CONTEXTUAL RISKS FOR MALADJUSTMENT:

THE HIGH COSTS OF AFFLUENCE

Suniya S. LutharProfessor, Developmental and Clinical Psychology

Teachers College, Columbia University525 West 120th StreetNew York, NY 10027

USA

CONTEXTUAL RISKS FOR MALADJUSTMENT:

THE HIGH COSTS OF AFFLUENCE

         • programmatic research findings on children • characteristics of families & communities

[ cross-disciplinary evidence ]

        

RESEARCH ON AFFLUENT, SUBURBAN YOUTH

• first cohort studied as comparison group • prior studies: Inner-city peers endorse disruptive behaviors, high peer status ~ declining grades *• “inner-city phenomenon” or “adolescent phenomenon”?

Suburban school Inner-city school n 264 224 % girls 55% 54%% Caucasian 82% 13%Free/reduced lunch 1% 86%

Measurement: Multi-informant, multi-trait• self-reported problems (internalizing & externalizing)• behavioral competence (peer-, teacher-ratings, grades)

Study 1: Comparisons involving 10th graders *

Self-reported adjustment (mean scores) ___________________________________________

GIRLS BOYSSuburb In-city Suburb In-city

____________________________________________

Phys. anxiety 4.2 3.8 3.3 2.6 Worry 5.6 5.1 4.0 3.9 Social anxiety 2.8 2.7 2.9 2.4Depression 12.5 11.7 9.7 8.8 Substance use 5.0 2.8 5.1 3.5 ____________________________________________

Proportion of youth above clinical cutoffs _________________________________________________

GIRLS BOYS

Norm Suburb In-city Norm Suburb In-cityDepression 7% 22% 18% 7% 5% 1%Anxiety 17% 22% 17% 17% 26% 18%____________________________________________________Substance use

Alcohol 61% 72% 64% 61% 63% 61%Illicit drugs 38% 46% 26% 38% 59% 33% _________________________________________________

Correlates of substance use

Suburban boys & girls: • substance use linked with depression, anxiety • ‘self-medication’ to alleviate distress

Suburban boys: • substance use linked with peer popularity• links robust with controls for internalizing, externalizing & academic indices

Follow-up of sample through high school ____________________________________________

Girls above clinical cutoff 10th grade 12th grade

Depression 22% 19% Anxiety 22% 30% ____________________________________________Substance use

10th grade 12th grade Girls Boys Girls Boys

Drink to intox. 38% 42% 60% 63% Marijuana 40% 38% 60% 50% ____________________________________________

        

Longitudinal analyses: Antecedents of substance use

• hierarchical regressions, control for baseline scores • self-medication: baseline anxiety ~ increased substance use• baseline boys peer popularity ~ increased substance use

        

Summary of findings: Suburban high school students • more problems than inner-city and normative groups • prominent: substance use (boys & girls), depression (girls)• substance use

• linked with self-medication, • endorsed by peers, for boys • links found cross-sectionally and longitudinally

        

Questions:

Do problems generalize to pre-teens? Causes of such problems in ‘privileged’ groups?

• Study 2: Sixth & seventh graders in suburban school • n = 302, 92% Caucasian, median family income $102,000

Findings * problems low among 6th graders

• 7th grade girls: 14% above cutoff for depression (norms 7%)• 7th grade boys: 7% drinking to intoxication once / month, 7% marijuana use once / month

• Correlates of substance use as in Luthar & D’Avanzo (1999)

• internalizing symptoms among boys & girls• peer popularity among 7th grade boys

Roots of adjustment problems?

• drawing on evidence from sociology, clinical psychology • ethnographic data: interviews with “key informants”• two factors implicated

1. Achievement pressures • maladaptive perfectionism (self-report)• parents’ emphasis on achievements (ranking)

Parent values

How important is it to your parents that you : RANK • are respectful to others....................................... ______• attend a good college.......................................... ______• always try to help others in need....................... ______• make a lot of money in the future..................... ______• excel academically............................................. ______• are kind to others............................................... ______

(Total = 10 items)

• of 5 top-ranked (weighted) items, # achievement items added to assess Parent Emphasis on Achievement

1. Achievement pressures

• maladaptive perfectionism (self-report)• parents’ emphasis on achievements (ranking)

2. Isolation from adults

• children often alone at home (supervision after school)• little relaxed “family time” (closeness to mother, father)

Hierarchical multiple regressions _________________________________________________________

Distress Delinq Subs Use Grades G B G B G B G B

______________________________________________________________Predictors Step

  Age 1 .00 .00 .00 .12 .04 .08 .01 .05 Peer victimiztn 2 .14 .17 .06 .02 .03 .03 .02 .01

Perfectionism 7 .11 .10 .05 .03 .00 .02 .00 .01 Par achiev emph 5 .02 .00 .02 .01 .05 .00 .00 .01

Mother close 3 .16 .10 .03 .14 .08 .12 .02 .03 Father close 4 .00 .00 .00 .01 .00 .01 .11 .00  After-school sup 6 .03 .00 .07 .00 .04 .00 .01 .01_______________________________________________________________

Summary of findings: Suburban middle school students * • consistent with Luthar & D’Avanzo (1999) • 6th graders untroubled • 7th grade girls – clinically significant depression • 7th grade boys – peer approval for substance use • pathways to problems

• achievement pressures • closeness to parents

Consistency of results: Incidence of problems

• 800 teens – negative link between SES & well-being

• closeness to parents negatively linked with family income < $15,000 > 75,000

High closeness, mothers 75% 65%High closeness, fathers 66% 54%

• substance use higher among wealthy adolescents

        

Consistency of results: Correlates of substance use

• qualitative data – high SES teens use to alleviate distress • popular preadolescent boys ‘party’ (drink) in high school • adolescent boys alcohol use tied in to social conformity • college students in triad of alcohol, sports, partying

Consistency of results: Achievement pressures          • Doherty (2000) – ‘overscheduled hyperactivity’

• Suburban youth - casual attitudes to sex- achievement pressures commonly cited

• Psychotherapists re: children- achievement pressures -> stress-related symptoms- ‘intensely competitive society of the rich’- exaggerate health problems to avoid competing

Consistency of evidence: Parents’ absence

• Investigative report- syphilis outbreak among teens, Georgia suburb- youth interviews: promiscuity & isolation from parents - “disconnect between children & families”- “emptiness of houses, absence of parents”

• Psychotherapists’ reports- changing caregivers affects secure sense of self - parents appreciate children for ‘star qualities’

AFFLUENT SUBURBIA: FAMILIES &

COMMUNITIES

• comparatively more research on wealthy adults • forces affecting parents affects their children too

- evidence of problems among upper SES adults- representative explanations, at the individual,

community, & cultural level *

Wealth-unhappiness links: Cross-disciplinary evidence

Epidemiology, social psychology:

• depression higher in economically developed countries • Americans twice as rich as in 1950’s… divorce, suicide, depression rates much higher • ‘American paradox’: more striving for money ~ more numerous problems

Wealth-unhappiness links: Individual-level explanations

Sociology, social psychology, developmental psychology

• high productivity ~ high stress • pursuit of material goals ~ low access to other rewards • when Yuppie values > relationship emphasis = unhappiness • when extrinsic goals > intrinsic goals = poor mental health • cold, controlling early care → materalistic orientation • insecurity → solace in material goods

Wealth-unhappiness links: Community-level explanations

Economics, evolutionary psychology

• using market-based services inhibits support networks• wealthy communities’ inhabitants feel more friendless

• evidence of ‘true’ friendship – helped in dire need• modern conditions – few threats to survival• more amenities – few critical tests of relationships • … ‘true or fair-weather friend?’; mistrustfulness • the rich buy services → little proof of others’ concern

Wealth-unhappiness links: “Culture of affluence”

Cross-cultural & social psychology:

• individualistic cultures - transience of groups• collectivistic cultures -groups assigned, dependencies develop

• wealth => high choice in goods & services• linked with depression … because of expectations of control• failures attributed to personal factors… fosters depression

Gender specific stressors

Mothers - Isolation• intellectually rich education; home with children • miss work-related gratifications (support, efficacy)

Mothers with careers• dual pressures – at jobs & as mothers

Gender specific stressors

Fathers - career setbacks • vervet monkey, alpha males have high serotonin • on losing position, loss of serotonoin, ‘depression’• humans: challenges of rivalry & status-striving

CURRENT WORK & FUTURE DIRECTIONS Research

I. Prospective school-based study• seven-wave longitudinal study; n ~ 350; • 7, 8th, 9th grade assessments done with retention ~

90%• parallel study of inner-city cohort: 6th, 7th, 8th

gradesII. Pilot study of affluent mothers with

psychiatric disorders• parallel to current study of low SES mothers with

depressive, anxiety, substance abuse disorders, & their children

Preventive interventions

• collaborative, multi-disciplinary team • schools , Dept. Human Services, United Way, media• three major goals

I. Children• after-school program for middle school students• after-school & evening program for high school students

II. Parents• promoting understanding of children’s needs,

optimal parenting in community context• workshops organized by PTA for large groups

• for mothers experiencing trouble, small group sessions

• Relational Psychotherapy Mothers Group (RPMG trials)*

• manualized clinical interventionIII. Community

• fostering community awareness, via media campaign

Summary suburban youth not untroubled • compared to inner-city and normative samples,

more substance use & internalizing symptoms• exploration of causes; two sets of factors pressures to achieve & isolation from parents • wealthy adults also less happy than others • pursuit of material rewards affects interpersonal relationships• culture of affluence; individualism, low mutual support