CONTEXT OF OUM ZESSAR WATERSHED TUNISIA

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Mongi Sghaier, Mohamed Ouessar, Delia C. Catacutan & Mourad Briki

2.1. INTRODUCTION

Oum Zessar Watershed is located in Medenine governorate, in south Tunisia and has 36,000 hectares surface area. The watershed is part of the Jeffara of Tunisia- an area characterised by low arid Mediterranean climate with an average annual rainfall of 160 -220mm which is received on average of 30 days a year. Water availability is therefore, a major constraint for pastoral, agricultural and domestic activities. The watershed is typically an agro-pastoral interlocked area, with crop cultivation expanding rapidly in flatter areas and marginal rangelands. Expansion of crop lands has had negative effects on native rangelands, as native vegetation declines and animals have less and less area left to graze. Desertification is an on-going phenomenon, aggravated by anthropogenic pressures, which are driven by changes in socio-economic policies and population growth. In sum, Oum Zessar has the following key biophysical and socio-economic characteristics: i) degraded drylands; ii) low rainfall; iii) water scarce; iv) accelerated expansion of rain-fed and irrigated agriculture for olive trees and cereals; v) high demand for irrigation; vi) mixed communal and private agrarian system; vii) rapid population growth and urbanization. Among other factors, these make the watershed highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, complicating the challenges people face, in terms of achieving balance between improving livelihoods and environmental protection. Because of these, the region has been the locus of many research and development interventions in the agriculture, natural resources management, rural development and economic sectors. The stakeholders in Oum Zessar Watershed are highly diverse. The Observatory1 is part of ROSELT/OSS, which is a large network of researchers, policy-makers and communities, as well as national, sub-regional, and regional institutions. Other institutions involved in research and management in Oum Zessar Watershed are DG/ACTA (Direction Générale de l'Aménagement et de la Conservation des Terres Agricoles), INS (Institut National des Statistiques), IRA Medenine (Institut des Régions Arides) and CRDA (Commissariats Régionaux au Développement Agricole). As part of the Jeffara region, Oum Zessar watershed is however, relatively better off, with high stock of local knowledge in both traditional and modern irrigation, rangeland management and tree-crop cultivation. It also has a relatively good physical and social service infrastructure (water, electricity, schools, health centres, roads, etc.), available off and non-farm sources of income, and has vast lands private lands. However, not to mention ‘aridity’, the watershed faces several constraints that hamper the development of the region, mainly limited water resources and land degradation. The watershed is thus highly relevant to the study of integrated natural resource management (INRM). The relevance of local context of the watershed in relation to the site selection criteria of the AFROMAISON project is assessed and described in Table 1. Table 1 - Relevance of the local context of Oum Zessar Watershed to AFROMAISON

Selection criteria of AFROMAISON study

sites

Specific context of Oum Zessar Watershed

Multi-functional landscape

Rain-fed agriculture mainly trees, irrigated crops, rangelands, livestock (goat and cheep, camel), urbanization, agro food industry, extraction of building materials, tourism, service industry, border economic activities, transport, information/communication, etc.

It can include both Existing protected area under protected forest statute, private land, communal

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protected and non-protected areas

land

Strong competition of uses of natural resources

Water use competition by different user groups (urban, tourism, industry, agriculture).

Competition between upstream and downstream users, competition around groundwater, land resources access, privatization.

Degradation of natural resources

Wind erosion, water erosion, loss of biodiversity, salinisation

High vulnerability Aridity, drought, climate variability, poor soil

Strong local partners with good knowledge of pressing issues in INRM and well-connected with proven track record.

NGOs, local institutions, administration, researchers, networks

Existing agreements between IRA and NGOs and local institutions and technical services

Established networks with stakeholders and authorities

NGO network, scientific network, research/development network, partnership between actors.

Existing agreements and network between IRA and NGOs and local institutions and technical services.

Recently completed and current projects

Recently completed:

Jeffara project (2001-2003)- NRM approach, multidisciplinary and systemic approach

WAHIA (2000-2002)- impact assessment of NRM, water allocation, CBA

SUMMAMAD 2002-2014- NRM, livelihood,

LADA- Livelihood, INRM, assessment, ACCCA , Vulnerability to CC, NRM On-going:

ROSELT/OSS- Desertification, NRM, dynamic, observatory

DESURVEY- NRM, multi-scale

DESIRE- INRM, multi-scale

LUPIS-Impact assessment of land use policies and NRM, multi-scale, inter-sectoral

WAHARA- Assessment of INRM, multi-scale

PGRN project (funded by WB)

Area between 5,000 km² - 50,000 km²

3,600 km² - 20,000 km² Meso-scale: from the watershed to the governorate level

2.1.1. Overview of National Context

i. Location and National Economy

Located north of the 30th parallel and marked by the whims of the Mediterranean climate and the influences of the Sahara desert, Tunisia is predominantly semi-arid and arid on three-quarters of its territory. The dry desert regions occupy about 77.6% of the total land area (16,400,000 hectares). Overall, three quarters of the country are threatened by desertification, with the threat being more serious in the arid environments of the south and central regions, as well as the semi-arid areas of the Ridge and northern part of the Tell (MEAT, 1998).

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The 2009 national population of Tunisia is estimated at 10.439 million and is growing at 1.2% annually. Life expectancy is estimated at 74.5 years, with women expected to live longer (76.5) than men (72.5). The rate of schooling is very high (98%), however the illiteracy rate was recorded lower at 19% in 2010. In terms of health concerns, the ratio of medical doctors and population is 1:896. In 2010, the working population was estimated at 3,277 million; of this, 17.5% is in the agriculture sector whilst 32.71% and 48.8% are in the industry and the service sector, respectively. The rate of unemployment was 14.7% in 2010, but this is estimated to increase by up to 25%, given the expected number of university graduates by the end of 2011. In 2009, the national GDP was estimated at 57,002 Billion Tunisian Dinars (TD) with a growth rate of 3.1%. The inflation increased slightly from 2.9% in 2009 to 3.7% in 2010 (Table 1, Appendix 1). Agriculture has an important role in the economy, despite its relative decline during the last three decades due to rapid growth in other sectors especially in the service and industrial sectors. Agriculture and fishery contributed 24% of the GNP in 1972 and 8.3 % in 2009, while agricultural exports declined from 40 to 8% over the same period, during which agricultural imports fell from 20 to 9%. The arable area is about 4.8 million hectares while forests and esparto grass (Alfa) and grazing lands are 1.7 million and 3.7 million hectares, respectively. Agricultural lands are allocated as follows: i) 34% cereals; ii) 29% olive trees; iii) 11% fruit trees; iv) 6% forage; v) 3% vegetables; vi) 2% pulses; vii) 1% industrial crops; and viii) 14% fallow. Presently, the ratio of irrigated land to arable land is around 7%, but could potentially increase to 9%. This low ratio reflects the scarcity of water in the country (Ouessar & Sghaier M, 2003). Nonetheless, the country has made considerable progress in achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and is primed to achieve majority of the national targets by 2015 (Table 4, Appendix 1). The country acknowledged that progress at the national level is not always matched at the sub-regional level and disparities exist. The first MDG report published in 2004 indicates that while some regions in Tunisia have experienced remarkable strides in terms of economic and social development, other regions are still lagging behind.

ii. Government Structure and NRM Governance

Political and government structure of Tunisia

Since independence, Tunisia has always been a centralized country, where all levels of administration depend on the Central government. However, some administrative powers have been devolved to the local level. Devolution of the administrative system takes two forms: i) devolution within the context of the central ministries; and ii) delegation and devolution in the context of territorial administration through the creation of regional councils, municipal councils and rural councils. Tunisian sub-governments are formed and supported at the discretion of the Central government. The country is divided into 24 regions with both urban and rural territories. The Central government appoints governors for the regional governorates who head regional development councils. The councils include both elected and appointed members, as well as local council members. In cities, there are 257 municipal governments with elected municipal councils—these councils are responsible for providing infrastructure such as roads, streetlights, garbage collection facilities, public markets, and some form of public assistance. There are no independent local government structures in rural areas (Elissar, 2003). Table 2 summarizes the territorial organization in Tunisia before the 2011 revolution, although most of these institutions were dissolved in the current transition period.

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Table 2 - Summary of territorial organization in Tunisia

Administration/State Structure Representative body

Position, governance and responsibility

National Ministry of Interior Minister of Interior

Security Regional development

Regional 24 Governorates Governor (Wali in Arabic): *Regional development councils

Governor (Wali in Arabic): Head of the governorate, appointed by the President on the recommendation of the Minister of Interior Regional development councils: They are responsible for reviewing economic, social, environmental, cultural issues and concerns in their governorate. These councils manage the affairs of the governorate, are chaired by the governor and composed of elected people, presidents of rural councils, and representatives of regional technical services (the latter as observers).

Local 264 Delegations Delegate *Local Development Councils

Delegate: is the state representative in each delegation. He is appointed by the Minister of the Interior and under the supervision of the governor. He operates the local administration. Local Development Councils: The board is chaired by the Delegate; it is composed of the presidents of municipalities or municipal districts located in the delegation, the presidents of rural councils, heads of sectors (Omdas), representatives of technical services at the local level. This local institution is in charge of economic, social and cultural issues related to the delegation.

Local

264 urban municipalities

Mayor The municipalities: is also subject to political leadership provided by the City Council which oversees and sets policy and makes major decisions concerning the affairs of the municipality. The main role of the City council is to manage local affairs and to decide on municipal issues.

*this was suspended in the current transition phase after the revolution of January 14, 2011.

Natural resources governance

Undoubtedly, the sustainability of the natural heritage of Tunisia, which is severely threatened by land degradation and desertification, relies heavily on good governance. On a positive note, the World Bank report on the environmental performance of Tunisia in 2004, commended the government for having achieved significant institutional progress in terms of environment and natural resources management, which allows it to be well positioned, to achieve its development goals and strengthen the integration of its national economy into the global economy. The governance of natural resources in Tunisia is very old-- it is said that water governance dates back to more than 4000 years BC. The scattered ruins of the Carthaginian and Roman empires (installed by various civilizations such as the Arab-Muslims, the Hafsids, the Fatimids, Ottomans, etc.) are evidence of the richness of knowledge from thousands of years of civilization, not only in terms of

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infrastructure but also in terms of governance and management practices. Today, NRM governance varies by type of land and resources. These are discussed in turn. Governance of land and rangelands in the arid regions Management of land and collective rangelands in arid and semi arid areas of Tunisia is ensured by the Council of collective land management, which is a local institution in charge of the privatization of collective lands. The members of this local institution are elected by the community for a five year period, where they serve several functions, of which two are said to the most important ones.

Undertake any operation intended to encourage the development of collective land and improve the social conditions of community members.

Ensure maintenance of plantations and land development in the collective territory.

However, not all Councils were effective as they should be; in fact, the ineffectiveness of the Councils often hampered the privatization process of collective lands. The process was also complicated by the fact, that land degradation has been observed in already privatized lands, making the deliberation of decisions more challenging. Moreover, immense management problems in communal lands have made it difficult to decide to privatize or allocate these lands for other uses by other users (whether or not, they are subject to the forestry regime). Governance of water in the arid regions Water governance in Tunisia is very old, but since independence in 1956, this has undergone two major periods of change. The first period was marked by so-called ‘supply management’, wherein the governance of water is dominated by government interventions and centralized management through the national agencies. The second period was marked by the 1975 Water Code of Tunisia (Act No. 87-35), which established the legal instrument for water management. This Code has introduced basic provisions relating to:

Public ownership of water resources, use rights;

The role of the Administration in planning, mobilization, control and monitoring of integrated water use;

The introduction of the concept of saving water with the principle of maximum value across the country;

Protecting the water environment and re-use of treated wastewater for agriculture; and

The possibility of self-management of water resources through voluntary and private sector involvement in the management of non-conventional resources (Hamza, 2009).

In 1978, the Water Code was consolidated by the creation of two consultative bodies namely, the National Water Committee and the Public Hydraulic Domain (PHD) Commission. Following the commitment of Tunisia to its Structural Adjustment Program (SAP), water governance was gradually in-placed, through the dissolution of the offices of agricultural development and the transfer of water management to the regional administration for agricultural development or CRDA (Commissariat Regional au Développement Agricole). This period highlights the following:

Gradual disengagement of the State;

Orientation towards managing water demand;

The achievement of further institutional reforms pushing for more involvement and participation of water users and their associations; and

The decentralization of aspects related to agricultural development.

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On July 6 1987, the Water Code was amended through Law No. 87-35, which creates user associations in the hydraulic domain called Collective Interest Associations (AIC). The AICs were given important roles in the management of irrigation and drinking water supply. Reforms continued in 2001 through the Act of 26 November 2001. Water has thus, become an inalienable national wealth. Overtime, the AICs gained more government support despite their weaknesses. Since 1990, the creation of AICs was delegated to the Governor from the Minister of Agriculture (Decree No. 90-1069). Subsequently, in 1992, the financial management procedures have been modified to provide autonomy to AICs (Decree No. 92-2160). Later, the Government change the AIC to ‘Collective Interest Grouping’ (CIG), which later became Agricultural Development Grouping (GDA) in 1999. The GDA is now in-charge of the governance of all natural resources (land, water, and rangeland), agricultural production and development. This was aimed at strengthening the collective interest of members and improving their well-being. The main actors and institutions involved in natural resource governance at the regional and local levels are presented in Table 3.

Table 3 - Main institutions, roles and scale of intervention

Institutions and organizations Roles Scale

1. Administration

Regional department of agricultural development (CRDA)

Agricultural planning Carry out the agricultural development program Extension Control Support to local actors and farmers

Sub national, local

Regional department of the State domain

Land planning Control Support the local actors and farmers concerning land

Sub national, local

South development Office (ODS), Ministry of regional development

Development and agricultural planning Sub national

Governorate Ministry of interior Carry out regional development program Support technical services and regional/local organizations Control

Sub national, local

Delegation Ministry of interior Carry out local development program Support technical services and local organizations Control

Local

Local responsible (Omda) Ministry of interior

Carry out local development program Support technical services and local organizations Control

Local

2. Local Organizations and Institutions

Regional development council Regional development planning Monitoring and evaluation of the development activities and program

Sub national, local

Local development council Local development planning Monitoring and evaluation of the development activities and program

Local

Agricultural Development Grouping (ADG)

Management of natural resources Local agricultural development

Local

Collective land management Council

Privatization of collective land Local

Agricultural Services Cooperative Support agricultural production, farmers, breeders Local

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Institutions and organizations Roles Scale

Natural resource management project

Agricultural planning Carry out the agricultural development activities

Sub national, local

Rural Integrated development program

Rural development planning Carry out the rural development activities

Sub national, local

3. NGOs

Information communication Facilitation activities Supporting training and capacities building Supporting development

Sub national, local

4. Supporting institutions

Financial institutions (Banks, funds, credits and subsidies etc.)

Investment Credits Subsidies

Sub national, local

Research institutes and University

Sub national, local

Consulting offices and agencies Development and NRM planning Sub national, local

Farmers and landowners (Informal groupings, community leaders and Miâad).

Management of natural resources Local agricultural development

Local

National NRM policies, strategies and programs

Two types of policies influence the way natural resources are managed in Tunisia. The first type is resource-oriented policies which have direct influence on NRM, while the second is integrated and multi-sectoral policies which have indirect influence on NRM. Synergy is created by these policies in terms of implementation at the local level. Tunisia is also committed to various international conventions, and has ratified specific aspects of these conventions for implementation domestically. In order to honour the commitments of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), Tunisia has created in 1993, the National Commission for Sustainable Development (Bachta et al, 2003). Furthermore, Tunisia created an overarching policy for environment and sustainable development to achieve economic development, social welfare, environmental safety and national development. All these have direct influence on the territorial sustainability of Tunisia (Sghaier et al, 2009). National strategy for climate change adaptation The Tunisian government signed and ratified all treaties and international agreements related to climate change. It was signatory to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) since its adoption, in Rio, in 1992. It also adhered to the Kyoto Protocol in June 2002. Since its ratification of the UNFCCC, Tunisia has continuously encouraged efforts towards implementation of this Convention including evaluation of attenuation potential of carbon emissions from the energy, transportation, agriculture, forestry, land-use change and wastes sectors. In addition, and within the framework of the Kyoto Protocol, several activities were undertaken to set up an enabling environment for the exploitation of potential carbon emission reductions and the development of projects within the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) framework. A national strategy for accelerating the CDM process and positioning at the international carbon market was elaborated in 2005. The implementation of this strategy is supported by several programs and projects which aim

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at reinforcing national capacities to fast track the development of CDM projects by concerned sectors, particularly in the area of energy efficiency, promotion of renewable energy, management of wastes, transport, industrial processes, afforestation and reforestation. National Action Program to Combat Desertification (NAP/UNCCD Convention) Desertification is a major environmental problem in Tunisia, which threatens the living conditions of the poor, particularly in rural areas. The situation is aggravated by the effects of climate change, demographic pressure and inappropriate land and water management practices. Desertification is not only caused by natural processes but also by human-induced activities. It can be seen as both a cause and an effect of climate change, which makes ecosystems even more fragile. Since 1960s, Tunisia has taken an active part in all efforts to preserve the environment at regional and global scales. Soon after the 1992 Rio summit, Tunisia has actively taken measures for the concretization of the International Convention against desertification. Thereafter, it ratified the UNCCD convention in 1994 and developed its National Action Program to Combat Desertification (NAP) in 1998. The NAP priorities are as follows:

Strengthening the knowledge/science base to better guide policy making processes;

Establishing regional/sub-national committees to combat desertification;

Enhancing local extension services to address rural development issues;

Establishing a drought early warning system;

Supporting decentralization efforts and local governance of natural resources; and

Integrating NAP priorities into national development frameworks.

The Tunisian achievements in mitigating desertification are quite impressive. In terms of curative measures, about 1.5 million hectares of agricultural lands have been protected against erosion, and over 100,000 hectares covering oasis, irrigated areas and human facilities and communication infrastructure were protected against the invasion of sand. These are direct results of the development of 320,000 hectares of forest and 433,000 hectares of mobile dunes, as well as the construction of a range soil and water conservation structures in about 1 million hectares of land. On the other hand, 10,000 hectares of land oases have been rehabilitated to combat secondary salinisation, which is the most threatening desertification factor in irrigated areas in semi-arid and arid zones (Mhenni, 2002). On the preventive side, beside management practices and sound land exploitation, rangelands and water management techniques aimed at reducing anthropogenic pressures on these resources have been developed. Population control and development of alternative sources of production outside agriculture and livestock production in rural areas have also been vigorously pursued (PDRI new generations, ODS, etc.). Research and trainings for combating desertification, development of rain-fed and rational management of fragile resources have also been implemented by different research organizations such as IRA, CRGR and INAT. UN Convention on Biodiversity Tunisia is also committed to the guidelines and requirements of the Convention on Biodiversity (CBD). These were to be met in terms consistent with the country’s specialization, national priorities, and human resource and financial capabilities. In 1998, the Ministry of Environment endorsed the use of participatory approaches in the project development framework, with greenhouse gases effect as major component. Tunisia has in fact, elaborated a national study, action plan, and strategy for biodiversity protection. The national study provided an in-depth analysis of the state of biodiversity in Tunisia, with 5800 species identified, of which 400 are considered to be rare species. Biodiversity conservation programs have since been initiated in 2000, which was the start of the 5th

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Conference of Parties (CoP) of the CBD. Since then, it has become imperative to create programs/plans that adapt and respond to new directives of the CBD. Land privatization policy The beginning of 1964 marked the evolution of land use policies in Tunisia, particularly in the south-east regions. It was during this year that the privatization process of collective lands was first initiated (Sghaier and Fetoui, 2006). Among the objectives of the land privatisation policy is integration of common lands into the economic circle. The land title is accompanied with rights to benefit from various types of incentives such as subsidies and credits, and to exploit land resources. However, it should be noted that private transactions of land sales was already common even before the land privatization policy was implemented. Land ownership through privatization has directly influenced land use change, land use practices and exploitation of land resources, as well as employment. The policy has encouraged the extension of arboriculture, improvement of soil erosion control, and collection of surface water in areas marked by periodic and acute dryness and irregular rainfall. The impacts of land privatization policy are summarized below.

Economically, security of land tenure has led to improved productivity and agricultural employment through economic inducements such as credits and subsidies, and enabled farmers to maintain agricultural activities even in low-potential areas.

Socially, the implementation of agricultural development projects has improved the living conditions of people, reduced landownership conflicts, improved access to land, enhanced social welfare, reduced poverty rates and levels, and improved local knowledge and skills.

Environmentally, local people have become more aware and conscious of their practices. Through participatory approaches, local authorities have become closer to local people, and have worked closely with them, in raising awareness on the impacts of natural resource conservation and exploitation.

Rural development policy Rural development is also quite ancient in Tunisia, but it was after Independence in 1956 that the Government promulgated integrated policies to address both local and regional development and agricultural issues. Rural development was aimed at preventing tipping points associated with labour markets, unemployment and migration. Efforts were initially directed to marginalised rural populations in the interior and southern parts of the country. Agricultural and rural development, in spite of the limitations of natural resources, was achieved through public investments, improving the ecological, social, financial and institutional conditions in rural areas. Soil and water conservation (SWC) policy The SWC policy was initiated in 1990s and was operationalised by the Two-Decade SWC Strategy (1990-2000 & 2001-2011). In this policy, SWC programs were to be formulated based on participatory approaches and integrated watershed management planning with participation of farmers and local users. The SWC strategy focused on the following objectives (Hizem, 2009):

Protect arable lands against erosion, control of streaming and spreading of water of the risings, land utilization with construction of jessour2, tabias3 and by their consolidation into fruit-bearing and forest plantations.

Reduce rural migration, improvement of the living conditions of the population, development of the most disadvantaged zones and reduction of conflict between areas.

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Farmers take responsibility for soil and water conservation, use anti-erosion farming technologies and install SWC technologies according to the characteristics of their farms.

Create private companies that specialize on water and soil conservation.

The national budgets of the first and second SWC strategies were 562 million TD and 545 million TD, respectively. Of these, the province of Medenine received 25.2 million TD and 47 million TND. International pressures on environmental protection, natural resources management, as well as integration into the market economy were important considerations in the guidelines of the decennial SWC strategies. A new concept of integration of agricultural production differentiates these strategies from previous years, which require collective responsibility by the population. The problem of erosion was thus tackled comprehensively, taking into account technical, economic and social aspects. Policy on saving water and irrigation incentives Rainfall is a scarce resource in Tunisia. It is one among several countries stripped off of water in the Mediterranean Basin. Considering aridity and irregular rainfall, irrigation is therefore a necessary agricultural activity. Tunisia’s irrigated area is only 7% of total agricultural lands but contributes 35% of total agricultural production in the country-- 95% comes from vegetable production, 30% from dairy and 20% from agricultural export products. Tunisian agriculture has achieved over the past 30 years satisfactory growth rates, with substantial public investment; over a third of the investments were reserved for irrigated agriculture. Irrigation funds have made it possible to mobilize the main part of water resources to reach nearly 460,000 hectares of irrigated perimeters. This potentially contributes 35% of the production value in the agricultural sector. The objective is to prioritize financing of irrigated agriculture in order to enhance production and to modernize water management by departing from a supply management approach to a demand management approach which employs appropriate tariff policy, participatory and decentralized management of irrigation facilities, and efficient use of land. For this purpose, the national strategy for saving water, which applies both to public and private perimeters and the national strategy for promoting collective interests groupings (CIGs) were implemented. Since 1990s, significant reforms have supported efforts in the promotion of irrigated agriculture and rationalization of water use. A holistic approach has been implemented by these reforms legally, economically, organizationally and institutionally. The approach was aimed at:

Improving the efficiency of irrigation networks either through rehabilitation or modernization;

Improving the efficiency of individual irrigation systems and establishment of adequate pricing of irrigation water to contribute to saving water; and

A more active participation of Collective Interest Groupings (CIGs) in irrigation management and water conservation.

Since 1995, several projects under the saving water strategy for collective irrigation were designed most of which, focused on rehabilitation and modernization of irrigation networks (Derouiche, 1997). The aims were to i) contribute to water conservation; ii) quickly expand the introduction of techniques for saving water in the parcel; iii) transfer public irrigated perimeters to CIGs; and iv) improve irrigation efficiency. The National Program on Water Saving was adopted in 1995 with the aim of i) improving the efficiency of irrigation systems; ii) improving economic valuation of water; and iii) monitoring water demand with respect to available supply. Farmers’ interest in modern water saving techniques intensified with increased subsidies for water saving, ranging from 30 to 60% of the investment based on the socio-economic category of the

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farmer. Water pricing in the Public irrigated Perimeters (PIP) has a multiple structure and methods of application based on various objectives such as valorisation, recovery, intensification and cost recovery. The PIP is still largely managed by the CRDA (Regional representation of the Ministry of Agriculture), and volumetric pricing is by far, the most commonly applied pricing method. However, the flat-rate pricing (contractual tariff) is still applied in the South. National strategy to reduce the impacts of, and or mitigate drought In many parts of Tunisia, long drought is a normal recurring event that forms part of the risks of farming across agro-ecological zones. Therefore, through the formulation of a farmer-centred integrated drought management strategy, and a longer term program of action, the government expects to contribute to mitigating, and where possible, preventing serious negative impacts of future droughts on crop and livestock production. The strategy aims at avoiding market perturbation, through, for example, uncontrolled increases of feed prices, and protecting livestock flocks against the negative impact of drought. The government, through the Cereal Agency (Office des Céréales) has imported supplementary quantities of barley and Lucerne pellets and distributed them at low prices among all regions. Due to frequent drought years (1981, 1984, 1988, 1989, 1996, 1999 to 2001, etc.) and increasing losses of income, livestock, and crops, a temporal national program was developed to help, mainly small farmers facing drought, avoid livestock losses, and to reserve a budget for the implementation of this program from 1988. Decisions taken in this regard concern the following aspects:

Provision of sufficient amounts of feeds, authorizing livestock access to protected rangelands, increase areas for irrigated crops, import concentrated feeds like barley, lucerne pellets and bran;

Organize the distribution of feed resources (barley and bran) and the transport of subsidized bulky roughages;

Subsidize the price of sorghum seeds and barley;

Exoneration of roughages and imported seeds from custom taxes and added value taxes;

Distribution of donated barley (free of charge) to small holders;

Control of livestock health, subsidized vaccination, provision of exonerated veterinary medicines, etc.; and

Complementary decisions such as authorizing female slaughtering and low producing animals, and accelerating animal reforms.

In addition to the above, long-term interventions were made to alleviate the negative impacts of drought on farmers’ livelihoods such as:

Valorisation of treated (used) water in crop production;

Intensification of fodder crops by subsidizing the seeds during difficult seasons;

Valorisation of various agro-industrial by-product feed blocks;

Valorisation of straws in their treatment urea; and

Implementation of the national afforestation strategy, water and soil conservation as well as rangeland improvement.

For rangeland improvement, the Government took several measures at the national level and at the target area (Tataouine), in order to mitigate the impacts of drought on the livelihoods of agro-pastoral communities. However, the recent upsurge in concentrate feeds (since 2007) and oil prices at the international market is placing machinery-based agriculture in big trouble, thus threatening

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the livestock sector. Nonetheless, significant volumes of major concentrate feeds have been continuously imported despite sky-racketing prices—this is because feed supply in the international market has also been insufficient compared to global demands. Nevertheless, the Tunisian government has initiated urgent, short and long term strategies to save the livestock sector, mainly in arid regions like Medenine, and to ensure feed sovereignty.

2.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CASE STUDY SITE

2.2.1. Sub national context: The province of Medenine

i. Location and general information

The province of Medenine is in the south-east region of Tunisia (Figure 1) with an area of 91, 6707 hectares. Of this, 83, 4800 hectares are under agriculture or 91 % of the total area (ODS, 2006). It is an arid zone with an annual average temperature of 22°C; July has the highest average temperature (29.9°C) and January the lowest (10.6°C). Annual rainfall does not exceed 200 mm and is distributed over approximately 30 days. Winds from East/North-East are cold and wet, and frequent in winter. Winds from the South East, called ‘Chhili’ or ‘Guebli’ are hot and frequent in summer. These winds step up evapo-transpiration (ETP) rates and soil erosion. The ETP is lowest in December and the maximum is generally reached in July. The case study area therefore has extreme climatic conditions.

Figure 1- Location of Oum Zessar watershed in the province of Medenine

ii. Watershed context The choice of Oum Sezzar watershed as an AFROMAISON study area was based on its important hydrological, ecological and socio-economic functions. It is strategically important for water management since its aquifer is extracted for drinking water by the Medenine and Tataouine governorates. It also has high agriculture and socio-economic importance. The area is characterized

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by irregular rainfall, which has significant impacts on natural resources management and agricultural production. On average, the annual precipitation is 157 mm, with +/- 20% variation. The coldest months are December, January and February with occasional freezing points down to -3 °C. June to August is the warmest period and the temperature reaches as high as 48°C. The temperature is affected by its proximity to the sea and its altitude. The succession of dry years, irregularity of rain and occurrence of extreme events are key factors of land degradation in the area. The effects are less water for plant growth, lower biomass production and grain yield, and as a consequence less protection of soils by vegetation (Ouessar, 2007). Oum Zessar watershed is a good representative of the whole zone of the south eastern region, and therefore, extrapolation of case study results is possible under some basic assumptions. The geophysical zones of the watershed are presented are described and presented in Figure 2 below.

Upstream covers the mountain zones, corresponding the administrative territory of Beni Khedache delegation

Mid-stream starts from the Bhayra, Chouamakh regions at the foot of the mountain zone which is part of Beni Khedache delegation and northern Medenine delegation

Downstream starts from Koutine to the sea (Boughrara Golf), corresponding the administrative territory of Sidi Makhlouf delegation

Figure 2 - Geophysical zoning of Oum Zessar watershed

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2.2.2. Biophysical characteristics

i. Climate and Temperature

The Mediterranean climate of OUm Zessar is influenced by the Dahar and the Matmatas (continental arid) on the one hand, and the Mediterranean Sea (Gulf of Gabès, maritime arid) on the other. The climate in the upper catchment is drier with temperate conditions in winter and less arid, with mild winters in the lower catchment area (Le Houérou, 1959) (Map 1, Appendix 2). As mentioned, the coldest months are December, January and February when occasional frosts occur and temperatures can fall to -3°C. June, July and August are the hottest months when temperatures reach 48°C. Temperatures are affected by the proximity of the sea in the north and the higher altitudes in the south (Map 4, Appendix 2). Table 4 - Monthly mean temperatures (C) in Médenine and Béni Khdache collected over 20 years

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Médenine 11.3 12.9 15.7 19.0 22.5 26.2 29.1 29.2 27.2 22.8 17.2 12.8

Béni Khdache 10.4 12.2 15.3 19.0 22.3 26.6 29.3 29.9 27.0 22.2 16.4 12.2

Source: Derouiche 1997

ii. Rainfall, Evaporation and Evapo-transpiration

Low rainfall is highly variable in time and space and can fall over short periods at high intensities. Annually, the watershed receives 150 mm of rain in the downstream area and 240 mm in the upper part (Table 5). As mentioned, rains usually last 30 days (Derouiche, 1997). The wet season stretches from November to February; whereas the summer months of June, July and August are nearly rainless (Table 6). Intense showers (more than 50 mm/h) can occur any time between September and March. For example, in March 1979, an intensity of 70 mm/h was recorded in Medenine and intense shower at 75 mm/h occurred in Bhayra in October 1998 (Map 2 & Map 3, Appendix 2). Solar radiation is shown in Table 7.

Table 5 - Annual average rainfall (mm) in the study area

Station Medenine Koutine Beni Khdache

Maximum 472 591 720

Minimum 37 73 83

Coefficient of variation (%) 172 190 177

Mean 152 201 238

Source: Smaoui et al. 1997

Table 6 - Average monthly and total rainfall (mm) at five stations over 30 years

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Total

Beni Khdache 38.8 25.1 44.2 14.7 10.5 1.2 0.0 2.5 14.9 18.2 22.3 39.4 231.8

Medenine 22.0 21.5 29.2 13.4 7.4 1.2 0.1 0.5 10.0 33.7 22.2 32.8 194.0

Allamat 20.4 15.7 21.3 9.7 6.2 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.9 21.7 25.4 33.6 155.6

Koutine 24.4 21.7 25.3 8.6 7.3 0.7 0.0 4.0 14.7 23.9 26.8 43.5 200.9

Sidi Makhlouf 24.7 5.4 10.3 7.0 4.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.3 22.3 32.7 44.2 157.9

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Table 7 - Monthly solar radiation (h) in Medenine

Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug

261 224 204 189 198 210 233 255 282 295 345 332

Source: INM, 2002

With high temperatures and low rainfall, the potential evapo-transpiration (ETP) is very high, reaching 1323 mm in Medenine. Thus, the water balance is negative throughout the year (Table 8). Table 8 - Mean monthly rainfall, evapo-transpiration and water balance in Medenine (mm)

Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Tot

Rainfall 8 21 18 17 17 18 23 13 6 2 0.3 1 144

ETP 123 83 55 42 44 55 87 117 160 186 198 173 1323

Source: INM, 2002

iii. Wind

The main winds affecting the plains in winter are the cool and humid easterly and north-easterly winds and the hot and dry south-easterly winds called e Chhili or Guebli during summer. These winds accelerate evapo-transpiration and provoke soil erosion. The windiest period is February to April, extending sometimes into May, which is problematic because this coincides the flowering and ripening of seeds and fruits. Wind also plays a major role in the dispersion of diseases. The direction of winds in the mountains is not well defined but is generally from the north-east and south to north-north-west. About 41% of all winds are active since the speed exceeds 3 m/sec and can detach and transport soil particles. For Médenine, the Sirocco wind is registered on 54 days each year. In Gabès, an average of 18 days a year of violent winds (speed >16m/sec) have been recorded.

iv. Climatic indices

The climatic index defined by Emberger is the most common index used in Tunisia. For Médenine the climatic index (Q) equals 16.9, where Q equals 2000P/(M2-m2), P equals the mean annual precipitation (mm), M equals the mean maximum annual temperature (°K) and m equals the mean minimum annual temperature (°K). Drought occurs every 4 - 5 years.

v. Hydrogeology

The underground water resources could be subdivided into two deep water tables and surface water tables (Ouessar, 2007). The deepest water table is the aquifer of Zeuss-Koutine. Consisting of layers of Jurassic age, it is situated between the mountains in the southwest, the submerging jurassics of the Tadjeras in the south-east, and the fault of Médenine in the north east. It is sustained by infiltrating water from the oueds Zigzaou, Zeus, and Oum Zessar and the C.I. or Continental Intercalaire. The second is that of Grès du Trias, extending from Harboub in the south, the zone of Médenine and Metameur in the east, Oued Hallouf in the north, and the Dahar fault in the west. Fed by the oueds of the plain of El Ababsa, it dwells in formations of the upper Trias. Salinity ranges from 0.9 g/l at El Megarine and 1.5 at Harboub. The average depth is about 150 m (Map 8, Appendix 2). Infiltration of runoff carried by the oueds Zigzaou, Zeuss and Oum Zessar mainly occurs north of the fault of Médenine. Here, the calcareous Jurassic strata are characterised by strong cracking which facilitates infiltration. The mountain region around Beni Khdache is classified as a favourable zone. South of the fault is the calcareous strata which are covered by an almost impermeable layer of marl and gypsum, which obstructs water infiltration from reaching the aquifer. The surface water tables are found in the form of shallow aquifers within less than 50 m depth. They are mostly generated by subsurface underflow of the big oueds. The underflow table of Oued Oum

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Zessar is situated in the upstream area, in alluvials on a Jurassic substratum. Depths may vary between 2 and 20 m, and the salt content is around 3 g/l. Downstream, and east of the route Gabès-Médenine, the substratum is formed by the mioplioquarternary of the Jeffara, where salt contents are increasing between 2 and 5 g/l with depths between 10 and 20 m (Ouessar, 2007).

vi. Edaphic environment: Geomorphology

Oum Zessar watershed is situated at the edge of two major geological landscapes, the Jebel Matmata and the Jeffara plain. The Jebel Matmata crosses the Governorates of Gabes and Médenine from the north-west to the south-east. In the south, the range is lower, which is cut into a number of hills that averages 400 m in height, whereas in the north altitudes, this could reach up to 600 m. The structure of the relief is clearly visible because of the absence of soil and vegetation. Many slopes are totally denuded by wind or water erosion (Mzabi, 1988) (Map 5 & Map 6, Appendix 2). The geological formations are of alternating continental and marine origin. The ages of the submerged layers range between marine superior Permian and recent Quaterneray. The recent Quaternary is represented by fine sediment loads of eolian origin which are deposited in the valleys and depressions in the Matmata region, and alluvial in the beds of the oueds, showing a decreasing coarseness when going downstream. Everywhere, the clayey sand formations are covered by Quaternary sediments made of calcareous or gypsic crusts (Mzabi, 1988).

vii. Physio-geography and topography

Oum Zessar can be considered the most important watershed in the region because it has the largest area (367 km2) and perimeter (118 km) with a very dense stream system. With compacity index of 1.72, it has an elongated shape. The relief is classed as fairly high. The network starts in the Matmata mountains (Kef Nsoura (715 m), Moggar (651m), Mzenzen (690 m), and then drains the western parts of Tajera and Rouis, and the eastern parts of Zemlet Leben. The main tributaries are oued Negueb, oued Hallouf, oued Moggar, oued Nkim, oued Koutine. They become oued Oum Zessar which flows into Sebkhat Oum Zessar before reaching the Gulf of Gabès. The average annual runoff volume is estimated at 4.7 million m3 (Ouessar, 2007).

viii. Soils

Soils were classified according to four French soil classifications (Mtimet, 1983), which are described below (Map 7, Appendix 2). Sols minéraux bruts et sols peu évolués are soils with poor pedogenetic evolution laying over mineral material and/or recently formed, and are further classified as:

Lithosols and régosols--are soils where scouring and erosion is faster than the pedogenesis. They are squeletic and shallow soils laying over either soft rocks (régosols), found mainly in Beni Khdache and Sidi Makhlouf, or on hard rocks (lithosols) in Beni Khdache and Koutine. They form geological outcroppings with difficult access. They are generally used for grazing and/or runoff collecting areas of water harvesting (WH) units.

Sols minéraux bruts d’apport - this soil is especially dependent on the climatic conditions of the region, especially wind velocity. They are formed of mobile sand dunes (Allamat and Sidi Maklouf) and can be found in the vicinity of the saline depressions (sebkhat Oum Zessar).

Sols peu évolués d’apport colluvial et alluvia l- are generally relatively deep soils resulting from water erosion and/or wind transport depositions. They are found in wadis beds, alluvial plains and behind water-harvesting structures (jessours, tabias, etc.). The quaternary loam eolian deposits (loess) are found mainly in the upper section of the watershed in the form of relatively deep red to beige accumulations inside the deep valleys (Hallouf, Moggar, Nagb).

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Sols isohumiques - these are young subtropical brown soils (sérozem) with soft or hard calcareous crust. They are characterized by an inverse gradient of organic matter and Ca-carbonates. The soil profile is of silt to sandy silt texture with fairly deep horizon with Ca pseudo-mycelium or Ca-nodules. They are found in the glacis areas and the plain of Jeffara. Sols calcimagnésiques - these are generally overlay calcareous of gypsic crusting. The soil horizon has a dark brown or gray colour; fine to medium texture and an individualized structure. Because of its colonization by plant roots, the organic matter is relatively important. This type of soils is usually found in piedmonts and downstream areas. Sols halomorphes - this group of soils is essentially found at the level of the saline depressions (sebkhas). These soils are characterized by a variation of the soluble salts (50 to 150 mS/cm). Because of high evaporation, most of the soluble salts migrate towards the surface of soil forming a salty compact crust with sodium chlorides.

2.2.3. Land cover/use

Rangelands are the dominant land use in the watershed (Figure 3). The vegetation is mostly steppe but the species composition is highly variable depending on relief and soil type. In the mountain zone, the vegetation cover is mostly made of Stipa tenacissima, Artemisia herba alba, Reaumuria vermiculata and Gymnocarpos decander, which is a result of degradation of Pinus halepensis, Juniperus phoenica and Pistacia atlantica---which completely vanished in the area due to a long history of tree harvesting. Moving down from the hills, Hammada scoparia and Heliantheman kahiricum replaced Stipa tenacissima. Olives are grown in both jessour and tabias, and is therefore, a dominant tree crop in the watershed. The wadi beds and water courses are characterized by high biodiversity and vegetative species richness which may be due to different bio-geographical origin of seeds. The most dominant species are Retama retaem, Nerium oleander, Pennissetum elatum, Marrubium deserti, Juncus maritimus, Cenchrus ciliaris, Rhanterium suaveolens and Thymus adriensis. The characteristics of the main four ecological systems in the study area were summarized from the studies of Hanafi and Ouled Belgacem (2006) (Map 8, Appendix 2).

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Alamet

Koutine

El Grine

Chouamekh

El Bhayra

Ksar JedidKsar Hallouf

Béni Khedache

Sidi Makhlouf

Dkhilet Toujène

600000 620000 640000 660000

36

80

00

037

00

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037

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00

0µ

0 10 205

Km

Legend

Cereals

Olives on jessour

Olives on tabias

Halophytes in the saline depression

Rangelands on the mountains

Rangelands on plains

_̂ City

Figure 3 - 2004 land use map of Oum Zessar watershed An assessment of land use change from 1972 to 2001 identified four dominant land uses namely, pure steppe, pure crops, steppe-crop mosaics, and crops-steppe mosaics (Figure 4). The assessment highlighted the impacts of agricultural activities, but huge impacts were found in developed areas in the piedmonts as well as in the lowlands. Abandonment of land is quite common in the central hills. This could be due to unsuitability of land to agriculture, frequency of drought, and out-migration of the residents. Table 9 presents the pattern of land use change—notably, pure crops expanded tremendously (200%), with tree crops (olive tree) expanding towards the crop-steppe mosaic area (rangelands). Table 9 - Change in land use in the Jeffara between 1972 and 2001

Land use/vegetation type 1972 2001 Change in area(ha) % change

Pure Steppe 33700 21500 - 12200 -36

Pure crops 2700 8100 5400 200

Steppe – crops mosaics 47300 40000 -7300 -15

Crops–steppe mosaics 36900 51000 14100 38

Total 120600 120600

Source: Hanafi & Ouled Belgacem, 2006

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Figure 4 - General land use map 1972 - 2001

2.2.4. Demography, socio-cultural-economic characteristics

i. Population

The watershed stretches to 10 locations, which cover three delegations such as Beni Khédache (3 locations), Northern Médenine (3 locations) and Sidi Makhlouf (4 locations). The 2004 census of population registered 20,213 people, which were respectively distributed in the three delegations as follows: 5538, 9896 and 4779. The people living in the catchment of Oum Zessar is 24.4 % of the total population of the three delegations, indicating the level of human pressure on the natural resource base. Population data is used in socio-economic analysis, to assess the sensitivity of an area to degradation due to human pressure. The population density per land use type or zone is shown in Table 10. The average population density is quite low with 30 inhabitants/km², but the plain region doubles this number with 60 inhabitants/km². The area with the lowest population density is the Dhahar Mountains where the socio economic and living conditions are very harsh. Table 10 - Population density per land use type (INS, 2004)

Zone Density (inhabitants/km²) Classes

Dahar mountains 15.6 Low

Jeffara mountains 38.9 Low

Jeffara plains 60.4 Moderate

Total zone 34 Low

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ii. Household income

Farm income plays a very important role in decision-making with respect to land management. Farmers tend to adopt every possible strategy to preserve the soil and the environment if farm incomes are sufficient or in surplus. Income data was obtained through the Jeffara project and is shown in Table 11. Annual household incomes were estimated for the Dahar moutains, Jeffara mountains and Jeffara plain respectively at 2,594; 3,068 and 2,397 TND. Compared to the minimum wage in the agricultural sector, this is quite acceptable, taking into account the harsh conditions in the area. However, off-farm incomes from parallel employment in other sectors such as in industries, municipal and state governments are also available. In fact, off-farm incomes contribute quite significantly to total family incomes (TFI) between 21% and 28.5%, in the plain and in the mountains, respectively (Table 11). Table 11 - Percent contribution of off-farm income to TFI (Sghaier et. al., 2003)

Zone Off-farm income (OFI) Farm income Total family income (TFI) OFI*100/TFI

Dahar mountains 1360 1708 3068 23.4

Jeffara mountains 845 1749 2594 28.5

Jeffara plains 601 1795 2397 21

iii. Economic activities

Agriculture is dominated by nomad pastoral system. However, in Medenine area, agriculture activities are increasingly becoming more diverse including breeding and fishing, as a result of increasing needs of a growing population, exposure to new technologies, availability of natural resources (water, soil, and vegetation) and market integration. The agricultural sector contributes around 25% of the economy of the governorate. Moreover, agricultural exports of aquatic/sea products are valued around 35 million TND. However, the sector is continuously confronted by various problems including desertification, lack of water, marginalization of pasture lands, low productivity, and competitive markets. Ultimately, agricultural production is highly dependent on climatic conditions; the most evident case is in the cereal culture which has reduced significantly due to harsh climatic conditions. Marginalisation of pasture lands and limited production of irrigated fodder on the one hand, and the increase of livestock on the other hand, has led to increased dependence on commercial fodder, part of which is imported. Underground water scarcity has been the major constraint to irrigated agriculture in the area. Several studies have also shown that the septentrional coast of Djerba and the sea of Boughrara have become increasingly polluted due to human-induced activities. Other economic activities in Medenine revolve around the tourism industry, specifically arts and crafts making, servicing and building construction. Agro-ecotourism has boomed due to its magnificent landscape beauty of geographic units of mosaic landscapes where ecological (geology, vegetation), agricultural (pluvial agriculture, irrigated agriculture), archaeological (Roman ruins, Ksours, mosques) and cultural (matrimonial traditions, handicraft traditions, culinary traditions, etc.) traditions abound. At the mountain side of Beni Khédache lies a significant hydro-agricultural heritage which dates back in the 15th century. It features technical traditions for collecting pluvial waters for agricultural production; troglodyte houses dug in rocks like those in Matmata are also common in this area. The rise of tourism industry has led to valorization of agricultural products for agribusiness, especially from olive trees and processing/packaging of marine products. However, in general, industrial activities have been limited due to the absence of a favourable industrial environment, lack of local

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investment and high transport costs, despite the proximity of the Libyan market, the international airport in Djerba and the commercial seaport in Zarzis. Industrialization could have been a potential economic venture that can absorb a burgeoning manpower.

iv. Policy-institutional indicator

Policy enforcement refers to the implementation of existing regulations on environmental protection. The policy enforcement indicator is used to assess the degree of application of specific regulation on environmental protection. For this study, water harvesting technique (WHT), which was promoted under the terracing protection policy was used to assess the extent of policy enforcement (Table 12). It was found that many residents in the Jeffara plains have used WHT to protect their farm terraces, followed by residents in Jeffara and Dahar mountains. Overall, the compliance ratio of the terracing protection policy is about 58%. Table 12 - Ratio of terracing protection per land use type/zone

Zone Ratio of protected area (%)

Dahar mountains 45

Jeffara mountains 75

Jeffara plains 95

Total 57.5 Source: Sghaier et al., 2003

v. Land tenure and ownership

The different tribes living in the watershed have different claims to the remaining collective land, and have been pushing for privatization of lands. Currently, the land management councils are mandated to carry out the privatisation process. The land ownership and tenure systems are described and shown in Figure 5.

Collective lands are owned by more than two owners from different tribes. This represents 13% or 4,489 hectares in the watershed.

Domanial lands are owned by government, and are about 321 hectares or 1% of the total watershed area.

Lands for assignment are proposed for privatization, which is about 10,503 hectares or 31% of total watershed area.

Private lands are attributed to individuals since 1964, which is about 18,287 hectares or 54% of the total watershed area.

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Figure 5 - Land use tenure system in the watershed of Oum Zessar (WAHIA, 2002) Figure 6 shows that farm sizes in Oum Zessar watershed range from <1 hectare to >50 hectares, although the most dominant is between 1-1.5 hectares, followed by 1.6-hectares. Notably, there is very little variation of farm sizes between the three zones.

Figure 6 - Size of cultivation by percentage, by zone Land access and related issues such rights, conflict, and cooperation are summarized in Table 13. Apparently, land conflict is not that serious between individuals and between tribes. Conflict on resource use is mitigated through collective action and cooperation.

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Table 13 - Land access: rights, conflict and cooperation

Statute Rights Conflict Cooperation

Private land Private owners Generally, no conflict Intermittent boundary conflict between private owners

Collective action among private owners related to water, soil, infrastructure (road, dams, etc.)

State-owned land

State Conflict between persons entitled to land and the administration

Lands intended for assignment

persons entitled to land from the same and/or from different tribes

Between owners from the same tribe and between different tribes

Strong cooperation between owners to accelerate the privatization of land

Collective land

persons entitled to land from the same and/or from different tribes

Conflict between persons entitled to land from the same and/or from different tribes Conflicts around uses (pasture, water access)

Cooperation between persons entitled to land

2.2.5. Farming systems and practices

i. Farming systems The farming systems in Oum Zessar are varied, with distinctive differences between upstream and downstream areas. These systems are generally distinguished by:

Irregular or seasonal agricultural production, with inter-annual variation depending on rainfall

Arboriculture expansion of newly cultivated fields

Extensive livestock systems that are highly dependent on natural grazing lands, to intensive livestock system

Irrigated agriculture which exploits both surface and deep ground water aquifers

Olive trees (almost 90 %) and episodic cereals.

In particular, the farming systems are the following:

Jessour System

The jessour system is mainly practiced in the mountainous area of Beni Khedache and Moggar. The system is known to be an ancient Water Harvesting Technique (WHT) that is widely practiced in the Matmata mountain. It is practiced in inter-mountain and hill water courses to intercept water loss and sediments. Jessour is plural of jesser, which is a hydraulic unit made of a dike, terrace, and a catchment. The watershed is reserved for collecting and guiding the water, and is bordered by natural water division. The dominant tree-crop is olives but small areas of fruit trees such as fig and almond, and wheat, barley and food legumes (chickpea, beans, green pea, lentil) are also gown. The farm size for these crops expands overtime, from very small to 0.25 depending on rainfall. Summer crops such as watermelon and cucumber are also grown in smaller proportions. The average parcel cultivated by farmers is 6. Trees are planted 4 or 5 m above the earth dike of the jessour at a density of 40-60 trees/ha. Olive oil and table olives are the main products in this area.

Annual rainfed cropping system

Annual rainfed crops are planted only once in two to three years, mainly for home consumption. These crops are cereals (wheat and barley) and legumes (faba bean, lentil, green pea). Olives are also

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dominant in rainfed systems with some figs, almonds and apples. Olive trees are often planted behind tabias with a fig and almond trees close by. Size of orchards varies greatly, from 5 to 46 hectares. Winter crops are sown within the orchards or in separate areas, depending on available rain in autumn and spring. In this system, the density of olive trees is much less (20-25 trees/ha) compared to the Jessour system.

Irrigated perimeter system

Two subsystems are distinguished within the irrigated perimeter system:

Private irrigated perimeters are based on surface wells, and are known as localized soil and water conservation (SWC) systems, commonly practiced both in upstream ( e.g. Ksar Hallouf) and downstream areas. Cash crops, greenhouses, vegetables and fruit trees are common in this area. The cropping area ranges from 0.2 to 10 hectares.

Public irrigated perimeters are established through collective drilling, which are facilitated and funded by the State. Water management is ensured by a collective interest association known as ‘AIC’. These perimeters are situated in the downstream zone such as in Kosba.

Rainfed tree-crop production system

Rainfed tree-crop production is mainly practiced in the Jeffara plains and piedmonts. Olive trees are dominant but figs, almonds, apples are also grown in these areas. Olive trees are often planted behind tabias with fig and almond trees nearby with a density of 20 to 25 trees/ha. Orchards usually cover 5 to 46 hectares. Similar to annual rainfed crop system, winter crops are sown within orchards or in separate areas.

The multi-crop breeding system

Two subsystems are practiced within this system. The first can be categorized as marginal cultivation, but households however obtain additional income from non agriculture sources. Second is the agro-breeding sub-system, which is managed by former breeders who transformed the traditional livestock system through the introduction of crops into the system. This system is mainly found in downstream areas on fragmented parcels of 25 to 85 hectares. The number of livestock is usually between 20 to 150 goats and sheep, and 100 camels grazing in the saline rangelands of sebkhats (saline depressions).

ii. Irrigation, soil and water conservation, and water harvesting techniques

The hydraulic history of the watershed is very ancient as evidenced by remnants of small retention dams, built during the Roman Empire near the village of Koutine and the abandoned terraces in the hills of oued Nagb (Ouessar et al., 2002). Because of chronic water deficiency, a wide variety of relatively small sized hydraulic techniques have been introduced over many centuries to make the land productive, irrespective of its geographical location. In their diversity, the indigenous practices that involve the use of runoff water to supplement rainfall deficiencies seem to be consistent with long-standing climatological features. In sub-humid environments (550-800 mm), rainfall meets the water requirements of most winter crops; therefore, water harvesting involves the collection and storage of surface water in reservoirs and ponds for a deferred use during summer. In the semi-arid regions (400-550 mm), some annual crops such as cereals and Mediterranean-type tree species are grown extensively. Sloping areas, however, are characterized by shallow soils and need specific management in order to retain runoff water. Terraces and embankments are the most common techniques used to enhance agricultural production in these areas. More sophisticated systems have been developed in the arid zone (150-400 mm). In the central and south-eastern parts of the country, where large areas are covered by sloping lands, micro-catchment techniques have been used to mitigate runoff. Spate irrigation from wadis is also commonly used in the central plains of Tunisia (Ben Mechlia & Ouessar, 2002).

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Population growth and rapid development of water consuming sectors have resulted in an accelerated competition for water resources. To face the challenges of increasing food production with little allocated water, mobilization of all available water resources and improvement of water use efficiency are inevitable. There has been renewed interest in traditional soil and water conservation techniques from various sectors (decision makers, farmers, research, private sector, ect.) during the late 1980s. As a result, the role of water harvesting has been highly recognized in all regional agricultural development plans. However, unlike in the 1960s, emphasis is now on participatory approaches. In parallel, new techniques such as gabion structures, hill lakes, check dams, etc. were introduced for watershed rehabilitation. Ambitious programs for water resources mobilization and soil conservation have been implemented. As far as watersheds are concerned, the enrichment of adopted techniques has induced multiple physical and socio-economic impacts.

Terracing

Terracing is apparently the oldest adopted WHT in the study area and in the region. Like other regions of Tunisia (e.g., Raf Raf), terraces are mostly found in steep slopes, which are formed by small retaining walls made of rocks. Their remnants are commonly found in the upper extreme area of oued Nagab.

Jessour

As mentioned above, the jessour is mainly found in the mountainous area of Beni Khdache and Moggar, and is known as an ancient WHT. It is practiced in the inter mountain and hill water courses to intercept runoff and sediments. The terrace is the cropped area, formed progressively by the deposition of sediments. The dike (tabia, sed, katra) is the barrier (dam), established to trap sediments and run-off water. It is made of earth equipped with a central (masraf) and/or lateral (manfes) spillway to allow the flow of excess water.

Tabias

Tabias are situated in areas with more or less deep soils with a slope not exceeding 3%. In the Oum Zessar watershed, these are found in the area between Bhayra and Koutine. The tabia is formed by a principal bank of 50-150 m along the contour lines, and ends with lateral bunds of about 30 m. Water is stored until it reaches a height of 20 to 30 cm after which it is diverted, either by a spillway or at the upper ends of the lateral bunds. The tabia harbors water directly from the catchment or by diversion of wadi runoff by a mgoud (Alaya et al., 1993).

Cisterns

This technique, which is locally known as fesquia or majel is built to collect and store rain water for animal drinking, irrigation and domestic use. A cistern is a hole dug in the soil with a gypsic or cement coating to avoid vertical and lateral infiltration. Generally, each unit is made of three main components, the catchment, the decantation basin, and the storage and pumping reservoir. Small to large (5 to 50 m3) cisterns can be found in the entire area.

Gabion units

Gabions are made of blocks of galvanised nets (gabion) filled with rocks. They are constructed in the oued beds and are formed like a rectangular spillway. Gabion slows down runoff, and helps to increase water infiltration to underground water tables and/or divert a portion of runoff to adjacent cultivated fields (tabias). Gabion units are common in stream beds of the main tributaries in the area.

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Recharge wells

When the permeability of the underlying bedrock is too low, casting tubes are drilled to enhance infiltration of runoff water into the water table. Recharge wells are usually established behind gabion units, and are common in Koutine.

iii. Farming practices

Plant material - Local cultivars used by farmers over many years are Zarrazi, Chemlali, Zalmati, Jemri, Touffahi, Fakhari and Dhokkar. Fruit trees are propagated using vegetative methods since no commercial nurseries are present in the area. The main varieties grown are the Chemlali olive and Zalmat.

Tillage - Olive trees are usually rainfed, but in the upper part of the watershed, WHT provide trees with supplementary irrigation or ‘water reserve’. Prior to plantation, deep holes are prepared some weeks or some months before the establishment of olive trees. Tillage is made by animal traction due to topography and limited acreage of plots. It's repeated many times (3 - 4 or more) per year (late winter-early spring, early summer, midsummer, autumn) with the objective of limiting evaporation and weed eradication. Tools used are mainly traditional ‘charrue monosoc’ and ‘M'hacha’. Sometimes, weed removing near the trees is by hand. In plain areas, olive plantations are larger and more regular. Soil preparation and tillage are similar to those in the upper part, but the tools used are different. Tractors are largely used in almost all phases.

Planting density - Planting density varies considerably. In the mountains, planting distances vary from 8 to 16 meters or more. In flat areas, distances are about 20 to 24 m. This allows the adult olive tree to have enough water. The area between olive rows is used, in favourable years, for other crops mainly winter cereals.

Fertilizer application - In some cases, manure is spread in the holes (prior to planting) but rarely in the entire plot. No mineral fertilizers are applied in small plots. Legumes cultivated during winter are good source for organic fertilization.

Weed contro l - is done mechanically as explained above.

Pest contro l- is not common in the upper portion of the watershed. In plain areas, in the case of epidemic invasion of pests and diseases, control is made in whole the coastal area by professional and/or governmental institutions.

Post-harvest and product storage - Olives are processed in traditional or modern oil production plant. Olive oil is stored in different ways (small cisterns, containers ‘en poterie’, and plastic containers) for local consumption or for selling.

Production and stability - Olive trees in arid conditions bears fruit alternately. Olive production is greatly affected by climatic variability within space and time. Because it is dependent on rainfall which varies considerably from year to year, fruit tree and crop production is highly risky. But with improved cultural practices and sufficient rainfall, an olive tree behind a jessour in the mountainous zones of Béni Khedache, can yield 300 to 400 kg of fruits. High temperatures also affect yields. A fig-tree can also lose 90% of its fruit because of desiccating effect of the Sirroco wind.

Silvicultural practices - Olive trees are not applied when the Jessour is cultivated with barley or wheat. But if cultivation is only in the upper part of Jessour, olive trees benefit from two labours, during the season of rains (October, March) and two passages of ‘Mechacha’ during summer. Manure and treatments are unnecessary. A good production year for olive trees planted behind the Jessour can yield 300 to 400 Kg of olives, 100 to 200 kg of oil, and 150 to 200 TD per tree. With proper management, production increases to 28 Kg of olives per tree

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(6.2 Kg of oil). In the glazes, farmers use water collection techniques (impluvium and tabias) in order to increase yields of olives, similar to that in plain areas.

Legumes include chickpea, green pea, lentil - These crops are especially important in the slimy glazes of the piedmonts. The input requirement of these crops is very low and management is very easy. Practically, land preparation is not necessary. Seeds are placed on straws, and planted with animal traction. Barley yields are up to 800 kg/ha whereas wheat and legumes are about 600 kg grain/ha.

2.2.6. Local Governance

As mentioned previously, local governance in Tunisia is based on a decentralized structure, but uniquely linked and dependent on the Central government. Similar to regional councils, municipal councils are created and dissolved by the State. They are charged with key functions mainly in the area of service delivery at the municipal level. They also levy and collect taxes at the local level. Municipal councils, which vary in size according to population, are elected for a 5-year term on the basis of a [majority] system. Municipal councils are headed by Mayors who are selected by its members. Decision making in the Municipal councils is relatively open, with opportunities for NGOs and civil society to participate. Committee hearings and council meetings are open to public. Neighbourhood associations are especially important in this regard. Rural councils, whose members are appointed by the governor are regarded as ‘pre-municipalities’. They refer to small towns with appropriate population (minimum size of 5000), but can eventually obtain the status of municipalities. They are represented by their presidents at the regional council.

i. Local NRM institutions and actors

The local NRM institutional structure in the region is quite dense, involving public, private and community-based institutions. Below are key community-based groups involved in NRM, but Table 14 shows the distribution of community-based organizations/actors in each delegation.

Agricultural Development Groups (GDA) - one GDA in Beni Khedache (BK) which specializes on common rangeland and pasture system in the Dhahar region, and another one in Sidi Makhlouf (SM) delegation, which focuses on irrigation.

Agricultural Service Cooperatives - 2 active cooperatives are located in BK and Northern Medenine (NM), which were created following the national plan of the Ministry of Agriculture. These cooperates have 420 and 332 members, respectively. Among its functions is the sale of cereals, agricultural produce and feed concentrates.

Water interests groups or GIC (Groupement d’intérêt hydraulique) - GICs are in-charge of domestic potable water management in the rural area. There are 64 existing GICs distributed as follows: 9 in NM, 26 in SM and 29 in BK.

Collective Land Management Council - 35 councils with 15 in BK delegation.

Non Governmental Organization (NGOs) - 5 NGOs have been formed by the Association of the young people of Zammour (AJZ), the Association of sustainable development (ADD), the Association of protection of biodiversity (APBB), the association of Ksour conservation, and the association of natural environmental protection.

One local union of farmers operates in each delegation.

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Table 14 - Distribution of community-based agricultural and NRM institutions by delegation

Delegation Cooperative of agricultural services

Agricultural development groupings (irrigation)

Local agricultural services

Local extension units

GIC

No. Members No. Members No. No. No.

Northern Medenine (NM)

9 1 1 ــ ــ 332 1

Sidi Makhlouf (SM) 26 4 1 50 1 ــ ــ

Beni Khedache (BK) 1 420 1 120 1 3 29

Total 2 752 2 170 3 8 64

From the public sector, the list in Table 3 is long in terms of institutions directly working or supporting or implementing NRM and agricultural interventions, in collaboration with government authorities. The analysis of stakeholder interest, legitimacy and power over NRM (Table 15) shows that the interest and legitimacy of stakeholders is generally high, but their power in terms of influencing actions or catalyzing change varies from low to high; the latter depends on the capacity to mobilize financial resources and on the position of the institution in the NRM arena.

Table 15 - Stakeholder interest, legitimacy and power over natural resource management

Stakeholders Interest Legitimacy Power

Farmers H H L

Delegation (local authorities) M H M

NGOs H M L

Revolutionary Committee H L M

IRA H H M

Ministry of Agriculture H H H

Natural resource management project (funded by WB) H H H

Integrated development project H H H

Local institutions (Agricultural development grouping) H H L

H-high, M-Medium, Low- L

2.3. LOCAL ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE, ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES AND NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT ISSUES

2.3.1. Key environmental services

Based on the Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB)4 approach, a study has been conducted to determine the environmental services provided by the natural environment and ecosystems in the study area (Sghaier, 2011). The main beneficiary of these services are the local population (farmers primarily), national society and the international community. Scientists

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recognize four categories of ecosystem services which are defined as the benefits that people obtain from ecosystems, which are:

Provisioning services - food, crops, wild foods, and spices, water, minerals, pharmaceuticals, energy including biomass fuels;

Regulating services - carbon sequestration and climate regulation, waste decomposition and detoxification, purification of water and air;

Supporting services - nutrient dispersal and cycling, seed dispersal, primary production; and

Cultural services - cultural, intellectual and spiritual inspiration, recreational experiences including ecotourism, scientific discovery.

Based on several studies conducted in southern Tunisia, in particular, the governorate of Medenine, an ecosystem services typology using have been identified. Table 16 summarizes the types of ecosystem services, the beneficiaries of these services, and the benefits to providers/sellers.

Table 16 -Ecosystem services provided in the study area (Sghaier, M. 2011)

Type of services

Services Type of use Beneficiaries/ users

Benefits

Provisioning services

(1) Pastoral production

Direct Use Rangeland Users Income for farmers Income from industry players

(2) Aromatic and Medicinal Plants

Direct Use Rangeland Users Local population

Income for local users (women, poor families) Income for value chain actors (traders, etc.) Protection of local know-how human Health

(3) leaves of Gueddim (local specie, Stipa tenassicima)

Direct Use Local artisans Income for local artisans (mats, baskets, etc.) Income of value chain actors (traders, etc.) Protection of local know-how

(4) Firewood and timber (provided by perennial pastoral and shrubs species)

Direct Use Rangeland Users Local population

Local energy source for cooking

(5) Honey Direct Use Honey Producers Rangeland Users Local population

Income for breeders Income of value chain (traders, etc.) actors (meet, milk, etc)

(6) Hunting

Direct Use Hunters

Welfare for hunters Cultural activities

Regulating services

(7) Combating desertification (wind erosion and land

Indirect Use Local population National society International

Combating desertification Infrastructure protection Fight against wind erosion

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Type of services

Services Type of use Beneficiaries/ users

Benefits

degradation)

community Protection of land and soil resources

(8) Watershed protection (Sil and water conservation program and water resources mobilization

Indirect Use Local population National society International community

Agricultural production protection Fight against water erosion Protection of land and soil Water harvesting and mobilization of hydraulic resources Improving the local farmers incomes Protection of ecosystems and biodiversity

(9) Carbon sequestration

Indirect Use National society International community

CC Mitigation

(10) Landscape quality

Optional Use

Local population Touristic stakeholders and operators National society International community

Natural Heritage conservation

Cultural services

(11) Recreation (Natural reserves )

Direct Use Foresters services Touristic stakeholders and operators National society

Improving incomes of tourism stakeholders and operators Diversification of tourism products

(12) Tourism development based on landscape approach (ecological and cultural tourism)

Optional Use

Local population Tourism stakeholders and operators National society International community

Improved incomes of the tourism stakeholders and operators Improved incomes by the local population Diversification of tourism products

(13) Cultural enhancement (Festivals, education and scientific research)

Optional and inheritance Use

Local population Tourism stakeholders and operators National society International community Future generations

Promotion of cultural activities Conservation of local knowledge for future generations Promotion of scientific and educational activities

Supporting services

(14) Biodiversity conservation, (known and unknown)

Optional and inheritance Use

Local population National society International community Futures generations

Protection of ecosystems and biodiversity

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2.3.2. Local NRM issues

The agrarian system in Oum Zessar watershed is characterized by both irrigated and non-irrigated agriculture and pastoralism in the rangelands. Due to increased population and agricultural expansion, pressures on natural resources, particularly land resources, induced land degradation. The problems associated with NRM are summarized into 5 main areas:

Privatization of lands, which has resulted in reduction of reserved rangelands and increased pressure on remaining pastoral areas.

Valorisation of natural resources, which has reached critical levels. This has limited agricultural and pastoral development in terms of extension of arboriculture in the dry zone of Jbel, exacerbated by extension of irrigated perimeters which did not take account the limitations of water resources, and constrained natural regeneration of rangelands.

Limited contribution of the agricultural sector in terms of job creation, which resulted in out-migration particularly the young population. Income from off-farm employment is limited and could hardly support agricultural activities, including maintenance of farms (e.g. jessour); hence, finding jobs in nearby cities is becoming more common among the youth.

Limited economic options due to low diversification of income sources. Apart from agriculture, limited trade, servicing and tourism are the only employment options thriving in the area.

Unemployment. Since the local economy is relatively small, it is unable to absorb excess manpower, including young university graduates. For example, in Beni Khedache region, approximately 50% of registered job applicants are young girls. Remittance from outside sources of income has been limited. Hence, dependence on government support by poor families remains high-- 15% is receiving support from the State and 5.5% from the region.

Furthermore, natural resource management is faced by multiple constraints, with distinctive differences in upstream and downstream areas. These are summarized in Table 17. Table 17 - Major constraints to NRM in upstream/downstream areas

Mountain and piedmonts area (Upstream) Plain area (Downstream)

Low and irregular rainfall

Climate variability and change

Remoteness, poor accessibility

Limited lands for agricultural expansion

Degradation of grazing lands

Land tenure (communal lands are under forest

department control)

Conversion of rangelands into agriculture

Clearing of vegetation for fuel wood, construction

of enclosures, etc.

Marginal and variable farm incomes

Low level of exploitation of natural and cultural

patrimony

Overexploited groundwater resources

Exposure of the area to strong winds

Reduction of grazing lands due to fruit trees

expansion (olive)

Lack of manpower specialized in irrigated

perimeters (maintenance of equipment) and

production techniques

Lack of organized or institutionalized marketing of

agricultural products

Conversion of rangelands into agricultural lands

Clearing of vegetation for fuel wood, construction of

enclosures, etc.

Climate variability

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Poor maintenance of Jessour

Pressure on natural resources

Migration of young people

2.4. DRIVERS OF LAND USE CHANGE, STATUS AND CONSEQUENCES

Aridity, coupled with spatial and temporal variability of rainfall, is a key determinant to economic and social development in Tunisia. The fragile nature of natural resources is clearly underlined by high sensitivity of various factors of deterioration that are catalyzed by weather conditions, and exacerbated by the patterns of exploitation and utilization of resources (MEAT/Agenda 21, 1995).

2.4.1. Patterns of land cover/land use change

Oum Zessar watershed is distinguished by its unfavourable climatological and hydrological conditions, aptly described as ‘low, torrential and irregular pluviometry’, with long drought periods, alternating with periods of rough enlargements, causing continuous wind, soil and water erosion. The analyses of pluviometric data of the area showed that drought is a recurrent phenomenon.

However, in spite the harsh conditions of the area, settlements continue to thrive from the mountains to the piedmonts, accompanied by new forms of development and land use change; this led to fragmentation of lands and ecosystems. The most significant land use change is from rangelands to croplands, which was coupled with the transformation of production systems, mainly from pastoral breeding to intensive agriculture. With improvements in infrastructure and increased settlement, agro-pastoral activities were concentrated in closed areas, and with poor grazing management, degradation accelerated—this was aggravated by the lack of spatiotemporal access to resources in vast areas of lands. Clearly, the result is an artificial development with consequences to the environment. This process heightened between 1960-1970s due to demographic growth and policy change, primarily the land privatization policy. This period is marked by sedentarization, progression of territorial development and agricultural influences supported by massive privatization of collective lands and expansion of olive trees cultivation. This period therefore saw the beginning of major changes not only in land use and practices, but also in the economic and social structure of the watershed.

2.4.2. Drivers of land cover/use change

Under the LUPIS project, Sghaier et al. (2009) analyzed the drivers and impacts of land cover/use change in Oum Zessar watershed (Table 18). Among others, the land privatization policy that evolved in the last three decades was a major driver of land use change, by imposing structural change in land allocation, which in turn, affected land use practices and production systems. Privatization of rangelands has promoted sedentary agro-pastoral systems; related rural development policies also promoted new openings for cultivation in marginal lands. Furthermore, the accelerated privatization of communal grazing lands and increased government subsidies has resulted in rapid expansion (about 15%) of fruit trees groves (primarily olives, but also almond and other species) beginning in 1980s. In turn, expansion in marginal lands has caused soil degradation through wind erosion and excessive soil and water depletion during drought periods (e.g. 1999-2002). Also, Increasing populations, economic growth, and modern technologies have altogether triggered changes in land use. The status of natural resources is further discussed in the succeeding section.

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Table 18 - Causal analysis drivers of land use change, using the DPSIR methodology5

Drivers Underlying drivers

Pressures State Impact Response

- Privatization of lands has driven changes in pastoral breeding to intensive agriculture and sedentarization. - Migration - Rural development policy - Environmental policy - Development of marginal zones and reduction of regional disparities

- New demands for livelihood and land - Technology development - Population growth - Economic growth - Climate change

- Increased water use for crop production and domestic purposes - Low irrigation efficiency - Intensified agriculture - Subdivision of lands - Overgrazing - Shifting production systems

- Disrupted water resources - Low water quantity and quality - Loss of vegetative cover - Eroded lands - Low soil fertility - Saline and alkalized soils - Reduced forest cover

Environmental: degraded lands, desertification, biodiversity loss. Economic: Low productivity, low yields and income, unsustainable production. Marginalization of pasture areas, low fodder production Social: Marginalized pastoralists

- Sustainable development policies - Water and soil conservation strategies - Enhance environmental policies at regional and national and global level - Saving water and irrigation encouragement policy

*Drivers-Pressure-State-Impact-Response

2.4.3. Status of natural resources

Due to aridity and the intertwined drivers of land use change, key natural resources, namely water, soil and biodiversity have been adversely affected, albeit, water is probably the most affected. Table 19 shows the hydraulic characteristics of water tables in the area. The next section discusses the status of key natural resources.

i. Water scarcity and over-exploited water resources

Deep water tables are badly affected by changes in land use and land use practices as well as increasing water demand. Among others, the Zeuss-Koutine aquifer with depths ranging from 170 to 680 meters6 hectares been exploited by SONEDE, a national water distribution company; the company uses 13 out 17 deep wells, with an extraction rate of 407 litres/sec, representing 98.5% of the allowable extraction rate. Furthermore, exploitation at Grès du Trias7 aquifer is about 10 litres/sec, whereas it is much higher in Oued Zeuss. Surface water tables are also in bad state due to fast extraction of water. The underflow table of Oued Oum Zessar is situated upstream, in alluvions on a jurassic substratum. Depths vary between 2 and 20 m, and the salt content is around 3 gallons/litre. Downstream, salt contents are between 2 and 5 gallons/litre and the depths are between 10 and 20 m. The overall capacity of this water table is 25 litres/sec, but it is easily exhausted with 125 wells constructed in the area, of which 69 are powered by electricity or diesel. Similarly, the underflow table of Sidi Makhlouf is exploited by 112 wells with a flow rate of 14 litres/sec,which is about 80% of the allowable extraction rate of 16.5 litres/sec. Moreover, the underflow table of Metameur is situated in a stratum of alluvial origin with depths between 10 and 25 meters; salinity ranges from 3 gallons/litre to 5 gallons/litre at the level of the oasis. South of the fault, the depths are between 3 to 10 m with a salt content of around 3 gallons/litre. Currently, 80 wells have been exploiting these at the rate of 18 litres/sec (MEAT, 1998).

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Therefore, expansion of private irrigated perimeters which grew in 1990s should be regulated, and over-extraction of groundwater aquifers and salinisation should be addressed, to ensure the sustainability of the irrigation sector. Table 19 - Hydraulic characteristics of water tables in the watersheds of Zeuss-Koutine

Water table Resources (l/s)

Exploitation (l/s)

Depth (m)

Salinity (g/l)

Area (km2)

Oum Zessar 25 3.3 2-20 2-5 Surface Oum Metameur 20 18 3-25 3-5 Sidi Makhlouf 16 8 10-20 >5

Deep Zeuss-Koutine 350 400 170-180 1.5-5 461 Grès de Trias 80 10 150 0.9-1.5 200

ii. Depleted soils

In general, soil resources are poor with low agricultural potential. Four soil classes are distinguished namely, regosols, lithosols, fluvisols, xeroxols, rebdzinas, solonchak, solonetz, gleysols (Mtimet, 1983). These soil classes have different characteristics but are commonly affected by many environmental processes such as wind erosion, soil erosion, compaction, salinization, etc. These have led to significant soil nutrient loss and poor production.

iii. Degraded and overgrazed pastoral rangelands

As mentioned above, rangelands dominate the study area, but due to privatization of collective grazing lands, free and open-access grazing was replaced by sedentary agro-pastoral system, resulting in over-stocking and overgrazing. Changes in the control of herds also led to reduced importance of breeding. Today, breeding is considered a secondary productive activity, albeit, about 70% of households are still practicing it. In Jeffara plains, overgrazing is very serious while in the Dahar plateau, the primary issue is more to do with limited watering points for animals. Finally, overgrazing has resulted in sand dune movement and appearance of regs.

iv. Biodiversity loss

Floral biodiversity in piedmonts and plains have a steppe like aspect, except in the valleys and depressions where nanophanérophytes (Ziziphus lotus, Lycium arabicum) are scattered. The wadis and rivers which cross the plains and glacis have rich vegetation with different biogeographic origins, but, expansion of croplands has led to floral and faunal decline. Today, faunal diversity is limited to rare and threatened desert species like hare, gazelle and outarde Houbara.

v. Summary of natural resources and socio-economic status

‘Aridity’ as a given environmental condition is already making a toll in terms of natural resource management. As indicated earlier, the situation is aggravated by various factors including demographic growth and changing socio-economic policies, consequently affecting the natural-resource base and the well-being of people in Oum Zessar watershed. In Figure 7, we present the key impacts of land use change on natural resources and socio-economic conditions of local people.

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Biotic resources Reduced biodiversity is an impact in the case study. Reduction of natural vegetation and desertification reduce biotic resources.

Ecosystem processes, overgrazing and cutting natural vegetation impact ecosystem processes negatively, where desertification is a real concern.

Abiotic resources, Depletion of abiotic resources occur and includes availability of, quality of water mainly due to overuse of groundwater.

Industry and housing There is a demand for land for settlement purposes especially in the proximity of the main cities.

Land based production – in the case study, there is in general an uncompetitive low agricultural productivity, temporary and weak mainly due to lack of quantity

and quality of water.

Impact on marginalised groups/inequality/ In the study area, the change to private land tenure, have resulted in a lack of spatio-temporal access to natural

resources for indigenous and pastoral groups.

Impact on conflicts of land ownership can be found in the study area. The privatization policy has disadvantaged the pastoral people and the communal

land rights. Pastoral areas are increasingly getting compressed, sparking conflicts.

Land use change impacts

Figure 7 - Status of natural resources and socio-economic conditions

2.4.4. Consequences to livelihoods

The impact analysis on livelihoods was based on the work done within the framework of the LADA project. The Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (SLF) was used to analyze the impacts of changes in five capitals, to a group of households located at four different agro-ecological and socio economic zones or land use type (LUT) (Figure 8).

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43

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Figure 8 - Location of interviewed households by LUT The list of indicators used by type of livelihood assets is given in Table 20. Under the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework, these capital assets enable people to pursue their livelihood objectives. The lack of, or weakness and/or the strengths of these assets, the degree to which they interact or compliment, and how they are linked to regional and national capitals, determine the livelihood sustainability. Table 20 - Indicators by type of livelihood capital

Physical capital

Natural capital

Human Capital

Social capital

Financial capital

Farm equipments Mechanization Transport

Heads of livestock Farm size (Land) Land quality Water quality Rangeland quality

Education Household size Number of workers Know-how Technical support

Organizational affiliation Access to land Market Access Access to health Access to education Access to safe water

Subsidies Farm Income Income from livestock Off-farm income

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Figure 9 shows how these livelihood capitals have changed or shifted in the four locations within a span of 10 years (2000-2010). It was noted that the natural capital has significantly decreased for most of the households in location 1 with very little increment in financial capital. Conversely, the financial capital of households in location 3 has increased due to income from off-farm employment, although the natural capital has declined. The human and social capitals of households in location 2 have all increased but interestingly, the financial capital has remained unchanged. Location 4, which is the rangelands, appears to perform well, with notable increases in human, physical and financial capitals and a very little decline in natural capital - this indicates that agro-pastoral system remains a viable livelihood with limited negative impact on the natural resource base, especially if the system is well-managed. Ultimately, the consequences to livelihoods vary depending on the socio economic conditions of the local environment.

Household 1 : Loudeyette Household 2 : Bhaira

Household 3: Zammour

Household 4: Hachena (Rangeland area)

Figure 9 - Differences in livelihood structure during 2000 and 2010

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The livelihood trends in terms of five capital assets are presented in Figure 10. Interestingly, social human, physical and financial capitals increase as the natural capital declines. The declining trend in natural capital was attributed to agricultural intensification, over-extraction and poor land management. Amongst the five capitals, social capital which refers to connections within and between social networks, appear to increase rapidly. Social capital is the value of social networks, bonding similar people and bridging between diverse people, with norms of reciprocity (Dekker and Uslaner 2001; Uslaner 2001). It constitutes institutions, relationships, and norms that shape the quality and quantity of a society's social interactions. Although, it takes time, social capital can be a trigger to improvements in other capital assets, as people o link up with each other and work together in a collective manner, to acquire new information, skills, and technologies that they use move the other capitals in the right direction.

Figure 10 - Trends of different livelihood capitals over time (2000-2010)

2.5. NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT OPTIONS

2.5.1. Past and on-going NRM interventions

As mentioned earlier, Oum Zessar watershed has been the locus of many NRM interventions beginning in 1980s, however several issues constrained success, such as:

Low or lack of intra-sectoral integration particularly in the agricultural sector as well as inter-sectoral integration with tourism, servicing and other economic sectors. This has led to inefficiency and sometimes, conflict of interest between sectors;

Limited involvement and participation of local actors and communities leading up to weak partnerships between and amongst stakeholders (those of the State and of civil society); and

Low economic efficiency due to lack of cooperation and synergy between activities and sectoral interventions.

The Structural Adjustment Plan (SAP) that started in mid 1980s marked a significant shift from a top down approach to NRM towards a more integrated and participatory approach, which involved a lot of partnership building. In terms of spatial planning, some projects have in the past, used GIS techniques to characterize the watershed in terms of crop zoning and land cover. The maps have

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been used to the extent of identifying suitability of crop and NRM interventions in the watershed. Some of NRM interventions during this period can be summarized as follows:

i. Soil and Water Conservation (SWC)

SWC is a common strategy used in watershed management, of which specific technologies have been implemented such as jessours, tabias and contour stone ridges. The average investment costs per technology were 2933 TD/ha, 539 TD/ha and 315 TD/ha, respectively. These structures along with the olive tree plantation behind them require maintenance costs. Furthermore, gabions were constructed to regulate surface water flow. Two types of gabion structures have been installed on the wadi beds namely, the recharge units and the flood spreading units. 177 groundwater recharge units and 21 flood spreading units have been constructed during the implementation of the SWC strategy.

ii. Natural Resources Management Project

The NRM project covered 116,000 hectares with 18,000 beneficiaries or 3,300 families. The total project cost was 8 million TND for five years. The project's objectives consist of improving NRM and the living standards of rural populations through implementation of participatory development plans (PDP). The project area was divided into 40 potential STUs (Socio Territorial Units) based on socio territorial zoning. The second phase of the project (2011-2014), which has a budget of 26 million TND, should enhance the participatory approach that have been used, improve local people and stakeholder partnerships and integration.

iii. Integrated Rural Development Program (IRDP)

This first phase of this project was from 194 to 1994 with a total budget of 3.106 million TND. The project focused on improving agricultural production activities and rural infrastructure. The number of beneficiaries reached was 277 in Beni Khedache area. The second phase began in 1995 with emphasis on expansion of small businesses and income generation activities.

iv. Other regional programs

Several programs were managed by regional and local services. Notably, the Regional Development Program which is directly managed by the regional council headed by the governor, aims to improve the living conditions of people in the region, through training and job creation. Other programs such as the social solidarity and the regional agricultural development programs are expected to support rural development, livelihoods and NRM.

2.5.2. Potential management options based on actor preference and knowledge

This section is based on the results of previous participatory research projects in the watershed such as WAHIA, DESIRE & LADA, which used an integrated NRM framework that allowed local people to identify potential technology and management. However, these can still be validated or enhanced through a set of useful tools such Participatory Landscape Analysis (PaLA), Participatory Analysis of Poverty, Livelihoods and Environment Dynamics (PaPOLD), Reverse Auctions for Payment of Environmental Services, Rapid Hydrological Appraisal (RaHA) and Rapid Carbon Stock Appraisal (RaCSA)8.

i. Stakeholder perceptions and preferences on water harvesting techniques

Through the EU-funded WAHIA project, a participatory assessment was made to evaluate the performance of water harvesting systems, as well as, understand community perceptions on modern and traditional water harvesting techniques. The results showed that project beneficiaries were largely in favour of the positive impacts of water harvesting techniques on ground water recharge, soil erosion control and cropping diversification. However, they were sceptical on the aspect of water yield improvement and runoff control. On the contrary, livestock breeders and irrigators tend to be negatively affected by the introduced water harvesting technique because retention of water run-off

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in the watershed, in turn, could negatively affect the halophytic vegetation of the Sebkhat (saline area),which is used as the main grazing area for camels during winter.

The survey also revealed that since upstream farmers are used to the jessour, they rated the water harvesting technique first (67%) followed by tabias and gabion. In the piedmont zones, however, preference is given to tabias NA (80%) and tabias SP (80%), then jessour. Downstream, both tabias ranked first (50%) followed by gabion and jessour. It was clear that perceptions on new technologies depend largely on local traditions and local interest, as well as, people’s location in the watershed.

ii. Stakeholder perceptions and preferred management options by land use type

Using participatory tools and the DPSIR approach, an assessment of potential management options by land use types, has been carried out in the LADA project. The main results are summarized in the succeeding tables.

Table 22 - Potential management options in rainfed olive-tree system in Bhaira (piedmont zone)

State Drivers Impacts Responses

Zone fitted by Tabia and SWC works

Soil sensitive to erosion

Rainfed tree

Remaining natural areas (biodiversity)

Over-used groundwater resources

Mobilized surface water resources

Average water erosion

Topography

Drought, aridity

Erratic rainfall

Floods

Extension of the trees on the expenses of rangeland

Inappropriate cultivation techniques (tillage,)

High water demand (potable and irrigation) Inadequate maintenance of the plantations

Partial reduction of water erosion

Improving yields, production and water reserves

Contribution to the groundwater recharge

Reduction of grazing land

Moderate drawdown of the water

Maintenance of SWC structures

Maintenance of of areas applied with flood control

Crop diversification through the introduction of aromatic and medicinal plants

Use of appropriate cultural practices (awareness and outreach)

Table 23 - Potential management options in rangeland system in Bhaira (piedmont zone)

State Drivers Impacts Responses

Vegetation moderately degraded

Degraded soil

Average water erosion

Topography Climate (drought, rain, ...)

Cutting natural vegetation (AMP, pastoral species, )

Overgrazing

Loss of biodiversity

Reduction in the number of livestock

Soil loss

Reduction of income

Rural exodus

Decreased rangeland productivity

Rangeland Improvement (rest techniques, rotation ...)

Expansion of SWC work

Awareness creation and outreach

Strengthen income-generating activities

Improving the institutional framework and organization of the local population

Table 24 - Potential management options in rainfed olive-tree system in Loudeyett (plaine zone)

State Drivers Impacts Responses

Developed area by Tabia and SWC works

Soil moderately susceptible to erosion

Mosaic rainfed tree, rangeland

Over-used groundwater resources Mobilized surface water resources

Average water erosion

Gentle topography

Drought, aridity

Erratic rainfall (floods)

Early expansion of the tree on the expenses of rangeland

Inappropriate cultivation techniques (tillage,)

High water demand (potable and irrigation)

Inadequate maintenance of the plantations

Partial reduction of water erosion

Improvement of water reserves

Contribution to the groundwater recharge

Reduction of grazing land

Moderate drawdown of the water

Strong rural exodus

Expansion of SWC work

Strengthen income-generating activities (AMP)

Use of appropriate cultural practices through awareness creation and outreach

Organization of the local population

Compliance with the specifications of the career (stone extraction)

Table 25 - Potential management options in rangeland system in Loudeyette (piedmonts zone)

State Drivers Impacts Responses

Very poor vegetation

Degraded soil

Average water erosion

Topography

Climate (drought, rain, ...)

Overgrazing

Loss of biodiversity

Reduction of the livestock number

Soil loss

Reduction of income

Rural exodus

Decreased rangeland productivity

Rangeland Improvement (rest techniques, rotation ...)

Expansion of SWC work

Awareness creation and outreach

Strengthen income-generating activities Improving the institutional framework and organization of the local population

Table 26 - Potential management options in Halophyte rangeland system in Sebkhat Oum Zessar (downstream zone)

State Drivers Impacts Responses

Rangeland in good condition in a final outlet of the watershed of wadi Hallouf

Saline soil with seasonal waterlogging

Seasonal grazing (salt rangeland used by camel) High recovery rate of natural vegetation

Low-rich flora

Maintaining the camels number

Strengthen research programs to enhance the salty and hydromorphic soils

Monitor the use of agricultural land

Rational management of rangelands

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iii. Preferred technologies in the DESIRE project The DESIRE project hold a consultation workshop with local people and the regional agricultural technical services, to identify the preferred technologies, which were then, classified and ranked as shown in Table 27. The classification of technologies was done using the WOCAT approach (Table 28). WOCAT stands for World Overview of Conservation Approaches and Technologies, which is an established global network of SWC specialists, contributing to sustainable land management (SLM) (Liniger H.P., et al. 2011). The network provides tools that allow SLM specialists to identify fields and needs of action, share their valuable knowledge in land management that assist them in their search for appropriate SLM technologies and approaches, and that support them in making decisions in the field and at the planning level and in up-scaling identified best practices. Based on the WOCAT criteria, the jessour and tabias were ranked first, followed by spillway and resting techniques, while plantation and contour stone ridges were least preferred. As a result of the workshop, the chosen technologies were implemented and further validated on the ground (Figure 11). Table 27 - Preferred technologies

Technology Rank

Jessour and tabias 1

Spillway Massraf « Jebed » 2

Rangeland resting « tegdeel » 3

Recharge units and flood spreading 4

Cisterns 5

Buried stone pockets “poche en pierres sèches” 6

Plantations 7

Contour stone ridges 8

Table 28 3- Selection and appreciation of locally applied NRM related technologies and approaches

Technology/approach Already applied (AA) or potential solution (PS)

Land use type

Labor required

(initial and maintenance)

Costs (initial and

maintenance)

Impact/Effectiveness Limiting factors/constraints

Overall assessment of the potential for

the local context Economic Ecological Socio-

cultural

ST LT ST LT ST LT

Tabias and jessour AA Crop land and grazing land

Medium Medium ++ +++ + ++ + +++ Costs and the lack of workforce (according

to the farmers)

Adapted to the local context

Spillway ‘Massraf’ “jebed”

AA Grazing land

High High ++ +++ + ++ + +++ Costs

Contour stone ridges AA Grazing land

Medium Medium + +++ ++ +++ ++ ++ Costs Adapted to the local context

Gabion (Recharge units and flood spreading)

AA Grazing land

High High + +++ ++ +++ ++ +++ Costs

Cisterns AA Crop land and grazing land

Medium High + ++ + + +++ +++ Costs

Rangeland resting « Tegdeel » (mise en repos)

AA /PS Grazing land

Low Low + ++ +++ +++ ++ +++ Costs and fragmenting land “morcellement”

Adapted to the local context

Arboriculture plantation

AA Grazing land

Medium Medium + +++ + ++ ++ +++ Costs and rain water scarcity

Legend: ST=short-term; LT=long-term) Labour and costs: (very low, low, medium, high, very high) Impact/effectiveness: (+++ (very positive), ++ (positive), + (rather positive)

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Watershed treatments: Construction of jessours, tabias and contour stone ridges (plate 3, 4)

Consolidation of SWC works: Pastoral plantation, fruit trees plantation. These fruit trees plantations represent the major actions in the study area. It explains well that the funding of works of SWC is made mainly by the fruit plantations.

Surface water mobilization: Three types of structures have been identified installed: recharge units, flood spreading units and cisterns (plate 1, 5, 6). Rangelands resting (plate 2)

Plate 1: Spillway of jesser (massraf)

Plate 2: Rangeland resting in Ethman

Plate 3 : Tabias on the piedmont

Plate 4 : Jessour in Ethman sub waterched

Plate 5: Floodwater harvesting an Wadi Nkim (Bhaira zone)

Plate 6: Cisterns for rainfall collection in Ethman zone

Figure 11 - NRM technologies introduced under the DESIRE project (Sghaier et al., 2008)

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2.5.3. OPPORTUNITIES AND WEAKNESSES/CONTSTRAINTS TO OPERATIONAL INTEGRATED NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (INRM)

The people in Oum Zessar have since been living in environmentally challenged conditions with very limited natural resource base, but are inherently adaptive and resilient to change, with high stock of local ecological knowledge which they combine with modern or scientific knowledge, to make sense of what works for them and what doesn’t. The people in general, are quite progressive in terms of trying out new things and exploring opportunities. Hence, the opportunities for integrated NRM are enormous given the following conditions:

The people have a rich stock of traditional knowledge about their environment, which they use to justify their actions, but are quite progressive in terms of combining modern techniques and approaches to natural resource management.

The governance structure for NRM is in-placed; the governance system is characterized by ‘decentralization’ with strong central government influence. Local governments and line departments and ministries are operational at the governorate and district levels where key decisions are made. Public participation in decision-making and democratic space is relatively new, but is gaining momentum as demonstrated in the recently concluded national political exercise. Moreover, the political and governance system is undergoing change, with robust expectations from within and outside Tunisia, but this change process can offer new opportunities for INRM.

There is a strong emergence of NGOs, community based-organizations (CBOs), and civil society groups, of winch, many are NRM-based, or at least, involved in NRM-related activities.

The watershed has been a recipient of various research and development interventions in the area of NRM, agriculture and livelihood improvement. Many of the active CBOs were actually formed through these interventions. This indicates high social capital within the community.

The watershed is also home to established research institutions and NGOs, with experience on participatory and community-based approaches.

The watershed exemplifies tension between economic development and judicious utilization of scarce natural resources. Given the economic importance of the area, it calls for urgent attention, for strategic decisions to be made and opportunities for INRM to be created.

Correspondingly, some constraints or weaknesses could on one hand, hinder the success of INRM, but on the other hand, these indicate areas needing serious attention and strategic investments.

The natural resources are very limited; water scarcity (quantity and quality) is a major for INRM and can be a limiting factor for sustainable development.

Land and natural ecosystems are very vulnerable to any intervention and anthropogenic activities, so while the situation calls for INRM, it will also leave INRM with many challenges.

Mobilization and development of natural resources in the area have reached critical levels, limiting agricultural and pastoral development, particularly in terms of:

o Expansion of tree crops, vegetables and forages;

o Expansion of the irrigated area in light of limited and overexploited groundwater; and

49

o Natural regeneration of the Dhahar given anthropogenic pressures (land clearing and agricultural development) and drought.

The local economy is small and less diversified, and economic opportunities outside the agricultural sector (trade, services, small business, tourism) are very limited, with low potential for job creation and reducing unemployment, especially for the youth. The consequence is rural exodus of the workforce especially among the young professionals.

Intra-sectoral and inter-sectoral integration (agricultural, tourism, services and other economic sectors) is still weak. This has led to inefficiency, which sometimes harbour conflict.

The on-going decentralization process has lots of potential for INRM, but in its infancy stage, the strong influence of Central government could also undermine local preferences and decisions over NRM.

Despite the emergence of CBOs, local involvement and participation of local actors, especially women are largely limited.

In general, the capacity of researchers to deal with complex social and natural resource problems is limited; there is a need for capacity building and improved access to new research tools and methods.

Finally, the financial resources available from the government and local communities are by no means sufficient to solve the enormous challenges they face. Although natural resource management is not necessarily an expenditure item, the lack of funding will definitely retard successful INRM.

2.6. CONCLUSION

Oum Zessar watershed presents a classic case of livelihood persistence within a harsh and deteriorating environment. Aridity, water scarcity, lack of economic options, and population growth are key characteristics of the watershed, which lends itself to serious challenges. The watershed is significantly important due to its strategic location and its contribution to the regional economy. Furthermore, the watershed provides important environmental services such as provisioning (pastoral production, aromatic and medicinal plants, hunting, honey), regulating (carbon sequestration and climate regulation, SWC program) and cultural services (ecotourism, cultural, intellectual and spiritual inspiration). Because of these, the watershed has been the locus of many NRM interventions by government, NGOs and the donor community. Undoubtedly, the watershed people are highly adaptive and resilient to change. There has been a long tradition of sustainable irrigation and rangeland management as well as tree-crop farming, which have been used as bases for the introduction of new and modern technologies. On one hand, recent improvements in infrastructure, market linkages, availability of non-and off-farm employment albeit limited, and private land ownership are key indicators of economic development in the region, but on the other hand, limited water resources, aridity, soil degradation and enervated local economy, have altogether hampered regional growth. Many INRM interventions have in the past, lacked intra-and inter-sectoral integration, local participation and partnerships between stakeholders, and have low economic efficiency due to lack of cooperation and synergy. However, this started to change with the implementation of the Strategic Action Plan where participatory approaches were intensely promoted, and stakeholder participation was used as a means to meet project ends. Today, the formal institutional structure for natural resources management in Oum Zessar is in placed---- although the regional administration

50

and technical services has control over NRM, they work hand in hand with local organizations and institutions, and other partners. However, meaningful participation remains a work in progress--local stakeholders expressed a strong interest on NRM, but felt disempowered by the limited resources available for them to carry out significant actions. Land use is distinctively marked as either rangeland or cropland. Land use change was primarily driven by the land privatization policy and population growth. The pattern of land use change was linear, that is, from rangelands to agro-pastoral and croplands, although variability within these land uses exists. Land privatization triggered sedentary agro-pastoral systems, agricultural expansion in rangelands, intensification of crop and livestock system, and opened up opportunities for agriculture development, pushing farmers to graze and farm in marginal areas. But basically, optimal production is at odds with low and irregular rainfall; hence, expansion of irrigated perimeters continues through over-exploitation of surface and deep ground water aquifers. Furthermore, the process of land degradation continues through soil, water and wind erosion, despite efforts to mitigate them. Biodiversity loss has been also observed with the conversion of native rangelands into agriculture. The livelihoods analysis showed that social capital has increased rapidly than human, physical and financial capitals, at the expense of the natural capital. This could mean that social capital building has been the greatest impact of past and on-going interventions. Furthermore, the analysis suggests that increases in financial capital is only marginal even if the natural resources were to be depleted—but this will become more serious if the status quo is left unchallenged. Amongst the many land management options, the jessour and tabias, spillway and resting techniques were commonly preferred while plantation and contour stone ridges were rated low. There is opportunity to use a market-based approach to enhance watershed services, but more time is required before a market-based mechanism can be structured. Currently, the highly demanded watershed services are maintenance of deep and surface ground waters and reduced sedimentation. However, the flow of these types of watershed services is hard to establish; in a conventional ‘payments/rewards for environmental service’ scheme, such flow of environmental services from a provider to a beneficiary should be established to make a case for payments. It could be posited that watershed communities are providing for these services, and could therefore be targeted as ‘sellers of environmental services’, however, the beneficiaries or buyers of these services are even harder to establish, since the potential buyers may not be currently capable of paying these services. However, a market-based approach for other environmental services may still be worth exploring for habitat restoration for biodiversity or landscape beauty for the tourism industry. What this implies is that, a development approach, rather than a market approach to INRM is more suited to the current situation in Oum Zessar. INRM in the context of rural development is a potential approach for addressing coupled socio-economic and environmental issues. Finally, the situation in Oum Zessar is both inspiring and sobering. On one hand, the support provided by Central and regional governments to the local administration as well as the cooperation of local stakeholders holds a great promise for attaining effective NRM and sustainable livelihoods, but on the other hand, the magnitude of environmental problems and challenges is gargantuan compared to the resources available to reverse the trend. The situation indeed requires an INRM approach that is embedded in the broader context of rural development. Participatory INRM however, requires a shared understanding of what multiple stakeholders expect from the watershed, as a basis for broader collective action with local, regional and central government actors. The use of participatory tools could contribute substantially to:

mutual learning among local and external actors by sharing experience and jointly reflecting on current and potential problems and potential management options

create a common understanding of problems, potentials and opportunities by integrating external and internal perceptions;

51

strengthen trust and collaboration among concerned stakeholders; and

identify existing and new

The next steps in the AFROMAISON project could focus on understanding interactions between upstream and downstream ecosystems, to ensure optimal allocation of natural resources between different resource users. The goal should be to come up with fully integrated development plans that take into consideration all the necessary technical, agricultural, socio-economic, political and institutional aspects of INRM. Appropriate tools such as, geographical information systems (GIS), information technology (IF), hydrological models, Drivers of Land Use Change Analysis (DriLUC), Participatory Poverty, Livelihoods Dynamics (PAPOLD) analysis are useful tools to elicit information that could inform planning and decision-making. ENDNOTES 1 An observatory is an area of observation to monitor an economic, social or/and environmental

phenomenon’s. It allows the construction of geospatial databases and GIS to produce environmental indicators (biophysical and socioeconomic) in the service of knowledge and protection of the environment. 2 The Jessour system, known as ancient WHT, is practiced in the inter mountain and hill water courses to

intercept runoff and sediments. The terrace is the cropped area, formed progressively by the deposition of sediments. The dike (tabia, sed, katra) is a barrier (dam) established to trap sediments and run-off water. It is made of earth equipped with a central (masraf) and/or lateral (manfes) spillway to allow the flow of excess water. 3 The tabias are situated in areas with more or less deep soils with a slope that not exceeding 3%. In the Oum

Zessar watershed, these are found in the area between Bhayra and Koutine. The tabia is formed by a principal bank of 50-150 m along the contour lines, and ends with lateral bunds of about 30 m. Water is stored until it reaches a height of 20 to 30 cm after which it is diverted, either by a spillway or at the upper ends of the lateral bunds. (Alaya et al. 1993) 4Taking inspiration from ideas developed in the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, The Economics of

Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB), aims to promote a better understanding of the true economic value of ecosystem services and to offer economic tools that take proper account of this value (EC, 2008). 5 Driver- Pressure- State-Impact-Response or DPSIR is a general framework for organising information about

the state of the environment. The idea of the framework was however originally derived from social studies and only then widely applied internationally, in particular for organising systems of indicators in the context of environment and, later, sustainable development. 6 Renewable resources are estimated to 350 l/s with a salinity ranging from 1.5 to 5 g/l.

7 Renewable resources estimated at 80 l/s. The average depths are about 150 m.

8 These tools are condensed in AFROMAISON Work Package 2 Booklet of ‘Useful Rapid Assessment Tools for

INRM’ (ICRAF-AFROMAISON 2011). More information and additional INRM tools can be found at http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/projects/tulsea.

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2.9. APPENDICES

2.9.1. Appendix 1- National economic and social data

i. Economic indicators in Tunisia

Indicators 2007 2009 or 2010

Agricultural added value % of GDP 12.3% 11%

Industry value % of GDP 32.6% 35.3%

Total unemployment (% of total labor force)

13.9% 14.7%

trade % of GDP 10.7% 10.7%

Tourism % of GDP 6.5% 7%

Gross domestic product 48620 MDT (2007) 57002 MDT (2009)

Growth of the GDP 6.3 % (2007) 3.1%

Inflation 2.9 % (2007) 3.7 (2009)

Working population by sector Agriculture: 18.5 % Industry: 32.5 % Services: 49 % (2007)

Agriculture: 17.5% Industry: 32.71% Services: 48.8% (2010)

Working population 3085.1 (2007) 3277.4 (2010)

Rate of unemployment 14.1 % (2007) 14.7% (2010)

Principal industries textile, mine, oil, agribusiness, electro-mechanics

textile, mine, oil, agribusiness, electro-mechanics

Exports 19409.6 Millions de Dinars (2007) 19469.2 Millions de Dinars (2009)

Imports 24437.3 Millions de Dinars (2007) 25877.6 Millions de Dinars(2009)

ii. Social equity

Demographic indicators

Indicators 2002 2009

Index of human development (IDH) 0.62 0.68

Growth rate 1.08 % 1.2%

Birth rate 16.7 % 17.7 0/00

Death rate 5.8 0/00 5.7 0/00

Infant mortality rate 22.1 0/00 17.8 0/00

Index of fruitfulness 2.04 % 2.05%

Life expectancy 73 years 74.5

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Life expectancy Women 75.1 years 76.5

Life expectancy Men 71 years 72.5

Education

Number of universities: 7 13

Rate of schooling 91.3 % 98%

Rate of illiteracy 25% 19%

Health

Number of hospitals 168 174

number of beds 16.682 18.771

number of doctors 7.964 11533 (2008)

Inhabitants for 1 doctor 1.156 896

basic health centers: 2.028 2.083

Commercial balance in Tunisia (2007)

Products Imports (million dinars) Exports (million dinars)

Agricultural products and basic food 1 717.7 1 163

energy-generating Products 3 001.6 3 137.8

Mining products and phosphates 487 1 348.7

Other intermediate products 10 222.6 3 797.8

equipment products 6 495 2 730.8

Other consumables products 2 514.9 231.5

Main achievements on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in Tunisia

Millennium goals Tunisia Millennium Goals

1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger Poverty rate was 6.7 % in 1990 Expected to be 2% in 2015

2. Achieve universal primary education The objective of primary education for all children has been nearly attained.

3. Promote gender equality and empower women The objective of “eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2002 and at all levels of education by 2015” has already been attained by Tunisia in 2000.

4. Reduce children mortality Considerable reduction

5. Improve maternal health Relatively pessimistic with an achievement rate of 70%.

6. Combat HIV/Aids, malaria and other diseases Situation is under control

7. Ensure environmental sustainability The principle of SD is integrated in national policies since several years

8. Develop a global partnership for development Tunisia is striving to develop an active cooperation on a bilateral, regional and international level.

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2.9.2. Appendix 2- Biophysical maps

i. Map 1. Aridity

ii. Map 2. Rainfall

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iii. Map 3. Runoff

iv. Map 4. Temperature

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v. Map 5. DEM

vi. Map 6. Slope

_̂

_̂_̂

_̂

_̂

_̂

_̂

_̂

_̂

_̂XY

XY

XY

XY

XY

XY

XY

XY

XY

XY

XY

XY

XY

XY

XY

XYXY

XY

XY

XY

XY

XY

XYXY

XYXY

XY

XY

XY

XY

XYXY

XYAlamet

Koutine

El Grine

Chouamekh

El BhayraKsar Jedid

Ksar Hallouf

Béni Khedache

Sidi Makhlouf

Dkhilet Toujène

580000 600000 620000 640000 660000

36

60

00

036

80

00

037

00

00

037

20

00

0

µ

Legende

Study area

Slope

0 - 3

3 - 10

10- 20

20 - 25

> 25

_̂ Agglomération

0000 Kilométres

60

vii. Map 7. Soils

viii. Map 8. Groundwater aquifers

61

ix. Map 9. Land use

x. Map 10. Land degradation