Continuous acoustic detail affects spoken word recognition
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Continuous acoustic detail affects spoken word recognition
Bob McMurrayUniversity of Iowa
Dept. of Psychology
Implications for cognition,
development and language disorders.
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Collaborators
Richard AslinMichael TanenhausDavid GowJ. Bruce Tomblin
Joe ToscanoCheyenne MunsonDana SubikJulie Markant
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Why Speech and Word Recognition
1) Interface between perception and cognition.- Basic Categories - Meaning- Continuous Input -> Discrete representations.
2) Meaningful stimuli are almost always temporal.- Music - Visual Scenes (across
saccades)- Language
3) We understand the:- Cognitive processes (word recognition)- Perceptual processes (speech perception)- Ecology of the input (phonetics)
4) Speech is important: disordered language.
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Divisions, Divisions…
Psychology
Linguistics
Speech / Language Pathology
Speech Perception
Word Recognition, Sentence Processing
Phonetics Phonology,The Lexicon
Speech,Hearing Language
Perception (& A
ction)
Cognition
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Divisions, Divisions…
Divisions useful for framing research and focusing questions.
But:
Divisions between domains of study
can become…
Implicit models of cognitive processing.
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Acoustic
Sublexical Units
/b/
/la//a//l/ /p/
/ip/
Speech Perception• Categorization of acoustic
input into sublexical units.
LexiconWord Recognition• Identification of target word
from active sublexical units.
Divisions in Spoken Language Understanding
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Acoustic
Sublexical Units
/b/
/la//a//l/ /p/
/ip/
Speech Perception• Pattern Recognition• Normalization Processes• Stream Segregation
LexiconWord Recognition• Competition• Activation• Constraint Satisfaction
Divisions yield processes
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Acoustic
Sublexical Units
/b//la//a/
/l/ /p//ip/
Speech Perception• Extract invariant
phonemes and features.• Discard continuous
variation.
Processes yield models
Reduce Continuous Variance
LexiconWord Recognition• Identify single
referent.• Ignore competitors.
Reduce Variance
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The Variance Reduction Model
Words
Phonemes (etc)
Remove variance
Remove variance
Variance Reduction Model (VRM) Understanding speech is a process of progressively extracting invariant, discrete representations from variable, continuous input.
Continuous speech cues play a minimal role in word recognition (and probably wouldn’t be helpful anyways).
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Temporal Integration
The VRM might apply if speech were static.
“Goon”
Goal: Identify /u/Signal: Low F1, F2, High F3Noise: Initially: F2 decreasing
Later: F2 increasingPresence of anti-formant
Variance ReductionMechanisms
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Temporal Integration
But the dynamic properties make it more difficult.
“Goon”
Goal: Identify /u/Signal: Low F1, F2, High F3Noise: Initially: F2 decreasing
Later: F2 increasingPresence of anti-formant
Gone.Maybe in
STM?
Hasn’t happened
yet.
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Temporal Integration
But the dynamic properties make it more difficult.
“Goon”
Goal: Identify /u/Signal: Low F1, F2, High F3Signal': Initially: F2 decreasing
Later: F2 increasingPresence of anti-formant
Prior /g/Upcoming/n/
Gone.Maybe in
STM?
Hasn’t happened
yet.Variance Utilization Mechanisms
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Goals
1) Replace the Variance Reduction Model with the Variance Utilization Model.
3) Speculatively (and not so speculatively) examine the consequences for:
• Temporal Integration / Short Term Memory.• Development• Non-normal Development
Words
Phonemes (etc)Remove variance
Remove variance
2) Normal lexical activation processes can serve as variance utilization mechanisms.
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Outline
1) Review• Origins of the VRM.• Spoken Word Recognition.
2) Empirical Test
3) The VUM• Lexical Locus • Temporal Integration• SLI proposal
4) Developmental Consequences• Empirical Tests• Computational Model• CI proposal
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bakeryba…
basic
barrier
barricade bait
baby
Xkery
bakery
X
XXX
Online Spoken Word Recognition
• Information arrives sequentially• Fundamental Problem: At early points in time, signal is
temporarily ambiguous.
• Later arriving information disambiguates the word.
Word Recognition
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Current models of spoken word recognition
• Immediacy: Hypotheses formed from the earliest moments of input.
• Activation Based: Lexical candidates (words) receive activation to the degree they match the input.
• Parallel Processing: Multiple items are active in parallel.
• Competition: Items compete with each other for recognition.
Word Recognition
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time
Input: b... u… tt… e… r
beach
bump putter
dog
butter
Word Recognition
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These processes have been well defined for a phonemic representation of the input.
Considerably less ambiguity if we consider subphonemic information.
• Bonus: processing dynamics may solve problems in speech perception.
Example: subphonemic effects of motor processes.
Word Recognition
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Coarticulation
Sensitivity to these perceptual details might yield earlier disambiguation.
Lexical activation could retain these perceptual details.
Example: CoarticulationArticulation (lips, tongue…) reflects current, future and past events.
Subtle subphonemic variation in speech reflects temporal organization.
n ne et c
k
Any action reflects future actions as it unfolds.
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These processes have largely been ignored because of a history of evidence that perceptual variability gets discarded.
Example: Categorical Perception
Review:
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B
P
Subphonemic variation in VOT is discarded in favor of a discrete symbol (phoneme).
• Sharp identification of tokens on a continuum.
VOT
0
100
PB
% /p
/
ID (%/pa/)0
100Discrim
ination
Discrimination
• Discrimination poor within a phonetic category.
Categorical Perception
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Evidence against the strong form of Categorical Perception from psychophysical-type tasks:
Discrimination Tasks Pisoni and Tash (1974) Pisoni & Lazarus (1974)Carney, Widin & Viemeister (1977)
Training Samuel (1977)Pisoni, Aslin, Perey & Hennessy (1982)
Goodness Ratings Miller (1997)Massaro & Cohen (1983)
Categorical Perception
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Words
Phonemes (etc)Remove variance
Remove variance
CP enabled a
fundamental independence of speech perception & spoken word recognition.
Evidence against CP seen as supporting VRM (auditory vs. phonological processing mode).
Critical Prediction: continuous variation in the signal should not affect word recognition.
Variance Reduction Model
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?Does within-category acoustic detail
systematically affect higher level language?
Is there a gradient effect of subphonemic detail on lexical activation?
Experiment 1
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A gradient relationship would yield systematic effects of subphonemic information on lexical activation.
If this gradiency is useful for temporal integration, it must be preserved over time.
Need a design sensitive to both acoustic detail and detailed temporal dynamics of lexical activation.
McMurray, Aslin & Tanenhaus (2002)
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Use a speech continuum—more steps yields a better picture acoustic mapping.
KlattWorks: generate synthetic continua from natural speech.
Acoustic Detail
9-step VOT continua (0-40 ms)
6 pairs of words.beach/peach bale/pale bear/pearbump/pump bomb/palm butter/putter
6 fillers.lamp leg lock ladder lip leafshark shell shoe ship sheep shirt
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Acoustic Detail
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How do we tap on-line recognition?With an on-line task: Eye-movements
Subjects hear spoken language and manipulate objects in a visual world.
Visual world includes set of objects with interesting linguistic properties.
a beach,, a peach and some unrelated items.
Eye-movements to each object are monitored throughout the task.
Temporal Dynamics
Tanenhaus, Spivey-Knowlton, Eberhart & Sedivy, 1995
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• Relatively natural task.
• Eye-movements generated very fast (within 200ms of first bit of information).
• Eye movements time-locked to speech.
• Subjects aren’t aware of eye-movements.
• Fixation probability maps onto lexical activation..
Why use eye-movements and visual world paradigm?
Temporal Dynamics
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A moment to view the items
Task
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Task
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Bear
Repeat 1080 times
Task
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By subject: 17.25 +/- 1.33ms By item: 17.24 +/- 1.24ms
High agreement across subjects and items for category boundary.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 400
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
VOT (ms)
prop
ortio
n /p
/
B P
Identification Results
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Eye-Movement Analysis
Target = Bear
Competitor = Pear
Unrelated = Lamp, Ship
200 ms
1
2
3
4
5
Trials
Time
% fi
xatio
ns
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00.10.20.30.40.50.60.70.80.9
0 400 800 1200 1600 0 400 800 1200 1600 2000
Time (ms)
More looks to competitor than unrelated items.
VOT=0 Response= VOT=40 Response=Fi
xatio
n p
ropo
rtio
n
Eye-Movement Results
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Given that • the subject heard bear• clicked on “bear”…
How often was the subject looking at the “pear”?
Categorical Results Gradient Effect
target
competitortime
Fixa
tion
prop
ortio
n target
competitor competitorcompetitortime
Fixa
tion
prop
ortio
n target
Eye-Movement Results
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0 400 800 1200 16000
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
0 ms5 ms10 ms15 ms
VOT
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000
20 ms25 ms30 ms35 ms40 ms
VOT
Com
petit
or F
ixat
ions
Time since word onset (ms)
Response= Response=
Long-lasting gradient effect: seen throughout the timecourse of processing.
Eye-Movement Results
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0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 400.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
VOT (ms)
CategoryBoundary
Response= Response=
Looks to
Looks to C
ompe
titor
Fix
atio
ns
B: p=.017* P: p<.001***Clear effects of VOTLinear Trend B: p=.023* P: p=.002***
Area under the curve:
Eye-Movement Results
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0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 400.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
VOT (ms)
Response= Response=
Looks to
Looks to
B: p=.014* P: p=.001***Clear effects of VOTLinear Trend B: p=.009** P: p=.007**
Unambiguous Stimuli Only
CategoryBoundaryC
ompe
titor
Fix
atio
ns
Eye-Movement Results
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Summary
Subphonemic acoustic differences in VOT have gradient effect on lexical activation.
• Gradient effect of VOT on looks to the competitor.
• Seems to be long-lasting.• Effect holds even for unambiguous stimuli.
Consistent with growing body of work using priming (Andruski, Blumstein & Burton, 1994; Utman, Blumstein & Burton, 2000; Gow, 2001, 2002).
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Extensions
Basic effect has been extended to other phonetic cues.- general property of word recognition…
P
B Sh
L
Bear
Voicing (b/p)1
Laterality (l/r), Manner (b/w), Place (d/g)1
Vowels (i/I, /)2
Natural Speech (VOT)3
X Metalinguistic Tasks3
1 McMurray, Clayards, Tanenhaus &
Aslin (2004)2
McMurray & Toscano (in prep)3
McMurray, Aslin, Tanenhaus, Spivey and Subik (submitted)
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0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
VOT (ms)
CategoryBoundary
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
Response=BLooks to B
Response=PLooks to B
Com
petit
or F
ixat
ions
Basic effect has been extended to other phonetic cues.- general property of word recognition…
Lexical Sensitivity
Voicing (b/p)1
Laterality (l/r), Manner (b/w), Place (d/g)1
Vowels (i/I, /)2
Natural Speech (VOT)3
X Metalinguistic Tasks3
1 McMurray, Clayards, Tanenhaus &
Aslin (2004)2
McMurray & Toscano (in prep)3
McMurray, Aslin, Tanenhaus, Spivey and Subik (submitted)
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Voicing (b/p) Laterality (l/r), Manner (b/w), Place (d/g) Vowels (i/I, /) Natural Speech (VOT)
X Metalinguistic Tasks
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
VOT (ms)
CategoryBoundary
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
Response=BLooks to B
Response=PLooks to B
Com
petit
or F
ixat
ions
Basic effect has been extended to other phonetic cues.- general property of word recognition…
Lexical Sensitivity
1 McMurray, Clayards, Tanenhaus &
Aslin (2004)2
McMurray & Toscano (in prep)3
McMurray, Aslin, Tanenhaus, Spivey and Subik (submitted)
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1) Word recognition is systematically sensitive to subphonemic acoustic detail.
The Variance Utilization Model
2) Acoustic detail is represented as gradations in activation across the lexicon.
3) Normal word recognition processes do the work of.• Maintaining detail• Sharpening categories• Anticipating upcoming material• Resolving prior ambiguity.
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time
Input: b... u… m… p…
bun
bumper
pump
dump
bump
bomb
Gradations phonetic cues preserved as relative lexical activation.
b/p
The Variance Utilization Model
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time
Input: b... u… m… p…
bun
bumper
pump
dump
bump
bomb
Gradations phonetic cues preserved as relative lexical activation.
b/d
The Variance Utilization Model
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time
Input: b... u… m… p…
bun
bumper
pump
dump
bump
bomb
Non-phonemic distinctions preserved.(e.g. vowel length: Gow & Gordon, 1995; Salverda, Dahan & McQueen 2003)
Vowellength
The Variance Utilization Model
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time
Input: b... u… m… p…
bun
bumper
pump
dump
bump
bomb
Material only retained until it is no longer needed.Words are a conveniently sized unit.
n/m
n/m info lost
The Variance Utilization Model
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time
Input: b... u… m… p…
bun
bumper
pump
dump
bump
bomb
No need for explicit short-term memory: lexical activation persists over time.
The Variance Utilization Model
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time
Input: b... u… m… p…
bun
bumper
pump
dump
bump
bomb
Lexical competition: Perceptual warping (ala CP) results from natural competition processes.
The Variance Utilization Model
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Current models of spoken word recognition
• Immediacy:
• Activation Based:
• Parallel Processing:
• Competition:
The Variance Utilization Model
Phonetic cues not simultaneous,
Activation retains early cues.
Graded response to graded input.
Preserves alternative interpretations until confident.
Anticipatory activation for future possibilities.
Non-linear transformation of perceptual space.
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Current models of spoken word recognition
• Immediacy: Phonetic cues not simultaneous,Activation retains early cues.
• Activation Based: Graded response to graded input.
• Parallel Processing: Preserves alternative interpretations until confident.
Anticipatory activation for future possibilities.
• Competition: Non-linear transformation of perceptual space.
The Variance Utilization Model
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Current models of spoken word recognition
• Immediacy: Phonetic cues not simultaneous,Activation retains early cues.
• Parallel Processing: Preserves alternative interpretations until confident.
Anticipatory activation for future possibilities.
The Variance Utilization Model
Can lexical activation help integrate continuous acoustic cues over time?
• Regressive ambiguity resolution.• Anticipation of upcoming material.
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?Experiment 2: Regressive Ambiguity Resolution
?
How long are gradient effects of within-category detail maintained?
Can subphonemic variation play a role in ambiguity resolution?
How is information at multiple levels integrated?
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Competitor still active - easy to activate it rest of the way.
Competitor completely inactive- system will “garden-path”.
P ( misperception ) distance from boundary.
Gradient activation allows the system to hedge its bets.
What if initial portion of a stimulus was misperceived?
Misperception
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time
Input: p/b eI r ə k i t…
parakeetbarricade
Categorical Lexicon
barricade vs. parakeet
parakeet
barricade
Gradient Sensitivity
/ beIrəkeId / vs. / peIrəkit /
Misperception
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10 Pairs of b/p items.
Voiced Voiceless OverlapBumpercar Pumpernickel 6Barricade Parakeet 5Bassinet Passenger 5Blanket Plankton 5Beachball Peachpit 4Billboard Pillbox 4Drain Pipes Train Tracks 4Dreadlocks Treadmill 4Delaware Telephone 4Delicatessen Television 4
Methods (McMurray, Tanenhaus & Aslin, in prep)
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XMethods
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05101520253035
0
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300 600 900
Time (ms)
Fixa
tions
to T
arge
t
VOT
Barricade -> Parricade
Eye Movement Results
Faster activation of target as VOTs near lexical endpoint.
--Even within the non-word range.
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05101520253035
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300 600 900
Time (ms)
Fixa
tions
to T
arge
t
VOT
Barricade -> Parricade
Eye Movement Results
Parakeet -> Barakeet
300 600 900 1200
Time (ms)
Faster activation of target as VOTs near lexical endpoint.
• Even within the non-word range.
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Eye Movement Results
Effect of VOT reduced as lexical information takes over.
0
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Effe
ct S
ize
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Experiment 2b
Are results driven by the presence of the visual competitor?or
Is this a natural process of lexical activation?
X Look, Ma, no parakeet!
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Experiment 2b: Results
0
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ks to
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rica
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ks to
Par
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t• Effect found even without visual competitor.• Regressive ambiguity resolution is a general property
of lexical processes.
Barricade -> Parricade Parakeet-> Barakeet
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Gradient effect of within-category variation without minimal-pairs.
Experiment 2 Conclusions
Gradient effect long-lasting: mean POD = 240 ms.
Effect is not driven by visual context.
Regressive ambiguity resolution:• Subphonemic gradations maintained until more
information arrives.• Subphonemic gradation not maintained after
POD.• Subphonemic gradation can improve (or hinder)
recovery from garden path.
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Current models of spoken word recognition
• Immediacy: Phonetic cues not simultaneous,Activation retains early cues.
• Parallel Processing: Preserves alternative interpretations until confident.
Anticipatory activation for future possibilities.
The Variance Utilization Model
Can lexical activation help integrate continuous acoustic cues over time?
• Regressive ambiguity resolution.• Anticipation of upcoming material. ?
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Progressive Expectation Formation
Can within-category detail be used to predict future acoustic/phonetic events?
Yes: Phonological regularities create systematic within-category variation.
• Predicts future events.
(Gow & McMurray, in press)
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time
Input: m… a… rr… oo… ng… g… oo… s…
maroongoose
goatduck
Word-final coronal consonants (n, t, d) assimilate the place of the following segment.
Place assimilation -> ambiguous segments —anticipate upcoming material.
Experiment 3: Anticipation
Maroong Goose Maroon Duck
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Subject hears “select the maroon duck”“select the maroon goose”“select the maroong goose”“select the maroong duck” *
We should see faster eye-movements to “goose” after assimilated consonants.
Methods
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Results
Looks to “goose“ as a function of time
00.10.20.30.40.50.60.70.80.9
0 200 400 600Time (ms)
Fixa
tion
Prop
ortio
n
AssimilatedNon Assimilated
Onset of “goose” + oculomotor delay
Anticipatory effect on looks to non-coronal.
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Inhibitory effect on looks to coronal (duck, p=.024)
0
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0 200 400 600Time (ms)
Fixa
tion
Prop
ortio
n
AssimilatedNon Assimilated
Looks to “duck” as a function of time
Onset of “goose” + oculomotor delay
Results
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Sensitivity to subphonemic detail:• Increase priors on likely upcoming events.• Decrease priors on unlikely upcoming events.• Active Temporal Integration Process.
Occasionally assimilation creates ambiguity• Resolves prior ambiguity: mudg drinker• Similar to experiment 2…
• Progressive effect delayed 200ms by lexical competition—supports lexical locus.
Summary
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Lexical activation is exquisitely sensitive to within-category detail.
This sensitivity is useful to integrate material over time.
• Regressive Ambiguity resolution. • Progressive Facilitation
Underpins a potentially lexical role in speech perception.
Adult Summary
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Word Recognition: not separable from speech perception.
Specific Language Impairment => Deficits in:
• Speech Perception: Less categorical perception (some debate: Thibodeaux & Sussman, 1979; Coady, Kluender & Evans, in press; Manis et al, 1997; Serniclaes et al, 2004; Van Alphen et al, 2004)
• Word Recognition: Slower recognition.(Montgomery, 2002; Dollaghan, 1998)
Could word recognition deficits account for apparent perceptual deficits?
Consequences for Language Disorders
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time
Input: b... u… m… p…
bun
bumper
pump
dump
bump
bomb
Lexical competition: Perceptual warping (ala CP) results from natural competition processes.
The Variance Utilization Model
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Categorical perception:• Stimuli in the same category become closer in
perceptual space (e.g. Goldstone, 2001)
Lexical competition:• Most active lexical candidate inhibits alternatives.• Becomes more active.• More similar to prototype…• Feedsback to alter phoneme representations
(Magnuson, McMurray, Tanenhaus & Aslin, 2003)
• Two versions of same word (category) become more similar
The Variance Utilization Model
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Phonemes (etc)Feedback:p10
b90
WordsCompetes:peach10
beach90
WordsActivates:peach20
beach80
The Variance Utilization Model
Input:p20
b80
[90 10] more similar to prototype, [100 0].Perceptual space warped.
Critical step.Input warped
If competition is suppressed…
… by a low-familiarity word…should see less CP…greater sensitivity to within-category detail
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Visual World Paradigm: ideal test
• Simple task: useable with many populations.
• No meta-linguistic knowledge required.
• Used to examine:
- Lexical Activation (Allopenna et al, 1998)- Lexical Competition (Dahan et al, 2001)- Within-category sensitivity (McMurray et al, 2002)
Consequences for Language Disorders
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Proposed Research Program
Population: SLI & Normal Adolescents 16-17 y.o.Iowa Longitudinal Study (Tomblin et al)
Step 1: Word Familiarity (~200 words)Step 2: Basic Word Recognition
Stimuli: Beaker, Beetle, Speaker, etc.Step 3: Frequency effects
Familiar words more active than unfamiliar.Step 4: Gradiency (sensitivity to VOT) suppressed
for familiar words (high competition).Step 5: How do we buttress lexical activation?
Consequences for Language Disorders
(with J. Bruce Tomblin, V. Samelson, and S. Lee)
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?
Word recognition sensitive to perceptual detail.• Temporal integration.
Word recognition supports perceptual processed.• Hypothesis: related to SLI
Continuous variability NOT discarded during recognition.
Does this change how we think about development?
Consequences of VUM
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Historically, work in speech perception has been linked to development.
Sensitivity to subphonemic detail must revise our view of development.
Development
Use: Infants face additional problems:
No lexicon available to clean up noisy input: rely on acoustic regularities.
Extracting a phonology from the series of utterances.
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Sensitivity to subphonemic detail:
For 30 years, virtually all attempts to address this question have yielded categorical discrimination (e.g. Eimas, Siqueland, Jusczyk & Vigorito, 1971).
Exception: Miller & Eimas (1996).• Only at extreme VOTs.• Only when habituated to non- prototypical token.
Development
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Nonetheless, infants possess abilities that would require within-category sensitivity.
• Infants can use allophonic differences at word boundaries for segmentation (Jusczyk, Hohne & Bauman, 1999; Hohne, & Jusczyk, 1994)
• Infants can learn phonetic categories from distributional statistics (Maye, Werker & Gerken, 2002; Maye & Weiss, 2004).
Use?
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Speech production causes clustering along contrastive phonetic dimensions.
E.g. Voicing / Voice Onset TimeB: VOT ~ 0P: VOT ~ 40
Result: Bimodal distribution
Within a category, VOT forms Gaussian distribution.
VOT0ms 40ms
Statistical Category Learning
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• Extract categories from the distribution.
+voice -voice
• Record frequencies of tokens at each value along a stimulus dimension.
VOT
freq
uenc
y
0ms 50ms
To statistically learn speech categories, infants must:
• This requires ability to track specific VOTs.
Statistical Category Learning
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Known statistical learning abilities (Maye et al) predict:
• Within category sensitivity.
• Graded structure to category.
Why no demonstrations?
Statistical Category Learning
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Why no demonstrations of sensitivity?
• HabituationDiscrimination not ID.Possible selective adaptation.Possible attenuation of sensitivity.
• Synthetic speechNot ideal for infants.
• Single exemplar/continuumNot necessarily a category representation
Experiment 4: Reassess issue with improved methods.
Statistical Category Learning
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Head-Turn Preference Procedure (Jusczyk & Aslin, 1995)
Infants exposed to a chunk of language:
• Words in running speech.
• Stream of continuous speech (ala statistical learning paradigm).
• Word list.
Memory for exposed items (or abstractions) assessed:• Compare listening time between consistent and
inconsistent items.
HTPP
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Test trials start with all lights off.
HTPP
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Center Light blinks.
HTPP
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Brings infant’s attention to center.
HTPP
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One of the side-lights blinks.
HTPP
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When infant looks at side-light……he hears a word
Beach… Beach… Beach…
HTPP
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…as long as he keeps looking.
HTPP
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7.5 month old infants exposed to either 4 b-, or 4 p-words.
80 repetitions total.
Form a category of the exposed class of words.
PeachBeachPailBailPearBearPalmBomb
Measure listening time on…
VOT closer to boundaryCompetitors
Original words
Pear*Bear*BearPearPearBear
Methods
McMurray & Aslin, 2005
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B* and P* were judged /b/ or /p/ at least 90% consistently by adult listeners.
B*: 97%P*: 96%
Stimuli constructed by cross-splicing naturally produced tokens of each end point.
B: M= 3.6 ms VOTP: M= 40.7 ms VOT
B*: M=11.9 ms VOTP*: M=30.2 ms VOT
Methods
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Novelty/Familiarity preference varies across infants and experiments.
1221P
1636B
FamiliarityNoveltyWithin each group will we see evidence for gradiency?
We’re only interested in the middle stimuli (b*, p*).
Infants were classified as novelty or familiarity preferring by performance on the endpoints.
Novelty or Familiarity?
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Categorical
What about in between?
After being exposed to bear… beach… bail… bomb…
Infants who show a novelty effect……will look longer for pear than bear.
Gradient
Bear*Bear Pear
List
enin
g Ti
me
Novelty or Familiarity?
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4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10000
Target Target* Competitor
Lis
teni
ng T
ime
(ms)
BP
Exposed to:
Novelty infants (B: 36 P: 21)
Target vs. Target*:Competitor vs. Target*:
p<.001p=.017
Results
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Familiarity infants (B: 16 P: 12)
Target vs. Target*:Competitor vs. Target*:
P=.003p=.012
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10000
Target Target* Competitor
Lis
teni
ng T
ime
(ms) B
P
Exposed to:
Results
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NoveltyN=21
P P* B
.024*
.009**
P P* B
.024*
.009**
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10000
Lis
teni
ng T
ime
(ms)
Infants exposed to /p/
P* B4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
.018*
.028*
.018*
P
Lis
teni
ng T
ime
(ms)
.028*
FamiliarityN=12
Results
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NoveltyN=36
<.001**>.1
<.001**>.2
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10000
B B* P
Lis
teni
ng T
ime
(ms)
Infants exposed to /b/
FamiliarityN=16
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10000
B B* P
Lis
teni
ng T
ime
(ms)
.06.15
Results
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7.5 month old infants show gradient sensitivity to subphonemic detail.
• Clear effect for /p/• Effect attenuated for /b/.
Contrary to all previous work:
Experiment 4 Conclusions
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Reduced effect for /b/… But:
Bear Pear
List
enin
g Ti
me
Bear*
Null Effect?
Bear Pear
List
enin
g Ti
me
Bear*
Expected Result?
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• Bear* Pear
Bear Pear
List
enin
g Ti
me
Bear*
Actual result.
• Category boundary lies between Bear & Bear*- Between (3ms and 11 ms) [??]
• Within-category sensitivity in a different range?
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Same design as experiment 3.
VOTs shifted away from hypothesized boundary
Train
40.7 ms.Palm Pear Peach Pail
3.6 ms.Bomb* Bear* Beach* Bale*
-9.7 ms.Bomb Bear Beach Bale
Test:
Bomb Bear Beach Bale -9.7 ms.
Experiment 5
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Familiarity infants (34 Infants)
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
B- B P
Lis
teni
ng T
ime
(ms) =.05*
=.01**
Results
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Novelty infants (25 Infants)
=.02*
=.002**
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
B- B P
Lis
teni
ng T
ime
(ms)
Results
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• Within-category sensitivity in /b/ as well as /p/.
• Shifted category boundary in /b/: not consistent with adult boundary (or prior infant work)….
Experiment 5 Conclusions
• Graded structure supports statistical learning.
Will an implementation of this model allow us to understand developmental mechanism?
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Distributional learning model
1) Model distribution of tokens asa mixture of Gaussian distributions over phonetic dimension (e.g. VOT) .
2) After receiving an input, the Gaussian with the highest posterior probability is the “category”.
VOT
3) Each Gaussian has threeparameters:
Computational Model
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Statistical Category Learning
1) Start with a set of randomly selected Gaussians.
2) After each input, adjust each parameter to find best description of the input.
3) Start with more Gaussians than necessary--model doesn’t innately know how many categories.
-> 0 for unneeded categories.
VOT VOT
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Training:Lisker & Abramson (1964) distribution of VOTs
• Not successful with large K.• [Successful with K=2… …but what if we were learning Hindi?]
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Solution: Competition (winner-take-all)
Competition No Competition1 Category 5% 0%2 Categories 95% 0%>4 Categories 0% 100%
% in right place 95% 66%
Mechanism #1: Competition Required.Validated with neural network.
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What about the nature of the initial state?
Classic view (e.g. Werker & Tees, 1984):
• Infants start with many small (nonnative) categories.
• Lose distinctions that are not used in native language.
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Small (nonnative) categories => Large native categories.
Combining small categories: easy.
What about reverse (large => small)?
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Large (overgeneralized) categories => Smaller native categories.
Dividing large categories: hard.
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Large (overgeneralized) categories => Smaller native categories.
Dividing large categories: hard.
Mechanism #2: Combining small categories easier than dividing large.
Related to adult non-native speech perception findings?
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? ?Question:
Reduced auditory acuity in cochlear implant users.
Larger region in which stimuli are not discriminable.
Larger initial categories. Problem for learning?
Answer:
Assess non-native discrimination in CI users.
• Small categories: Auditory acuity not that bad.• Large categories: suggest different learning
mechanisms.(with J. Bruce Tomblin & B. Barker)
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Infants show graded sensitivity to subphonemic detail.• Supports variance utilization model.• Variance used for statistical learning.
Model suggests aspects of developmental mechanism:• Competition.• Starting state (large vs. small)
Remaining questions• Unexpected VOT boundary: may require 2AFC task
(anticipatory eye-movement methods)
• Role of initial category size and learning (possible CI application).
Infant Summary
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Conclusions
Infant and adults sensitive to subphonemic detail.
Continuous detail not discarded by perception / word recognition.
Normal SWR mechanisms yield:1) Temporal
Integration2) Perceptual warping
X Variance Reduction Variance Utilization
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Conclusions
Infant and adults sensitive to subphonemic detail.
Infant sensitivity allows long term phonology learning.• Potentially reveals developmental mechanism.
Competition processes:1) Potentially responsible for CP – locus of SLI?2) Essential for learning.
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Conclusions
Spoken language is defined by change.
But the information to cope with it is in the signal—if lexical processes don’t discard
it.
Within-category acoustic variation is signal, not noise.
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Head-Tracker Cam Monitor
IR Head-Tracker Emitters
EyetrackerComputer
SubjectComputer
Computers connected via Ethernet
Head
2 Eye cameras
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Bob McMurrayUniversity of Iowa
Dept. of Psychology
Implications for cognition,
development and language disorders.
Continuous acoustic detail affects spoken word recognition
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Misperception: Additional Results
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0.000.100.200.300.400.500.600.700.800.901.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Barricade
Res
pons
e R
ate
VoicedVoicelessNW
Identification Results
Parricade
0.000.100.200.300.400.500.600.700.800.901.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
VoicedVoicelessNW
Barakeet Parakeet
Res
pons
e R
ate
Significant target responses even at extreme.
Graded effects of VOT on correct response rate.
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“Garden-path” effect:Difference between looks to each target (b
vs. p) at same VOT.
VOT = 0 (/b/)
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Target
Competitor
GP Effect:Gradient effect of VOT.
Target: p<.0001Competitor: p<.0001
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Assimilation: Additional Results
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runm picks
runm takes ***
When /p/ is heard, the bilabial feature can be assumed to come from assimilation (not an underlying /m/).
When /t/ is heard, the bilabial feature is likely to be from an underlying /m/.
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Within-category detail used in recovering from assimilation: temporal integration.
• Anticipate upcoming material• Bias activations based on context
- Like Exp 2: within-category detail retained to resolve ambiguity..
Phonological variation is a source of information.
Exp 3 & 4: Conclusions
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Subject hears“select the mud drinker”“select the mudg gear” “select the mudg drinker
Critical Pair
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Initial Coronal:Mud Gear
Initial Non-Coronal:Mug Gear
Onset of “gear” Avg. offset of “gear” (402 ms)
Mudg Gear is initially ambiguous with a late bias towards “Mud”.
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Initial Coronal: Mud Drinker
Initial Non-Coronal: Mug Drinker
Onset of “drinker” Avg. offset of “drinker (408 ms)
Mudg Drinker is also ambiguous with a late bias towards “Mug” (the /g/ has to come from somewhere).
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AssimilatedNon Assimilated
Onset of “gear”
Looks to non-coronal (gear) following assimilated or non-assimilated consonant.
In the same stimuli/experiment there is also a progressive effect!
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Feedback
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Ganong (1980): Lexical information biases perception of ambiguous phonemes.
d t
duke / tukedoot / toot
% /t
/ Phoneme Restoration (Warren, 1970, Samuel, 1997).
Lexical Feedback: McClelland & Elman (1988); Magnuson, McMurray, Tanenhaus & Aslin (2003)
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Ganong (1980): Lexical information biases perception of ambiguous phonemes.
Lexical Feedback: McClelland & Elman (1988); Magnuson, McMurray, Tanenhaus & Aslin (2003)
phonemes
words
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Scales of temporal integration in word recognition
• A Word: ordered series of articulations.- Build abstract representations.- Form expectations about future events.- Fast (online) processing.
• A phonology: - Abstract across utterances.- Expectations about possible future events.- Slow (developmental) processing
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Sparseness
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Overgeneralization• large • costly: lose distinctiveness.
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Undergeneralization• small • not as costly: maintain distinctiveness.
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To increase likelihood of successful learning:• err on the side of caution.• start with small
0
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Starting
P(Su
cces
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2 Category Model39,900ModelsRun
3 Category Model
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Sparseness coefficient: % of space not strongly mapped to any category.
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0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
Training Epochs
Avg
Spa
rsen
ess C
oeff
icie
nt Starting
VOT
Small
.5-1
Unmapped space
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Start with large σ
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Training Epochs
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Coe
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20-40
Starting
VOT
.5-1
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Intermediate starting σ
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Training Epochs
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Spa
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Coe
ffic
ient
12-173-11
Starting
VOT
.5-1
20-40
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Small or even medium starting ’s lead to sparse category structure during infancy—much of phonetic space is unmapped.
To avoid overgeneralization……better to start with small estimates for
Sparse categories:Similar temporal integration to exp 2
Retain ambiguity (and partial representations) until more input is available.
Model Conclusions
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Examination of sparseness/completeness of categories needs a two alternative task.
Anticipatory Eye Movements(McMurray & Aslin, 2005)
Infants are trained to make anticipatory eye movements in response to auditory or visual stimulus.
Post-training, generalization can be assessed with respect to both targets.
bear
pail
AEM Paradigm
Quicktime Demo
Also useful with• Color• Shape• Spatial Frequency• Faces
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Anticipatory Eye Movements
Train: Bear0: LeftPail35: Right
Test: Bear0 Pear40
Bear5 Pear35
Bear10 Pear30
Bear15 Pear25
Same naturally-produced tokens from Exps 4 & 5.
palm
beach
Experiment 6
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Expected results
VOT
Adult boundary
unmapped
space
VOTVOT
Pail
Perf
orm
ance
Bear
Sparse categories
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% Correct: 67%9 / 16 Better than chance.Training Tokens {
0
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1
0 10 20 30 40
VOT
% C
orre
ct
Beach
Palm
Results