

produce

no

average

gain,

since gains by some subjects are cancelled by losses of others. The Winkler

study

characterizes much that is

published

in

counseling

and offers

little

promise

of

advancing

professional

knowledge.

Such

research

should be

discouraged.

Dickenson

and Truax

(1966),

in

contrast,

limited

the

population

studied

to

a

certain

type

of

underachiever,

college

freshmen

whose ACT-

predicted

GPA was 2.2

or

higher,

but whose

first

semester

grades

were

between

1.49

and 2.00

(C

=

2.00).

Of

109

students,

48

accepted

an

invitation for

group

therapy,

thus further

homogenizing

the

subjects

on

motivation.

Students were

randomly assigned

to

treatment

conditions.

Compared to the controls, striking GPA improvements were found for the

treated

groups

after

24

counseling

sessions.

Homogeneity

on

relevant

factors

may

have

contributed to the

positive

finding.

This

study

would

have been

a

greater

contribution

if

the

nature of

the

treatment

had been

Vol.

398,

No.

2



8/13

COUNSELING

TUDENTS

WITH SPECIAL

ROBLEMS

245

specified,

permitting

replication,

and

if

the

experimenters

had controlled

for

the

Hawthorne

Effect.

Benson and Blocher (1967) also selected subjects from a homogeneous

population,

tenth-grade

underachieving boys

with

negative

feelings

and

attitudes

toward

school.

The 28

boys

who

agreed

to

participate

were

randomly

assigned

to

experimental

and control

groups.

After

18

weeks of

group counseling,

thoroughly

described but

difficult

to

replicate,

the

experimental

groups

showed

GPA

improvement

that

was

significantly

greater

on

the

average

than the

controls.

Chestnut

(1965)

suggested

that since

data on underachievers

may

not

be

linear,

different treatments

may

not

produce

changes

within

subjects

within the

same

amount of time.

In

comparing

two

types

of

group

coun-

seling

for

underachieving

male

college

students,

Chestnut found

that

one

group

had

significantly

greater

rates of

change

in

GPA after

counseling

than the other

counseling

group

or the

controls

had.

Gilbreath

(1967),

working

with the

same

students as

Chestnut,

discovered

that

treatment

effects were related

to

personality

variables as

assessed

by

the Sterns

Activity

Index.

Those

subjects

whose

scores

indicated

strong

dependency

needs,

guardedness,

emotional

constriction,

submission,

orderliness

and

deliberation were more

likely

to

improve

in

GPA if

they

participated

in

counselor-structured

group

counseling.

The converse held

true

for

their

polar opposites who were more likely to improve in GPA in group-

structured

counseling.

Since

assignment

to treatment

groups

was

not

based

on

Stems

Activity

Index

scores,

both

personality types

existed

in

all

groups,

a fact

(among

many)

which

may

have

been

partially responsible

for

neutralizing

the

effects of the two treatments.

LeMay

and

Weigel

(1966)

looked

for

possible

differential effects in

group

counseling

by

focusing

on

study

skills with

high-

and

low-ability

groups

of

poorly

achieving college

freshmen.

At the end

of one

term,

the

high-ability

experimental

groups

had a

significantly

higher

GPA

than the

low-ability groups

and

all

the

controls,

although

the

low-ability

experi-

mental

groups

had a

higher

GPA than the

low-ability

controls

only.

The

effects

of treatment

over three

months

were known

only

for the

high-ability

experimentals,

who maintained

a

significantly

higher

GPA than

the

high-

ability

controls.

Specificity of

Treatment and

Criterion

The

nature of the

treatment

is often

insufficiently

outlined

in the

reports

of

experiments.

Authors and

editors,

rather

than

limiting

treatment

descriptions

to

a few sentences

or

labels,

should

insist

on

accurate,

extensive

and detailed treatment descriptions including observation schedules and

check

lists

of

activities. The

profession

should find no comfort in the

widespread

notion

that

one

counseling

treatment

equals

another

counseling

treatment

with the

same

name

or that

something

labeled

counseling

Island



9/13

246 REVIEW OF

EDUCATIONAL

RESEARCH

applies

similarly

across

subjects. Ewing

and Gilbert

(1967,

p.

236)

typified,

unfortunately,

the

usual treatment

description

in

stating:

The nature of the counseling received can be summarized as

a combination

of normal

counseling

procedures,

in which the

counselor

attempts

to

be

helpful

to

the

client

in

regard

to whatever

problems

the

client

presents,

and

counseling

aimed

especially

at

assisting

students achieve better

grades.

However,

what

actually

are normal

procedures

and

helpful

attempts?

Katahn

et

al.

(1966),

illustrating

the trend

toward

differential

treat-

ment,

used

systematic

desensitization

coupled

with

suggestions

and advice

to

assist

14

test-anxious,

underachieving

college

students

develop

skills for

improved academic performance. In a thorough report of the treatment,

Katahn outlined

the

eight,

one-hour sessions which

resulted

in

significant

increases

in

experimental group

GPA

and

lower

anxiety

scores,

compared

to the

controls.

Using

highly

motivated volunteers with

specific

objectives

in

mind,

who

are

exposed

to

specific

brief treatment

relevant

to

their

psychodynamic

needs,

resulted

in

positive

outcomes.

Thoresen

and Neuman

(1968)

found that

group

desensitization

methods

in

general

caused

significantly

greater

decreases in

mean

change

scores than

group

insight

procedures.

Two

professionals

and

two

sub-

professionals

(first

semester

graduate

students)

each

conducted both

treatments to group of three for five sessions over a five-week period. Sub-

professional

counselors

were,

in

general,

as

effective as the

professionals.

Both

treatment

groups

showed

significant

decreases on

self-report

measures,

an

observer

checklist of anxious behaviors and

physiological

data

when

compared

to wait controls

and

no-contact

controls. A

one-year

follow-up

is

presently

being

completed.

Roth et

al.

(1967)

concluded that

control and

specificity

of

therapeutic

approaches

could lead to

developing

more

explicit

and effective

counseling

techniques,

which could

then

be

applied differentially

to certain kinds of

underachievers.

Improved

GPA is

a

commonly

found

short-term

gain

in

many

under-

achievement

investigations (Benson

and

Blocher,

1967;

Schmieding,

1966;

Dickenson

and

Truax,

1966;

Thelen

and

Harris, 1968;

Katahn

et

al.,

1966;

Leib

and

Snyder,

1967).

Many contradictory

and

negative

findings

are

also

common

(Heller

and

Gurney,

1968;

Hill

and

Grieneeks, 1966;

Chest-

nut,

1965).

Long-range

results need

greater

attention,

but

unfortunately,

few

long-range

follow-ups

have

been

published.

Goodstein

(1967),

in

following

the

original

study by

Marx

(1959),

found

that

initial

gain

in

GPA was

completely

negated

five

years

later.

In

fact,

higher

proportions

of control subjects graduated than did counseled subjects.

The rationales

for

length,

intensity,

frequency

and

schedule of treat-

ment are also

important

concerns

that

are

seldom

discussed.

For

example,

Schmieding

(1966)

exposed

his

subjects

to

three

counseling

sessions of

Vol.

39,

No. 2



10/13

COUNSELING

STUDENTS

WITH SPECIAL

PROBLEMS

247

one-half

hour

in

length

over

one

semester.

Why

three?

At

the

other

extreme,

Dickenson

and

Truax

(1966)

held

weekly

one-hour

sessions

for

12 weeks. Why 24 sessions?

Additional

References:

Abel

(1967);

D'Zurilla

(1966);

Hendrix

(1965);

Katahn

(1967);

LeMay

(1966);

Peres

(1965); Shepherd

(1965).

Implications

and Conclusions

This

selective review of research

on

counseling

students with

special

problems

revealed

four

major

trends:

1)

a

striking

increase

in

the

use

of

group counseling; 2)

increased

concern

for

behavior

change

outside the

interview

and its

relationship

to

treatment;

3)

increased

specificity

of

behavior

to

be

changed;

and

4)

some

use

of differential and

specific

treatment.

The

conspicuous

absence of

research

activity

on

counseling

students

who

have

neurological,

physical

and communication

disabilities

was dis-

turbing.

Special

problems

confronting

the

very

slow

or

the

very

rapid

learner

also

received

little attention

(Ramsey,

1967;

Sulzbacher

and

Houser,

1968;

Bimbrauer

et

al., 1965;

Wiesen

and

Watson,

1967;

Drews,

1965).

To deal

more

effectively

with the

complex

human

concerns

of students

with special problems, the profession needs well-designed experimental

studies,

others

that

replicate

and

follow-up prior

well-designed

studies,

and some

large-scale

cooperative

studies.

Investigators

should

consider

specific, psychodynamic

and

behavior-

related

diagnosis

before

treatment.

Specific

delineation of treatment

is

vital

to

the

achievement

of

an

understanding

of what

works.

A

variety

of

criterion

measures

must be

considered

as well

as new

ways

of

analyzing

data.

Dickenson

and

Truax

(1966),

in

examining

pre-

and

posttreatment

results,

counted

the

number

of

subjects

who moved from

probation

to

nonprobation status. Such data may be more important than determining

whether

or

not

significant

increases

in

average

GPA

occurred.

Helping

one

college

student

raise his

GPA

from

1.96 to 2.01

may

be,

for

him,

the

difference

between

graduating

or

not

graduating.

In

the

probation-or-

nonprobation,

pass-or-fail,

graduate-or-dropout

realistic

world

of

the stu-

dent,

the

idea

of

seeking

practical

and statistical

solutions

to

problems

seems

eminently

rational.

Research

is

needed

which

comes closer

to the

single-subject,

own-

control

design

that

has

long

characterized

operant

conditioning

studies.

(See

the

Journal

of Applied

Experimental

Analysis.)

Such

a

research

model

would focus primary attention on the behavior of individuals, baseline,

treatment

and

follow-up

performances,

and

would

move

away

from

the

increasingly

limited

value

of

designs

requiring large

N's

concerned

only

with

mean

differences.

Island



11/13

248

REVIEWOF EDUCATIONAL

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250

REVIEW

OF

EDUCATIONALESEARCH Vol.

39,

No.

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AUTHOR

Island,

D. David Address:

University

of

Washington

at

Seattle,

Washington

Title:

Assistant

Professor

Age:

33

Degrees:

B.S.,

Portland State

College;

M.A.,

Univ.

of

Minn.;

Ph.D.,

Univ.

of

Minn.

Specialization:

Nonverbal

Behavior

in

Counseling.

Counseling Student With Special Problems

Documents

Transcript of Counseling Student With Special Problems