Contemporary challenges of restoring the threatened important ... - Journal of Zoology · 2015. 12....

The Journal of Zoology Studies

Vol. 2 No. 4 2015 Journalofzoology.com

Page 21

The Journal of Zoology Studies 2015; 2(4): 21-29

ISSN 2348-5914

JOZS 2015; 2(4): 21-29

JOZS © 2015

Received: 26-11-2015

Accepted: 20-12-2015

Getachew Mulualem

Department of Biology, College of

Natural & Computational Sciences,

Dire Dawa University, Ethiopia

Shimles Ayalew



Dire Dawa University, Ethiopia

Weldemariam Tesfahunegny

Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute,

Animal Biodiversity Directorate,

P.O.Box 30726, Addis Ababa,

Ethiopia

Corresponding Author:

Getachew Mulualem



Dire Dawa University, P.O. Box

1362, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia

Contemporary challenges of restoring the threatened important

bird area of Lake Haramaya, Eastern Ethiopia

Author: Getachew Mulualem, Shimles Ayalew, Weldemariam Tesfahunegny

Abstract

The study was carried out at the margin of the threatened lake Haramaya neighboring

inhabitants from March to June 2015. The objective of the study was to assess the current

challenges of restoring the threatened important bird area of Lake Haramaya. Community based

cross sectional study design was employed. The subject of the study was confined to households

proximal to the lake in settlement, agricultural and other activities. The total population in the

town was 6556 households. Considering only 50 m distance of the settlements to the proximity

of the lake shore 10% (60 households) were taken. The subjects of the study was proportionally

allotted to each three locality Tuji-Gebissa, n1= 16, Ifa-Bate, n2= 13 and 02 n3= 31) found

around the lake based on thier proximity to the shore lines. The individuals from each site were

purposely selected using judgmental sampling. Questionnaire that contains both open and closed

ended questions regarding the current challenges of restoring the threatened important bird area

of Lake Haramaya was used to collect data. Besides, observation checklist was also used to

observe the overall threat factors operating in the site. The lake is highly threatened important

bird area as a result of various threat factors. Majority (66.6 %) of the local villagers reported

that, the land use of the lake is more preferred for agricultural expansion. On the other hand,

33.3% of the villagers reported that, the shore line is preferred for better settlement. Majority

(100%) of the local villagers were releasing both solid and liquid types of waste towards the

shoreline of the lake. 50% of the local villagers without toilet use agricultural fields proximal to

the lake whereas (50%) use open shoreline of the lake. The lake is an important bird area listed

by Ethiopian Wildlife conservation authority but human settlement around the lake shore is a

threat factor threatening the overall ecology within the watershed. Generally, the lake needs a

great concern of conservation by all stakeholders and inhabitants to manage human settlement,

waste disposal, agricultural practice, pumped irrigation, uncontrolled fishing and cutting of

wetland grass.

Keywords: Waste, Haramaya, catchment, land use, Lake Shore

1. Introduction

Ecological and threat monitoring’ refers to the systematic method of collecting information

about some ecological variable or threat to the environment [9]

. The in situ conservation of

viable wildlife populations in natural ecosystems is widely recognized as a fundamental

requirement for the maintenance of biodiversity [6]

. Impeding biodiversity loss is considered a

comprehensive global environmental challenge [5, 12]

. Habitat loss and over-exploitation of

wildlife, and other forest resources, are universally recognized as the foremost causes of

biodiversity loss [3, 2]

, the situation is most severe in the tropical regions [14]

.



2

Human population growth, particularly in developing

countries, has intense effects on consumption patterns

of land and wild resources, and is an indirect driver of

biodiversity loss [11, 16]

. The role played by humans,

around the globe, in the extinction or reduction of

many species of plants and animals is commonly

recognized [10]

. The fight against biodiversity loss has

become a priority for both governments and nature

conservation organizations worldwide [13]

, and various

approaches to tackle the drivers of biodiversity loss

have emerged in the past few decades [19]

.

Ethiopia has so far established several protected areas

which include 21 national parks, 4 sanctuaries, 8

wildlife reserves, 20 controlled hunting areas, six open

hunting areas, six community conservation areas and

58 national forest priority areas [20]

. In Ethiopia,

protected areas cover 19% of the country. They play

key roles in economic, ecological and social structure

of the community. Similarly, they have significant

roles in conservation, recreation, eco-tourism and

employment. Direct and indirect annual economic

values of some protected areas are estimated at 1.5

billion USD [8]

.

Ethiopia is a signatory party of the Convention on

Biological Diversity (CBD) thereby, has been

undertaking efforts in biodiversity conservation [8]

.

Similarly, Ethiopia has developed a national

biodiversity strategy and action plan with the

objectives of conserving representative examples of

remaining ecosystems through a network of effectively

managed protected areas under sustainable use and

management by 2020 [8]

. However, a significant

biodiversity conservation challenge was evident in

several protected areas [1]

. Increasing population, rapid

socio-economic development and urbanization,

industrial development, and intensification of irrigated

production have led to freshwater shortages in many

parts of the world [18]

. Water resources of basins over

the world remain almost constant while the demand for

water continues to increase because of increasing

population and as a result of economic development. In

view of the increasing water demand for various

purposes and its limited availability, a greater emphasis

is being laid for a planned and optimal utilization of

available water resources [18]

.

Lake Haramaya is located in Eastern part of Ethiopia in

Haramaya district [17]

. The area surrounding the lake

has undergone significant change in land use and land

cover over the last half century that eventually resulted

in its complete loss [17]

. During the 1960s, the area was

covered with thick vegetation, predominantly bushes

and climbers. Presently the area is almost completely

used for agricultural production, primarily plantation of

Catha edulis,Triticum aestivum, Zea mays, Sorghum

bicolor and vegetables [17]

.

Water has always been abstracted primarily to grow

chat, previously directly from the lake and later from

underground (Ella) [18]

. Erosion from the lake’s

catchment principally caused by intense rainfall, steep

topography, and poor vegetation cover coupled with

cultivation of steep lands has also significantly affected

the lake ecosystem [7]

. However, a review of previous

literature and interview with the local community

suggests that the lake started to decrease around the

end of 1980s [17]

. Brook, 2002, indicated that, the

surface area of the lake during the year 1986-1987 was

about 4.72Km2 while an independent study by Meklit,

2005, using remote sensing methods shows that, the

surface area of the lake in 1996 is only about 2.7 Km2.

Sparse data on the surface area measurements of the

lake in the subsequent years depicts rapid decrease in

the lake’s surface area and the lake virtually

disappeared around year 2005. Thus, it is apparent that

the devolution of Lake Alemaya is a relatively recent

phenomenon [17]

.

Human activities in the area of the Lake were the major

causes for vanishing of the lake and had a potential to

affect lake ecosystems [17]

. The anthropogenic factors

are deforestation, expansion of agriculture and water

abstraction for irrigation [17]

. Water from the ground

and surface of the lake has been excessively pumped

by the local farmers to irrigate their vegetables and

crops. In the current years, area around the lake has

been totally converted to agriculture [17]

.

Poor land use and regulatory management practices are

attracting human settlement to the shore of the lake for

residential area and agricultural activities. Besides,

wastes that are stored in road side canals by people of

the town have been joining the lake driven by canal

flood during rain. Generally, the waste management

practice of the local people residing in the edge of the

lake is poorly considered. Besides, the lake is one of

the important bird destinations of Ethiopia. The bird

species found in the lake includes Fulica cristat,

Phoenicopterus ruber, Phoenicopterus minor,

Porphyrio porphyrio,Podiceps nigricollis, Pelecanus

onocrotalus, Alopochen aegyptiacus, Anas clypeata,

Himantopus himantopus,Recurvirostra

avosetta,Limosa limosa,Calidris minuta/temminckii,

Philomachus pugnax,Corvus edithae

(http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/sitefactsheet.php?id

=6251). But, is highly threatened site to support the

birds of conservation importance. Hence, this study

was intended to assess the current challenges of

restoring the threatened important bird area of Lake

Haramaya, Eastern Ethiopia.



Page 23

1.1 Study Area

Lake Haramaya is located in the Eastern high lands of

Ethiopia, which is administratively situated in the

Haramaya Woreda of Eastern Hararghe Zone, Oromia

regional State. It is found on the Northern upper part of

the Wabi-shebele river basin. It lies between 90’ 03”-

90’12” N latitude and 41⁰58’14”- 42⁰05’26” E

longitude [18]

. The watershed is situated on the main

road from Addis Ababa to Harar at a distance of

500km from Addis Ababa, and 14km North West of

Harar town. The watershed covers almost an area of

50km². It encompasses a small part of the town, The

University Campus, Bate town, three peasant

associations (Damota, Ifa-Bate, and Tuji-Gebissa)

fully, and another two Ifa-Oromia (around 90%) and

Guba-Selama (around 10%) partially [18]

. According to

Centeral Statistical Agency in 2005, Haramaya has

estimated total population of 15,317 of whom 7,796 are

men and 7,521 are women.

The1994 national census reported this town had total

population of 8,560 of whom 4,228 were males and

4,332 were females. So, it is the largest of three towns.

Based on the agro-climatic classification, Haramaya

Woreda has Woina Dega (wet and cool, 70%) and

Kolla (dry and hot, 30%) areas. The annual rainfull

distribution record indicates that the area receives a

bimodal rainfull type with the mean annual

precipitation of 751mm.

The maximum and minimum mean annual

temperatures for the area are 23.8 ⁰C and 9.6 ⁰C

respectively. The livelihood of the community in lake

Haramaya catchment is mainly based on mixed

farming, that is, cropping and livestock production [7]

.

Chat (Chat edulis) inters cropped with sorghum, maize

and haricot bean is the dominant cropping system in

the watershed. There is also a sizable pump irrigated

vegetable production especially around what used to be

the lake shore [18]

. The area surrounding of the lake has

undergone significant change in land use and land

cover over the last half century that eventually result in

complete loss. During the 1960s, the area is used to be

covered with thick vegetation, predominantly bushes

and climbers. Now a day the area almost completely

used for agricultural production and human settlement [17]

.

Fig 1: Lake Haramaya Watershed (Tena Alamirew, 2011)

2. Methods

The study population was shoreline households at the

margin of lake Haramaya. The subject of the study was

confined to three kebeles (i.e Tuji-Gebissa, Ifa-Bate

and 02) proximal to the lake in settlement, agricultural

and other activities. The total population in the town



Page 24

was 6556 households. Considering only 50 m distance

of the settlements to the proximity of the lake shore

10% (60 households) of the total population were

taken. The sample size was proportionally allotted to

each three locality (Tuji-Gebissa N= 1373 n1= 16, Ifa-

Bate N2= 1782 n2= 13 and 02 N3= 3401 n3= 31)

found around the lake based on thier proximity to the

shore lines. The individuals from each site were

purposely selected using judgmental sampling.

Community based cross sectional study design was

used to assess the conservation threats posed by the

villagers. The proportional allocation formula:

hN be the population size in the h

th stratum

Questionnaire that contains both open and closed

ended questions regarding the current challenges of

restoring the threatened important bird area of Lake

Haramaya was used to collect data. Besides,

observation checklist was also used to observe the

overall threat factors operating in the site. The local

villagers living along the shoreline of the lake were

asked about the land use and lake shore settlement

practices, livelihood dependency, type of waste

generated from shoreline households, toilet use and

waste management practices, agricultural practice at

the shoreline and current threats of the lake. The data

collected from lake shore inhabitants of the study area

was analyzed and interpreted using percentage

representation and graphs.

3. Result and Discussion

3.1 Land use and lake shore settlement practices of

the local villagers

Majority (66.6 %) of the local villagers reported that,

the land use of the lake is more preferred for

agricultural expansion. On the other hand, 33.3% of the

villagers reported that, the shore line is preferred for

better settlement. Majority (53.4%) of the inhabitant

responded human settlement along the shoreline of the

lake have its own effect on the lake while 46.6% of the

respondents perceived that, human settlement at the

margin of the lake does not have any effect on the lake

ecosystem. The result of the present study is consistent

with previous study done by Olana, 2014 which

shown, the area surrounding of the lake has undergone

a significant change in land use and land cover for the

last half century. Caleb, 2005 pointed that, the decline

in the lake water level is attributed to rapid increase in

demand for lake water of the catchment areas for

human settlement and associated activities. Eshetu

et.al. 2014 has also shown, cultivated land covers

78.3% of the land use of the catchment from the six

lands use types found in the study area. The livelihood

of the community living in the shoreline of lake

Haramaya is mainly based on mixed farming, that is

cropping and livestock production [7]

.

A) B)

Fig 2: A) Lake shore settlement practices B) Land use of the local villagers (Photo by Frehiwot Abebe, 2015)

3.2 Livelihood dependency in shore settlement of

Lake Haramaya

There is a socioeconomic dependency in the lake water

by shoreline inhabitants to enhance their livelihood.

26.7% of the lake shore villagers pointed the lake water

were used for irrigation purpose while 32.8%

responded that, the lake water were used as a primary

source of income by washing cloth in the open fields.



Page 25

25.9% of the villagers responded the lake were used as

a potential source of drinking water for livestock and

14.6 % the emerging unsustainable subsistence fishing

practices. Most of the local villagers (73.3%) perceived

that, the lake has considerable influence in their

livelihood. In our observation we found that, the lake’s

has influence in the livelihood of the lake shore

villagers being primary source of income and

subsistence fishing practices.

The finding of the present study is consistent with a

study done by Caleb, 2005 were the rapid growth of

population and the associated human settlements has

led to increased demand of environmental resources

particularly water and land around the lake. Tena, 2011

has also experiencing the lake water were substantially

used for agricultural practice through irrigation. There

are tubeless wells excavated around the lake shore by

farmers locally called “Ella”. Thus, most part of the

watershed was cultivated throughout the year for

vegetable and chat production [18]

. To enhance the

continuity of their agricultural production farmer’s

were digging more than one Ella per family. Ella is a

principal source of water for irrigation and livestock

production for local farmers living along the shoreline

of the lake [18]

. Famers used water from ella to irrigate

crops using small private motor pumps. About 1500

farmers were using pump in the water shed for

agricultural practices [18]

.

Fig 3: Livelihood dependency in shore settlement of Lake Haramaya (Photo by Frehiwot Abebe, 2015)

3.3 Type of waste generated from shoreline households of lake Haramaya

Table 1: Type of waste generated from shoreline households of Lake Haramaya

No Responses No of respondents Percentage %

1. Animal manure 23 38.33

2. Plastic materials 17 28.33

3. Washed utensils 12 20

4. Others 8 13.33

Total 60 100%

Majority (100%) of the local villagers were releasing

both solid and liquid types of waste towards the

shoreline of the lake. Animal manure accounts 38.33 %

followed by 28.33% plastic materials and 20% washed

liquid materials associated with food scraps.



Page 26

Fig 4: Type of waste generated from shoreline settlement of lake Haramaya (Photo by Frehiwot Abebe, 2015)

3.4 Toilet use and waste management practices of

lake shore households Majority (64%) of the households in Ife-Bate own

toilet in their home while the remaining 36% didn’t

own. 50% of the local villagers without toilet use

agricultural fields proximal to the lake whereas (50%)

use open shoreline of the lake. This can possibly

expose the residents to various water born diseases in

time were they reuse the water. Majority (87.9%) of

the liquid wastes generated by the households were

dumped to the lake ecosystem while 12.1% were

managed by burning. Dumping the waste directly

coupled with burning can possibly pollute the overall

ecology of the aquatic organisms. In 02 kebele 75% of

the households own toilet in their home while 25%

have no toilet and depend on proximal agricultural

fields and Lake Shore. Majority of the lake shore

residents (40%) dispose their household and

agricultural wastes to proximal fields of the lake

catchment. 30% of the villagers manage their waste

through burning plastics and papers. Composting of

degradable materials and mutual household heads

mechanical removal of wastes account 16.7% and

13.3% of the waste management practices respectively.

In Tuji-Gebissa 35% of the local villagers own toilet in

their home while 65% depend on proximal agricultural

fields and Lake Shore. 40.9% of lake shore residents

dispose there household waste on the lake. 36.4% of

the villagers manage their waste through composting

while (22.7%) employ burning.



Page 27

Fig 5: Waste management practices of the three kebelles located in the shoreline of Lake Haramaya

3.5 Agricultural practice at the shoreline of Lake

Haramaya

55% of the local villagers own agricultural land while

45 % depend on selling wetland grass, washing cloth

and other activities. The major crop grown along the

lake shore is chat, potato, maize, corn and vegetables

(lettuce, carrot, onion, tomato and cabbage). 100% of

the lake shore agrarian use both chemical and local

fertilizer to improve their crop productivity. Animal

manure and plant remains from agricultural practice

are local fertilizers being used by the farmers. Urea and

DAP are the types of chemical fertilizers mostly

utilized by the farmers. DDT

(dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) (100%) malatine

(54.5%), and marshal (6.0%) were used to protect

crops pest. A study conducted by Eshetu et.al., 2014 [7]

has shown, the livelihood of the community in the lake

catchment is mainly based on mixed farming i.e,

cropping and livestock production. The major crop

grown in the area under irrigated condition are chat,

potato and vegetables (lettuce, carrot, onion, tomato

and cabbage).

3.6 The current threats of Lake Haramaya

The lake is an important bird area listed by Ethiopian

wildlife conservation authority but the human

settlement around the lake shore is a threat factor

threatening the overall ecology within the watershed.

We observed the lake is currently threatened from

household waste disposal by the inhabitants of the

shoreline, chemical wastes of onshore agricultural

lands, cutting of wetland grass as income source, motor

pump for irrigation, detergents for washing cloth,

uncontrolled fishing, human & animal wastes. A study

done by Tena, 2011 increasing pumped irrigation and

domestic water use, agricultural expansion and poor

governmental policy towards waste and water

management were threats of the lake currently. Similar

study in the lake has also shown that, the watershed of

this lake is devoid of apparently all its natural

vegetation and is highly populated, with the majority of

the land being used for horticultural crops and a

stimulant plant locally known as "khat" (Catha edulis)

for export to neighboring Djibuti and Somali. Farmers

in the watershed needed water for irrigation for about

eight dry months of the year. The lake water was used

for various purposes of this pumped for municipal uses

to a town by the same name of about 30, 000 people

and the nearby town of Harar, 20 km in the eastern

direction with a population of about 150, 000 [3]

.

4. Conclusion

The result of our study shown that, the land use of the

lake is more preferred for agricultural expansion and

better settlement. The respondents perceived that,

human settlement at the margin of the lake does not

have any effect on the lake ecosystem. There is also a

socioeconomic dependency in the lake water to

enhance their livelihood. This includes irrigation,

primary source of income by washing cloth in the open

fields, potential source of drinking water for livestock

and the emerging unsustainable subsistence fishing

practices. Majority of the local villagers were releasing

both solid and liquid types of waste towards the

shoreline of the lake. The wastes include Animal

manure, plastic materials and washed liquid materials

associated with food scraps. Majority of the lake shore

residents dispose their household and agricultural



Page 28

wastes to proximal fields of the lake catchment.

Majority of the local villagers own agricultural land

while some others depend on selling wetland grass,

washing cloth and other activities. The major crop

grown along the lake shore is chat, potato, maize, corn

and vegetables (lettuce, carrot, onion, tomato and

cabbage). The lake shore agrarian use both chemical

and local fertilizer to improve their crop productivity.

Animal manure and plant remains from agricultural

practice are local fertilizers being used by the farmers.

Urea and DAP are the types of chemical fertilizers

mostly utilized by the farmers. The lake is an important

bird area listed by Ethiopian wildlife conservation

authority but the human settlement around the lake

shore is a threat factor threatening the overall ecology

within the watershed. The bird species found in this

site includes Fulica cristat, Phoenicopterus ruber,

Phoenicopterus minor, Porphyrio porphyrio,Podiceps

nigricollis, Pelecanus onocrotalus, Alopochen

aegyptiacus, Anas clypeata, Himantopus

himantopus,Recurvirostra avosetta,Limosa

limosa,Calidris minuta/temminckii, Philomachus

pugnax,Corvus edithae

(http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/sitefactsheet.php?id

=6251). Generally, the lake needs a great concern of

conservation by all stakeholders and inhabitants to

manage human settlement, waste disposal, agricultural

practice, pumped irrigation, uncontrolled fishing and

cutting of wetland grass.

5. Conservation Perspective

Land use, settlement and irrigation practice of

inhabitants along the margin of the lake should be

managed to halt the deterioration of the water quality

and eventual transformation of the lake into a terrestrial

environment. Likewise, the administration of the town

of Haramaya needs to develop integrated waste

management system focusing on sustainable sanitation

alternatives based on equity, prevention and

sustainability. The decline of the lake could be

associated with a range of threatening practices halting

the conservation of high biological value sites which

supports avifauna. Moreover, to our understanding

conservation efforts of the lake along the livelihood of

the adjacent local community is poorly prioritized.

Therefore, participatory approach of Lake Ecosystem

conservation is decisive. Besides, further intensive

study of water quality over different season of the year

could help to notice conservation action of aquatic

organisms and birds of the important bird area.

6. Acknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledge College of

Natural and Computational Sciences of Dire Dawa

University for material and logistics support. We also

thank the residents of the study site who helps us in

responding to the questionnaires honestly. We would

also like to thank Frehiwot Abebe and Tigist Mekonen

for their field assistance.

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Mulualem G, Ayalew S, Tesfahunegny W. Contemporary challenges of restoring the threatened important bird area of Lake Haramaya,

Eastern Ethiopia. Journal of Zoology Studies. 2015; 2(4):21-29.

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