QUINCY UNIVERSITY

Conserving America’s Beauty: The Battle for Creation of the National Parks

A thesis to the Department of History in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Bachelor of Arts Degree

Daniel T. Camp

4/13/2015

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Table of Contents

Introduction…. ………………………………………………………………………………..2

Historical Background………………………………………………………………………...4

Historiography………………………………………………………………………………...9

Narrative……………………………………………………………………………………..13

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………....29

Works Cited………………………………………………………………………………….31

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Introduction

It took more than three thousand years to make some of the trees in these Western woods -- trees that are still standing in perfect strength and beauty, waving and singing in the mighty forests of the Sierra. Through all the wonderful, eventful centuries ... God has cared for these trees, saved them from drought, disease, avalanches, and a thousand straining, leveling tempests and floods; but he cannot save them from fools -- only Uncle Sam can do that. John Muir- 1897 1

Gifford Pinchot, the first chief of the United States Forest Service, described John Muir

as someone whose words and stories were “worth crossing the continent to hear”. This sense of 2

admiration from Pinchot to Muir is common in his writing and letters even though their different

views on conservation of land and resources in the United States and the purpose of a National

Park Service (NPS) are studied. The third key player in the creation of the National Parks System

is the 26th President and avid outdoorsman, Theodore Roosevelt. The push for protection of land

and resources had not been a political issue in the United States before the 1900’s because the

uncharted lands to the west seemed to have unlimited natural resources. It was not until men

such as Muir, Roosevelt, and Pinchot entered the push for conservation in the U.S. that light was

cast upon the importance of preserving not only the nation’s natural resources, but also the

untouched, awe-inspiring landscapes that gave rise to Muir’s poetic praise. The story of the

creation of the National Park Service can be seen in three phases: the beginnings of the

conservation movement, a schism between Muir, Pinchot, and Roosevelt’s ideology in the early

John Muir, Our National Parks (Madison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin Press, 1901), 364-365 1

Gifford Pinchot, Breaking New Ground (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1947.), 101.2

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1900’s, and finally the formation of the NPS that resulted from the combining of their three

different values and ideas. Although all three of these men had different ideas on what

conservation meant, the coordination of their fight for conservation and ultimately the tough

compromise of their very separate ideas, is the reason the National Park Service was created and

has expanded with new parks through today.

The purpose of this study is to examine why the National Park Service (NPS) was created

and how it came to consider conservation through the strenous efforts of Theodore Roosevelt,

John Muir, and Gifford Pinchot. This study focuses on these three men because of their vast

amount of influence they had on introducing the idea of conservation as a main congressional

debate in America. While there are other people who had roles in the creation of the National

Parks System such as the first director of the NPS Steve Mather, it was the passion, tenacity, and

political/national influence from these three that set its framework. The chronological parameters

of this paper start in 1864 with the creation of Yosemite Valley in California as a protected public

park by Abraham Lincoln and end with the creation of the National Park Service in 1916. 3

The study of the creation of the National Park Service is important for a number of

reasons. First, it was the first National Park System ever created in history. The conservation of

natural lands and resources was an uncharted endeavor no other nation had yet been able to

achieve on a large scale. By creating the first, the United States became a model for the rest of

the world. Conservation also has economic implications such as in the creation of jobs and a

market for travel and ecotourism. The National Parks created jobs for a wide spectrum of

Hal Borland, The History of Wildlife in America, (Washington D.C.: National Wildlife 3

Federation, 1975), 115.

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workers from construction workers to build roads to biologists to monitor the use of natural

resources. Also, the issue of whether to make money off of these resources or to isolate them for

future generations was an economic and social issue. Many thought that natural resources were

nearly unlimited in the young country where the industrial age was growing outward from

expanding cities without any regard for local ecosystems. This issue is also politically important

because it separated party ideologies such as the progressives, democrats, and republicans and

does even today. It is important to note that democrat and republican values are not the same

today as in the start of the 20th century. Also a social separation was created by urban vs. rural

development. A debate was sparked throughout America on the spread of humans into wild areas

previously untouched and whether it should be restricted or not. As people fled to the cities, the

land that remained became foreign to most. The thematic parameters of this study are economic,

religious, regional, social, political, cultural, clash of personalities, and rural vs. urban living.

Historical Background

To examine the ideologies of Muir, Pinchot, and Roosevelt that created the principles for

the NPS, it is necessary to examine their political, economic, social, and religious backgrounds.

Studying how these men grew up makes it easier to understand why they feel certain ways about

conservation. Understanding their own personal histories is key to understanding why they

dedicated themselves so passionately to this work.

To understand the backgrounds of these men, one must first understand what

conservation of natural resources and ecosystems is all about. Conservation is a fairly new

political debate and concern in the United States that originated in the last 20 years of the 1800’s.

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The World Wild Life foundation outlines the goals of conservationism in America as simply

finding a way to save the environment to make life livable for all living things. Conservation is

more than just spotting a herd of deer by the woods or seeing dolphins playing in the surf, it is

one of the greatest indicators of environmental health. Conservationism is a key component to 4

making sure that Mother Earth remains livable for generations to come. Simply put,

Conservation is the preservation of natural resources, wildlife, and ecosystems from economic

exploitation and destruction. Without conservation of our wide variety of landscapes from

mountains and deserts and natural resources ranging from oil to timber, our world would be

destroyed eventually becoming unlivable.

John Muir, the oldest of the three, was also the only one not born in the United States. He

was born in Dunbar, Scotland in 1838 to a family heavily influenced by his father’s strong

religious convictions. Muir’s family was members of the Disciples of Christ, strict Calvinists

based mostly in the United States. Muir’s father David and his three eldest children left Scotland 5

on February 19th, 1849 to sail to the new world. While the Muir’s immigrated to the United

States on religious convictions, most immigrants coming to America at this time looked to

capitalize on the newly discovered gold mines in California. His family eventually made their 6

way across the nation and landed in the new state of Wisconsin. It was here that John Muir grew

up on the family farm. Life was often grim for John and his family, but it was in this area that his

Borland, The History of Wildlife in America, 177.4

John Muir, The Story of My Boyhood and Youth (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 5

1965), 3-15.

Ibid, 453.6

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love for nature began and was explored and expanded. While Muir was only allowed to read the 7

Bible by his father, He secretly read Shakespeare and Milton. His thirst for knowledge did not

stop there. He left home to spend several years at the University of Wisconsin studying many

different fields of natural history such as botany and geology. Although he left the university 8

after only two years, he kept in contact with Professor Dr. Ezra Slocum Carr who had introduced

him to the idea of glaciation forming different landscapes. These concepts of glaciation lead to

some of Muir’s greatest contributions in understanding the natural history and formation of the

Yosemite Valley in California. Muir’s main philosophy on conservation revolves around the idea 9

of total preservation to keep wilderness the way it has always been and to avoid capitalist desires

such as the timber and agriculture industries. 10

After making various expeditions through North and Central America, in 1868 Muir

made his way into a place he described as the “grandest and most divine of all living spaces”

known to others as the Yosemite Valley in the Sierra Nevada mountain range. His description 11

of the valley shows his religious background influencing his writing and perception of nature. To

Muir, this valley was more than just a fabulous work of nature, but instead something God’s

presence is felt more readily. This area became protected by the US government under President

R.M., McDowall, "Biogeography In The Life And Literature Of John Muir: A Ceaseless Search 7

For Pattern." Journal of Biogeography, 2010; 1630.

Ibid8

Dennis R. Dean, "John Muir and the Origin of Yosemite Valley." Annals of Science, (Kenosha, 9

Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin-Parkside,1991), 454.

Borland, The History of Wildlife in America, 119.10

William Frederic Badè, The Life And Letters Of John Muir (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 11

1924), 110.

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Abraham Lincoln in 1864 after a group of soldiers stumbled into the valley while chasing a

rogue group of Indians in 1851. Muir first worked as a field hand and shepherd exploring the 12

valley and corresponding with Dr. Carr. As he spent more and more time in Yosemite, Muir 13

wrote extensive journals and studied the effects of glaciation and even observed the change of

different plants based on elevation. The more time Muir spent in the valley, the more he fell in 14

love with its beauty and realized how important the conservation of such areas was vital to

preserve for generations to come. Places such as the Yosemite Valley were where people could

go to get away from the hustle of city life and reconnect with themselves and God in Muir’s

eyes. This philosophy was evident in 1892 when Muir founded the Sierra Club along with others

who shared his love of the valley. Together they strove for one goal through three means in the

Yosemite Valley: the protection of natural wonders and forests through recreational, educational,

and conservationist means. 15

Gifford Pinchot was born on August 11, 1865 in Connecticut. Pinchot’s father James was

one of the earliest foresters in America after he battled with the guilt of his earlier ancestors

making their fortune off of exploiting the land. In his book Breaking New Ground, Pinchot goes 16

Dean, “John Muir and the Origin of the Yosemite Valley,” 456.12

Ibid, 462.13

John Muir and Galen A. Rowell, The Yosemite: The Original John Muir Text (San Francisco: 14

Sierra Club Books, 1989), 649.

Michael P. Cohen, The History of the Sierra Club, 1892-1970 (San Francisco: Sierra Club 15

Books, 1988), 187.

M. Nelson McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, Forester-Politician (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University 16

Press, 1960), 2-35.

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as far to say that his father’s foresight and tenacity were the reason forestry came to America. 17

Gifford Pinchot attended Yale with aspirations to follow in his father’s footsteps and pursue a

career in forestry to help right the family name. The only problem was that this field was not 18

nearly mature enough in America to have an academic field of study, even at a school such as

Yale. Schools in America did not have forestry majors yet. Once decided to pursue a career in

forestry, Gifford settled on a French forestry school at Nancy in Lorraine. From here he learned

from both Professor Lucien Boppe and especially Dr. Detrich Brandis who made forestry

tangible to young Pinchot. After finishing school in 1890, Pinchot returned to the US and was 19

selected as the youngest member to be on the seven man National Forest Commission which he

held as a great honor. This commission was to go west and analyze the different forests and 20

natural areas and form a report for Congress and President Grover Cleveland. It was on these 21

journeys that Pinchot met Muir in the Sierras. He wrote highly of him and talked about how

much he loved to listen to his stories and be around him as much as possible. The report 22

gathered on the commission’s journey led to the creation of the Division of Forestry within the

Gifford Pinchot, Breaking New Ground (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1947), 110.17

Gifford Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 1-3.18

Ibid, 8-10.19

Nelson M. McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, Forester-politician (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton 20

University Press, 1960), 19-22.

Ibid, 92.21

Ibid, 10322

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United States government. Pinchot became the head of that division in 1896 and with

Roosevelt’s help, became the first director of the United States Forest Service in 1905. 23

Theodore Roosevelt was born on October 27, 1858 at the family home in New York. The

Roosevelt family was not the healthiest as both of Theodore’s parents succumbed to illness

(cancer and Typhoid Fever) in their late 40s. His siblings also suffered from various ailments

ranging from a warped spine to a case of epilepsy. Theodore at age three developed severe 24

bronchial asthma. Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was born into old money, commonly called “blue

bloods”. The blue bloods who were mostly colonial families looked down upon those who had

recently acquired wealth since they were not from old families such as the Roosevelt’s who were

of Dutch descent. His grandfather was Cornelius Van Schaack Roosevelt, a prominent man in 25

New York who had success as a merchant and then founded Roosevelt and Sons which he ran

with his son Theodore Roosevelt Sr. The bulk of their wealth came from real estate that

Cornelius Roosevelt purchased during the Panic of 1837 in the New York City area. 26

Theodore Roosevelt attended Harvard University and had a fairly conventional

experience as a college student. AS a child Roosevelt fell in love with nature and while in college

he took it even further, publishing his first book The Summer Birds of the Adirondacks in

Ibid, 139-200.23

H.W. Brands, T.R.: The Last Romantic (New York, NY: Basic Books, 1997), 9-10.24

Louis Auchincloss, Theodore Roosevelt: The American Presidents Series: The 26th President 25

1901-1909 (New York: Times Books, 2001), 35.

Brands, T.R., 5-6.26

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Franklin County, N.Y. He also formed the Boone and Crockett Club, one of the first successful 27

conservation clubs in 1887. Observing nature was a hobby of Roosevelt that he got from his 28

best friend, and Father. In the ensuing years Roosevelt entered the world of politics and worked

his way through government jobs consisting of the police comissioner of New York, governor of

New York, assistant Navy secretary of the United States under McKinley, vice President under

McKinley, and then in 1901 finally president of America following the assassination of President

McKinley. As president, Roosevelt became the first to make conservation a national issue. 29

Historiography

There are four schools on this topic: The Muir School, the Pinchot School, the Roosevelt

School, and the Conservationist Movement School. The schools are based on the different views

of what conservation means and what the role of the National Park Service should be in the lives

of Americans and in the United States government. The separation in these schools comes from

who historians believe to be the most important in the creation of the National Park Service and

the conservation movement in the United States of America. For example, those in the Roosevelt

school argue that he is the main hero of the conservation movement and the eventual creation of

the NPS.

The first school of thought is the Muir School. This school personifies the idea that

conservation means protection of the forests and natural wonders of the United States from all

Nathan Miller, Theodore Roosevelt: A Life (New York: William Morrow, 1992), 66-78.27

Hal Borland, The History of Wildlife in America (Washington: National Wildlife Federation, 28

1975),118.

Brands, T.R., 400-412.29

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influences including destructive human intrusion and capitalist desires which sought to exploit

natural resources for profit. The main books in this school are The Story of My Boyhood and

Youth , My First Summer in the Sierra , Letters to a Friend, Written to Mrs. Ezra S. Carr, 30 31

1866-1879, and other such collections of works by John Muir. Also is the book Son of the

Wilderness: The life of John Muir written by Linnie Marsh Wolfe. The historians in this school 32

argue that John Muir’s belief in conservation as leaving the wild like it is sparked debate that led

to formation to the National Park Service. Wolfe is a foremost Muir scholar and argues that the

National Park Service was a direct result of the work of John Muir. John Muir’s ideas were

molded by his unique upbringing compared to Roosevelt and Pinchot. Unlike the others, Muir

was not born in the United States and traveled to the country on his father’s religious

convictions. This strict religious youth molded Muir’s mind to see the works of nature as the

divine work of God. If these natural wonders were truly the works of God, then Muir would do

everything he could to seek complete protection for them. Another difference between this

school and the other two is the age difference between Muir and then Pinchot and Roosevelt.

There is an age difference around 20 years between Muir and the other two. As a poor immigrant

born 20 years earlier, Muir’s ideas are in a different spectrum than the other two authors since

they both came from wealthy families. Since he was not native to the United States, he

developed his love for the natural wonders of the states from a different perspective. Spending

Muir, The Story of My Boyhood and Youth, 5.30

John Muir, My First Summer in the Sierra (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1911), prolougue.31

Linnie Marsh Wolfe, Son of the Wilderness: The Life of John Muir (New York: A.A. Knopf, 32

1945), 5-12.

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his youth as a farm boy and coming from a family who was not from “old money” sets him apart

from the childhoods of both Roosevelt and Pinchot.

The second school contends that Gifford Pinchot is the main reason for the Conservation

Movement and the eventual creation of the NPS. The main sources used in this school are

Breaking New Ground, The Fight for Conservation, The Conservation Diaries of Gifford 33 34

Pinchot, and Gifford Pinchot and the Making of Modern Environmentalism by Char Miller. 35 36

His concept of conservation differed from Muir’s because he sought to preserve the nation’s

resources while also creating a way to best utilize them. Rather than just strictly protecting,

Pinchot planned for the use and renewal of resources. Historian Char Miller argues that the

Pinchot is the father of forestry in America and deserves the credit for the conservation

movement and creation of the National Parks. The fundamental disagreement between Muir and

Pinchot shaped some of the largest disputes in the history of conservation, especially including

the damming of the Hetch Hetchy Valley and created the eventual break in relationship.

The third school is the Roosevelt School. This school of thought argues that Theodore

Roosevelt was the main contributor to the creation of the National Parks Service through his time

as president and also after his presidency. Roosevelt wrote many different books and journals,

Gifford Pinchot, Breaking New Ground (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1947), 3.33

Gifford Pinchot, The Fight for Conservation (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1967), 34

12.

Gifford Pinchot and Harold K. Steen, The Conservation Diaries of Gifford Pinchot (Durham, 35

N.C.: Forest History Society, 2001), 5.

Char Miller, Gifford Pinchot and the Making of Modern Environmentalism, (Washington, DC: 36

Island Press/Shearwater Books, 2001), 1-5.

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some about nature and his travels, but the main works that were used to form this school of

thought were his Autobiography, The Selected Letters of Theodore Roosevelt edited by H.W. 37

Brands , the Works of Theodore Roosevelt and also the biographies of Roosevelt written by 38 3940

Edmund Morris titled Theodore Rex and Colonel Roosevelt. Known as an avid gamesman and 41 42

outdoorsman, member of the wealthy Roosevelt family, and respected politician, Roosevelt’s

vision of conservation is between that of Muir and Pinchot while bringing his own individual

views into consideration. For example, Roosevelt would often write with similar prose as Muir

when describing landscapes but he also helped to make policy that was not just centered around

the protection of wildlife and landscapes but also the use of available resources. Morris argues

that Roosevelt brought about most change in the conservation movement because of his

influence and political power. While Muir was an advocate for complete preservation of land and

Pinchot was interested in ways to use the land most efficiently while protecting it, Roosevelt

incorporated ideas from both arguments. His “blue blood” background lets him see the

importance of use of natural resources in the economy but his love for nature led him to see the

importance of preservation.

Theodore Roosevelt, Autobiography (New York: Macmillan, 1913), 16.37

Theodore Roosevelt and H.W. Brands, The Selected Letters of Theodore Roosevelt (New 38

York: Cooper Square Press, 2001), 23.

Theodore Roosevelt, [Works]. Homeward Bound ed. Vol. 5 (New York: Review of Reviews 39

Pub., 1910), 5.

Theodore Roosevelt, [Works]. Homeward Bound ed. Vol. 16 (New York: Review of Reviews 40

Pub., 1910), 9-11.

Edmund Morris, Theodore Rex ( New York: Random House, 2001), 12.41

Edmund Morris, Colonel Roosevelt (New York: Random House, 2010), 8.42

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The fourth and final school is the Conservationist Movement School. This school

contends that the biggest factor in the creation of the national parks did not come directly from

those three individuals but rather the entire conservation movement as a whole. Two authors in

this school are Robert Shankland who is the author of Steve Mather of the National Parks and 43

Benjamin Kline who wrote First along the River: A brief history of the U.S. Environmental

Movement. Authors in this school argue that many others deserve credit such as Steve Mather, 44

the first director of the NPS. They contend that Muir, Roosevelt, and Pinchot have been given

too much credit.

The flaws of the schools are that not only one of those men can be given all of the credit

by themselves for the creation of the NPS. It was through compromise of all three’s ideas that

conservation became a forefront debate in congress. Also, the schools named for the authors also

feature Muir, Roosevelt, and Pinchot as authors. They have a certain amount of bias towards

themselves. For example, the historians in the Theodore Roosevelt School argue he is the most

important because he was the only one with real political power. The fourth school is flawed

because it does not count Muir, Roosevelt, and Pinchot as in high regard as they deserve in the

debate. Since this school is contending that others had a much larger impact, it down plays the

efforts put in by those three men.

Robert Shankland, Steve Mather of the National Parks, (New York: Knopf, 1951), V in the 43

Preface.

Benjamin Kline, First along the River: A Brief History of the U.S. Environmental Movement, 44

(San Francisco, Calif.: Acada Books, 1997), 3-12.

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Many primary sources impact this study. Sources such as personal journals, unpublished

journals, letters to peers and loved ones, congressional records, newspapers, are examples of

some of the primary research material. Secondary materials such as biographies and histories of

the environment in the U.S. are also used to complete the study.

Narrative

The story of conservation and the National Park Service starts long before its actual

creation in 1916. It starts with the creation of Yosemite as a national public park in 1864 during

the Lincoln administration. This was done after an examination of the land was done and the

wonders of the Valley were observed. This small step was the very beginning of a national debate

between those who saw conservation and protection of natural resources as an important issue

that needed to be addressed and those who believed that it was not a pressing problem. Before

the Conservation Movement, most Americans thought that their young nation had almost infinite

natural resources and that there was no need to conserve much because of the seemingly endless

amount of land and resources out west in the uncharted frontier.

The beginning of the Conservation Movement starts with the first of the three

conservationists to make an impact, John Muir. His story begins as he made his way to Yosemite

in 1868 after hiking through the United States and Central America. Yosemite was the first

protected land under the United States government which makes it a fitting place for Muir to

begin the push for conservation in the late 1870’s. Muir took note of all the natural wonders

around him in prose that makes you feel like you can experience it just through his words.

Fueling Muir’s idea of conservation defined as total preservation of a park is Muir’s belief that

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humans require time spent in these wild lands to live positive and fuflling lives. This means that

without exploring these fantastic displays of natural beauty, the human race is losing touch with

nature and the planet on which they live on, ultimately not spending any time to relax and

recharge. This sentiment can easily be seen in his work The Yosemite in the 1890’s when he

wrote, “Everyone needs beauty as well as bread, places to play in and pray in, where Nature may

heal and give strength to body and soul alike.” The idea that one’s soul is rooted within nature 45

relates to Muir’s religious upbringing. Since his father was a devout Calvinist, Muir grew up

incorporating religion into all aspects of his own life. Seeing the grand valleys and peaks

surrounding him in the Sierras made him feel like he was standing in the “hand of God himself.”

This feeling is made completely evident in his journal from his first summer in the Sierra when

he mentions that the mountains and valleys are a vast display of God’s power and that just

simply being in the presence is enough to make one feel renewed. Muir’s poetic prose was one 46

of the reasons that he was able to attract a sizable amount of readers to his writings. He attracted

a large and diverse audience to his published works. His scientific work on glaciers attracted a lot

of attention from scientists across the world while his interpretations of nature were also widely

read. His work was published in multiple magazines such as the Overland Monthly and the

science journal Stillman’s Journal. Muir became a mix between a naturalist and a geologist and 47

people traveled to Yosemite just to get the chance to discuss with him.

Muir, The Yosemite, 714.45

Ibid,131-133.46

Wolfe, Son of the Wilderness, 158.47

17

It was not long before Muir became the utmost authority on the features of Yosemite. In

1882, he was the founder and president of the greatest conservation club in the U.S. at the time,

The Sierra Club. Muir headed the club for 20 years and is still regarded today among the 48

greatest scenery and nature preservation clubs. The huge amount of land that had yet to be

disturbed by human destruction and greed in the United States was Muir’s sanctuary and he

worked to detail it and politically pushed through Congress for keeping it the way it was. This

place was much unlike the Great Plains that already had its buffalo herds ravaged by the most

dangerous threat to American wildlife: the commercial market hunter which had also destroyed

the entire population of passenger pigeons by 1908. As late as into the 1880’s, groups of these

birds were described by many as gigantic flocks that could not possibly be counted. In only

twenty years their population was completely destroyed. John Muir began to fight for 49

conservation of the country’s natural resources. He saw the damage done by exploitation of land

and wildlife and feared that if not checked by the federal government, loggers, hunters, and

others would threaten land and animals. Muir believed that the government should set aside vast

amounts of land forever, so that land could never be spoiled by those looking to get rich from the

land.

Starting on July 11th of 1896, Muir traveled with the newly created Division of Forestry.

The task of these men was to create a report for President Cleveland to give to Congress

Cohen, The History of the Sierra Club, 1892-1970, 25-35.48

Beard, Daniel B. Fading Trails, the Story of Endangered American Wildlife, Prepared by a 49

Committee of the United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Fish and Wildlife Service, Daniel B. Beard, Chairman, Frederick C. Lincoln [and Others] (New York, Boston, Etc.: Macmillan, 1942), 11-12.

18

regarding the status of land in the Western United States and the possible need for protection of

land and resources. The Division of Forestry showed how the nation was beginning to pick up on

the Conservation Movement. Gifford Pinchot was the youngest member of the group selected.

Pinchot was elated to finally meet Muir for he had great admiration for the man. Pinchot was

fascinated with Muir’s story telling ability. Pinchot remarked on a special night that the two

shared together during the trip in late 1896 where they made their own camp and spent the night

in the woods with just the fire to keep them warm as Muir told his charismatic stories. In 50

Pinchot’s writing it is evident that the younger man saw Muir as someone to look up to and even

as a mentor. While they seemed to get along with one another very well, in reality they had

distinct differences that set them apart regarding use of the preserved forests, eventually leading

to a fissure in their relationship. The origin of these differences come from the very different

lifestyles that these two had lived. Muir on one hand was from a foreign family who came to

America for mostly religious notions. His family never had money and that never seemed to

bother him. Muir spent his childhood days in Wisconsin running around the family farm with his

brother and neighbor boys exploring the woods and fascinating at nature. Neither money nor 51

greed or the desire to one day be extremely wealthy was ever part of Muir’s life. These values

made him appreciate the little things around him better and take nothing for granted.

Gifford Pinchot had a contrasting childhood compared to Muir. Though Pinchot was also

a religious man and frequently attended church, they were from different denominations of

Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 100-104.50

John Muir, The Story of My Boyhood and Youth (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 51

1965), 115-125.

19

Christianity. They did share some religious convictions when dealing with nature and both found

nature to be the work of God. Their biggest differences were age, wealth, and the different ways

they grew to love nature. Pinchot’s father pushed him into forestry, rather than him finding it

exclusively for himself because of his guilt that stems from the source of the Pinchot family’s

wealth: exploitation of natural resources. Pinchot saw the forest as a renewable form of natural 52

resource that could be a maintainable asset to the United States forever. This influenced the way

Pinchot saw and appreciated things throughout his life. These differences in values led two to

disagree heavily on future debate on conservation in the United States. Muir adopted an anti-

capitalist mentality towards conservation whereas Pinchot believed in preserving the forests for

use.

Muir made it a point to the Commission that he was not to be considered a member of the

Commission of Forestry but instead wanted to be more of a freelancer, guide, and advisor. This

behavior was typical of Muir’s personality for he did not want to be tied down if a better

opportunity showed itself. It did not matter where they traveled they found signs of human

destruction everywhere. Muir in his journal wrote, “wherever the white man goes, the groves

vanish.” This alludes to a potential feeling of admiration for the native people of North America

and how they were able to cohabitate with the land peacefully without destroying precious

forests. Where forests should have stood now were now fires, mining operations, and obvious

illegal logging. The Northern Pacific railroad was not only plowing a trail through the frontier,

but also was devastatingly abusing the availability of timber for use and sale. The men compiled

their findings into a report that Muir was given to proof read and make changes, most of which

Breaking New Ground, 1-9.52

20

were stylistic changes. They finished the report in mid-February of 1897 just before the end of

Grover Cleveland’s term as president. Cleveland was impressed with the guidelines and

recommendations the Commission had come up with. The report called for four specific 53

recommendations. First, the creation of thirteen new reservations that could be distributed across

eight of the western US states. Second, a plan to modify or repeal abused timber and mining laws

responsible for the destruction of many natural habitats. The third recommendation suggested

that biological science be used help monitor the amount of timber being used in forests so that

forests could be maintained and a reliable amount of timber could thrive. The fourth and final

suggestion was to create two new national parks, one at The Grand Canyon and another at Mount

Rainier. 54

President Cleveland responded to the commission’s report by issuing an executive order

calling for the thirteen recommended reserves to be set aside. The total amount of land that

would be under protection was 21,000,000 acres. Once the heads of the lumber, coal, and

railroad industries heard of the land appropriations, this sparked a hot debate in Congress. Media

jumped and the number of conservation journals, magazines, and newspapers went way up. Muir

pleaded passionately to his wide audience of readers including scholars, scientists, and the

common man to try to protect what the commission had fought to earn. Muir evoked powerful

messages through the Sierra Club Bulletin where he wrote “Through all the wonderful, eventful

centuries ... God has cared for these trees, saved them from drought, disease, avalanches, and a

Wolfe, Son of the Wilderness, 270-272.53

Arnold Hague and Gifford Pinchot, “Report of the Special Committee”, May 16, 1896.54

21

thousand straining, leveling tempests and floods; but he cannot save them from fools -- only

Uncle Sam can do that.” 55

During the congressional debates, politicians argued both for and against the creation of

these newly sanctioned forest reserves. The largest debate came from the Clark and Lacey

Amendments to the original order issued by President Cleveland. The Clark Amendment was

created on February 28th, 1897 only six days after Cleveland’s executive order and called for the

restoration of the reserves back to public domain. This Amendment passed the Senate on the very

day it was introduced, showing much opposition to the creation of protected lands in the west,

even by those who reside in the Western Frontier. The Lacey Amendment was spurred to 56

creation after the Clark Amendment and was strongly supported by Gifford Pinchot. The author

was Congressman John F. Lacey of Iowa. The proposed Lacey Amendment would have given

almost everything that the commission eventually got in the Organic Act of 1897 and gave the

Secretary of the Interior the ability to sell off timber on any forest reservation, make lands that

are deemed more valuable for agriculture eliminated from protection, and set aside land for

mining and domestic purposes. In Pinchot’s words, the Lacey Amendment “would have opened

wide the door to sound forest administration and the practice of Forestry.” Once again a 57

thematic difference appears between the philosophies of Pinchot and Muir. Whereas Muir

wanted protection without interference from agriculture and mining, Pinchot saw the importance

John Muir, Our National Parks, 364-365 55

Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 109-110.56

Ibid57

22

in making use of the West’s expanse of natural resource wealth while at the same time making

sure it is a maintainable wealth.

The opponents of the Lacey Amendment cited three problems with the Cleveland

Reserves. They are that all use is prevented in the protected lands, there was no notice or

consultation before Cleveland made his order, and they claimed there was never any adequate

inspection and examination of the land. This last stipulation basically discredited the legitimacy 58

of the Commission of Forestry. The Lacey Amendment had no chance through Congress while

the Clark Amendment went against everything that the Commission had worked so hard for. In

his last day in Office, President Cleveland on March 4th, 1897 struck down all but one Bill. This

use of presidential veto put conservation on the front page of newspapers around the United

States. An example of such is on the front of the March 5th, 1897 edition of The Chicago 59

Tribune that states that the floor of Congress grew “haggard” the morning after Cleveland struck

down multiple appropriation bills. 60

At one point in the debates, Pinchot was quoted in newspapers saying sheep did little

damage while grazing out west, something that he had not believed in when talking with Muir

just the year before. This pertained to the Hetch Hetchy Valley, which Muir thought should be

protected along with Yosemite. When Muir saw newspaper article those who were there that day

say he confronted Pinchot in the hotel lobby with fire in his eyes. This was the beginning of the

Ibid58

Ibid, 113.59

"For the Extra Session." The Chicago Tribune, March 5, 1897.60

23

end of the relationship between Muir and Pinchot. This conversation is important because it is 61

the beginning of Muir and Pinchot’s fundamental differences, especially within the Hetch Hetchy

Valley.

At the same time that Muir and Pinchot were working with the Commission of Forestry,

Roosevelt was coming off a defeat in the mayoral election in New York. It seemed that

Roosevelt’s political career might be coming to an abrupt end. During this time he still was in

correspondence with a leading figure in conservation, George Bird Grinnell. He discusses the

order given by President Cleveland that reclaimed land out west in order to make forest

reservations. The land though was being reclaimed and would no longer be available to settlers

who wished to build and farm on the land. Roosevelt addresses that other presidents have done

similar things as they leave their office because they will not have to deal with the political

repercussions. Roosevelt also mentions that the order is being challenged in the Senate and that

most are not in favor. This attitude shows that the country is still struggling to catch on to the 62

conservation movement. While strides are being made in the direction of protecting land and

resources, many are abstinent to speak up on the issue. Roosevelt, while not as active as Muir

and Pinchot because of their involvement in the Commission and Roosevelt’s fall from politics,

is about to enter this argument again and become a leading role in the push for conservation in

the United States

Wolfe, Son of the Wilderness, 272-277.61

Theodore Roosevelt and H.W. Brands, The Selected Letters of Theodore Roosevelt (New 62

York: Cooper Square Press, 2001), 166.

24

In the last few years of the 1800’s Roosevelt began his push back into the political world.

He was appointed the Assistant Secretary of the Navy in 1987, governor of New York in 1898,

and the finally vice president under President McKinley in 1900. During this time, McKinley 63

had signed the Sundry Civil Appropriations Act of 1897 on June 4th, 1897 which contained

within it the Forest Service Organic Administration Act of 1897 (Organic Act of 1897). Pinchot

was to go reexamine reserves that had been suspended from protection pending a report on the

conditions of land and forest and also their potential use for commerce, settlement, mining,

grazing, agriculture, and grazing. It was later in 1898 on July, 1st that Pinchot became the chief 64

of the Forestry Division, a dream that he had held since starting forestry. 65

After McKinley’s assassination on September 14th, 1901, Theodore Roosevelt became the

next President of the United States of America. Pinchot saw Roosevelt’s ascension to President

as the moment that conservation needed in politics. Pinchot remarks that it would be “hard to

find a more sympathetic and understanding listener to the cause of forestry, conservation, and

National Parks than Theodore Roosevelt.” Roosevelt inherited a country coming out of the 66

Gilded Age of industrialism and urbanization. Put modestly, Roosevelt had a lot of issues that

needed to be handled in order to guide the Nation in a positive direction. Hot political topics of

the time were massively inflating cities as people shifted from rural to urban locations. Also,

robber barons controlled industries such as John D. Rockefeller and Standard oil, J.P. Morgan

Brands, T.R., 400-412.63

Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 122-123.64

Ibid, 136.65

Ibid,188.66

25

and the banks, and Andrew Carnegie and the steel industry. In an address concerning 67

conservation during his first term in 1903, Roosevelt sets out different goals for Congress to

achieve such as proper irrigation, more efficient use of rivers as tools of trade, and more

enforcement of law to protect public protected lands. Roosevelt was most influential in the 68

political sphere and often used powerful rhetoric while addressing Congress.

In these social, political, class, and economic issues facing the nation, the Conservation

Movement faced some of its greatest opposition. As people move to the cities and out of the rural

areas, they leave behind a land that becomes almost foreign to them. It is these places that

Pinchot, Muir, and Roosevelt seek to protect. Muir saw these wild areas as a place that became

out of the ordinary for many Americans as they moved to the cities. This sentiment is made

obvious in a journal of Muir’s. It is in an excerpt from September 1874 that he says:

“Tell me what you will of the benefactions of city civilization, of the sweet security of streets- all is part of the natural upgrowth of man towards the high density we hear so much of. I know that our bodies were made to thrive only in pure air, and the scenes in which pure air is found. If the death exhalations that brood the broad towns in which we so fondly compact ourselves were made visible, we should flee as from a plague. All are more or less sick; there is not a perfectly sane man in San Francisco.” 69

It was in an address to Congress on December 3rd, 1901 that Roosevelt brought the

conservation of natural resources to the forefront of politics. After giving a lengthy report on

Morris, Theodore Rex, 20-21.67

Theodore Roosevelt, “Roosevelt’s Message on Conservation”, Roosevelt’s Message on 68

Conservation 443. Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost, 2009.

John Muir and Linnie Marsh Wolfe. John of the Mountains; the Unpublished Journals of John 69

Muir, (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1938) 119.

26

trusts in the United States, he struck a new cord as he discussed the importance of conservation.

He spoke of the importance of preserving native flora and fauna and then pleaded that the Bureau

of Forestry be given complete control of the forest reserves. He also asked for presidential power

to give the Department of Agriculture a majority of the reserves, something Pinchot himself was

an extremely large supporter of. Pinchot and Roosevelt had been in correspondence about 70

forestry since Roosevelt’s time as governor of New York in 1898. 71

At the same time in 1901, Muir was publishing his book titled Our National Parks as a

way to inform the public about the beauty and need for conservation of the nation’s forest

reserves and parks. He remarks at the importance of people visiting these parks and seeing them

not merely as boundless expanses of timber or potential sites for agriculture but as “fountains of

life”. 72

In the early summer of 1903, Theodore Roosevelt planned a trip out west and asked John

Muir to be his guide as he stayed in Yosemite. The two shared three days and nights in the Valley

talking about conservation and the National Forests. It was after that trip that Roosevelt

revamped his policy on conservation with help from Gifford Pinchot. 73

Pinchot was intent on making the governmental transfer of forest reserves to the

Department of Agriculture in order to put all forestry related issues under one roof. He was very

Morris, Theodore Rex, 76.70

Roosevelt, Autobiography, 204.71

Muir, Our National Parks, 1.72

Muir and Wolfe, John of the Mountains, 427.73

27

adamant in pushing Roosevelt to do so starting in 1901 till it was finally transferred in 1905. He

served on multiple boards to push the arrangements through congress, which was no easy task.

After failing in 1903 to get the transfer done, Pinchot saw the final push for the transfer the first

week of January in 1905 at the Second American Forest Congress in Washington D.C.

Represented here were anyone that had anything to do with the forest reserves including

President Roosevelt, railroad companies, miners, educations, congressmen, scientists, and other

groups that contributed to the need for forestry conservation. The American Forest Congress

went on to deal with forestry as an economic and national issue. Finally on February 1st, 1905, 74

The Transfer Act passed quickly through both houses of Congress and was signed by President

Roosevelt. Pinchot became the head of the Bureau of Forestry as it made its transition. Pinchot 75

was beginning to get comfortable inside the political sphere, something that would help him

throughout his career.

In 1902 began the most pivotal moment in conservation and the creation of a National

Park Service. A battle between Muir and Pinchot that split the two completely began over San

Francisco’s request to dam the Hetch Hetchy Valley in Yosemite to provide water to the city.

Perhaps the last letters written to one another took place later in 1905 as they argued over the

potential damming of the valley. Muir criticizes Pinchot for his support of damming Hetch

Hetchy and says there are plenty of other ways to provide water to San Francisco. In a Sierra 76

Club Bulletin from January, 1908 Muir expresses how badly he disagrees with the prospect of

Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 254.74

Ibid, 256.75

Miller, Gifford Pinchot and Making of Modern Environmentalism, 139.76

28

damming the valley. He refers to the people of San Francisco as monopolizing capitalists and

details how beautiful and captivating the valley is to all those who visit. This debate between 77

Muir’s pure idea of conservation as preservation of the wild clashes with Pinchot’s “use nature

efficiently to better the lives of Americans” philosophy and created a schism in the world of

conservation forever. In the eyes of Muir, this intrusion to protected lands was inexcusable. He

writes in his 1912 book The Yosemite “These temple destroyers, devotees of ravaging

commercialism, seem to have a perfect contempt for Nature, and, instead of lifting their eyes to

the God of the mountains, lift them to the Almighty Dollar”. Roosevelt knew Muir’s distaste 78

for the dam as early as September of 1907 when he writes Muir a letter about it. He speaks of

how difficult of a decision it is to support the dam because he wants to protect the natural

wonders that places such as Yosemite offer. He then goes on to say that despite his opinions, it

seems that many do not care to protect the valley and see it more useful as a dam. 79

While Roosevelt was replaced as President by William Taft in March of 1909, he

remained active in the debates of conservation. The hot debate over the use of public land 80

regarding the Hetch Hetchy Valley raged on in Congress. At the same time that newly appointed

Secretary of the Interior Richard Ballinger and Pinchot were locked in a heated dispute (one that

would see Pinchot removed from his post as Chief Forester in 1910), Muir was given the chance

to show Ballinger and Taft around Yosemite. Muir showed great fervor in his guided tour of the

John Muir, "The Hetch Hetchy Valley." (Sierra Club Bulletin, 1908), 212-220.77

John Muir and Galen A. Rowell. The Yosemite: The Original John Muir Text, (San Francisco: 78

Sierra Club Books, 1989), 105.

Roosevelt and Brands, The Selected Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 456.79

Morris, Theodore Rex, 550-551.80

29

park even though he had to deal with constant jests from President Taft about commercializing

the land. During their visit newspapers flocked the party of influential men. Muir though was

able to give the President and Bollinger much to think about after their visit and it seemed that

both were looking for alternatives to the damming of the valley. In the Sunday October 10th, 81

1909 issue of The Salt Lake Herald-Republican, a headline reads “Play time is over and Mr. Taft

Goes to Work”. The article then goes on to detail Taft’s last day in Yosemite with Muir and

focused on talks of the Hetch Hetchy Valley project and Muir’s fierce opposition. The debate 82

over the damming of the valley was bringing conservation to the front pages around the world.

Muir’s fierce opposition and the conflicts between Bollinger and Pinchot were enough to spread

debate across the nation, especially once Pinchot was discharged as Chief Forester in 1910 by

President Taft. 83

The debate over Hetch Hetchy Valley peaked in 1913. This was after a failed attempt at

another presidential term by Roosevelt who kept conservation as a priority in his campaign as

Pinchot carried on his work started under Roosevelt’s presidency. The National Archives holds

many documents both for and against the construction of the dam. While some argued for the

need of water in San Francisco others petitioned against it. A petition against the Raker Bill came

from the University of Oklahoma and stated that the commercial invasion of the protected lands

Wolfe, Son of the Wilderness, 320-325.81

"Play Time Is over and Mr. Taft Goes to Work." The Salt Lake Herald-Republican, October 10, 82

1909.

Wolfe, Son of the Wilderness, 325.83

30

was unnecessary and only being done because it was the cheapest option. Many women’s 84

clubs, in an effort to extend themselves to the political sphere of the nation, weighed in on the

subject and wrote letters to Congress. The Graffort Club of Portsmouth, NH wrote in a resolution

saying that the Valley was an important feature of Yosemite and that destroying it was destroying

a beautiful playground that belonged to the entire American public. 85

The opposition to the Raker Bill was fierce, especially from the members of the Sierra

club but it was not enough to stop it. The Bill quickly swept through the House on September 3rd,

1912 and then went to the Senate where debates carried on for three months. It was in these 86

debates that Pinchot testified for the damming of the valley. During a 1913 testimony before the

House Committee on Public Lands, Pinchot engages in conversation with California

Congressman and father of the Raker Bill John Raker and San Francisco Mayor James Phelan.

Pinchot during his testimony says, “Now, the fundamental principle of the whole conservation

policy is that of use, to take every part of the land and its resources and put it to that use in which

it will best serve the most people, and I think there can be no question at all but that in this case

we have an instance in which all weighty considerations demand the passage of the bill.” Once 87

again showing his ideology of use before preservation, Pinchot extends the rift between himself

“Petition from the University of Oklahoma Against the So-Called Hetch Hetchy Bill (H.R. 84

7207)”, December, 1913

Howard, Anne, “Resolution from the Graffort Club of Portsmouth, New Hampshire Against 85

Granting San Francisco the Hetch Hetchy Valley”, February 4, 191

Wolfe, Son of the Wilderness, 339.86

House Committee on the Public Lands, Hetch Hetchy Dam Site, 63rd Cong., 1st sess. (25–28 87

June 1913; 7 July 1913), (Washington D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1913), 25–29, 165–66, 213–14, 235–38.

31

and Muir. Finally on December 9th, 1913 the Raker Bill passed through Senate and then was

signed on December 19th by President Woodrow Wilson. The Raker Bill grants San Francisco

land from Yosemite to be used for “other purposes” pertaining to the creation of a reservoir in the

Hetch Hetchy Valley. 88

The ten years of debate over the Hetch Hetchy valley between Roosevelt, Muir, and

Pinchot brought conservation to the forefront of American economics, social lives, and politics.

The desires for preservation of places such as the Hetch Hetchy Valley were amplified after the

damming. A new generation of conservationists was rising up off the coattails of Muir, Pinchot,

and Roosevelt to lead the next round of conservation debates. It was only three years later when

Congress signed into action The Organic Act of 1916, creating the National Park Service and

outlining how the parks should be ran. In the wake up the Hetch Hetchy Valley, the creation of 89

the NPS created a new realm of conservation in America. Unfortunately John Muir would never

see the creation of the National Parks Service as he passed away on Christmas Eve, 1914. 90

Conclusion

The history of the start of the Conservation Movement and the creation of the National

Park Service can be attributed to the intense, tireless, and often unwilling compromise between

John Muir, Gifford Pinchot, and Theodore Roosevelt. It is from their three different philosophies

that the United States evolved from an industrializing force that was consuming natural resources

H.R. 7207, 63rd Congress, (1913).88

“Act to Establish a National Park Service (Organic Act)”, 1916.89

Wolfe, Son of the Wilderness, 348.90

32

recklessly to a country that takes pride in conserving its natural resources and preserving natural

habitats and ecosystems. While the United States still has a lot of issues to work on regarding the

treatment of the environment, it is still the passionate work done by these three men that continue

to motivate the conservationists of today’s generations. From Pinchot’s strong work ethic, to

Roosevelt’s power over a crowd, and Muir’s ability to capture the beauty of the Yosemite Valley

in his words, these three figures have contributed more than any others in the Conservation

Movement.

The greatest information presented to prove the Muir, Pinchot, and Roosevelt are the

reason for the Conservation Movement and the creation of the National Parks are the arguments

regarding the damming of the Hetch Hetchy Valley in the Yosemite Park. In the early parts of

their relationships with one another, they are not debating much besides the fact that some sort of

conservation needs to take root in America. It is during the early part of the 1900’s that their

individual personalities fully mature and a schism appears, separating the main philosophies of

each man. Whereas Muir and Pinchot respected one another throughout out their careers, their

concepts of conservation continued to diversify. While Muir became more and more set on

preservation, Pinchot was pushing for the growth of the Bureau of Forestry in order to push his

belief of useful management of the forests and natural resources. Roosevelt’s letters of

correspondence to Muir show sympathy to his cause but his close connection with Pinchot his

entire presidency and even after being in office show his thoughts on the forests being used for

profit while still maintaining them as a renewable resource.

33

This study clarifies the origin of the Conservation Movement and then the reason for the

creation of the National Parks. While other people were involved in the movement and debates

throughout the country, Muir, Pinchot, and Roosevelt are to be held in the highest standing

passionately fighting for what they believed in. It was through their sometimes unwilling

compromise of philosophies that America was able to create legislation to protect breathtaking

valleys like Yosemite or the wide expanse of the Badlands of South Dakota through the National

Park Service.

There are many directions that further research can be done on this topic. An interesting

study that builds from this one is looking at the status of the National Park Service from 1916 till

today. While the basic institutions that control the NPS are all nearly the same, new parks in

different areas of America have been added to the list of protected lands and landmarks. The NPS

also is home to key historical monuments such as Ford’s Theater and the Jefferson Monument in

Washington D.C. The National Parks Service also faced tough times along with the rest of the

country during the Great Depression and World War II. Franklin Roosevelt was a supporter of

the parks and created many jobs revamping the National Park’s roads and facilities. One could

compare how FDR’s New Deal changes to the nation affected the National Park Service. Another

interesting study that could be done on the topic is the amount of traffic and use the parks are

getting these days. The fight for conservation was not an easy one so it would be interesting to

see how many people Muir, Pinchot, and Roosevelt inspire to go out and be active within

America’s parks. Future historians can ask if the National Parks are worth the money and land

set aside for their use or if parks for preservation just cost the government money.

34

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