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Responding to Demands

COMPLEXITY

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Responding to Demands

COMPLEXITY

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“I think the next cen-tury will be the century of complexity.”-Stephen Hawking

Defining Complexity

Buildings, cities and societies become more complex as they attempt to solve problems. Archeologist Joseph Tainter wrote in his book, The Collapse of Complex Societies, complexity consists of two components: structural differentiation and organization. The first, structural differentiation, refers to the development of various categories of inputs: social roles, institutions, information, settlements, occupations, technologies, etc. Organization refers to the framework of constraint that dictates the behavior of these various categories so that they work systemi-cally.

However, the elaboration of structure and increased organization comes at a cost - an expensive one. A collapse of a complex system, then, is ultimately due to insufficient or excess amounts of complexity - not nec-essarily due to complexity itself but rather from incurring higher costs merely maintain a particular level of complexity. If a society (city or building) experiences diminishing returns from their investment into complexity then this system will certainly fail. The Roman Empire experienced this. The society arrived at a point in which the cost of maintaining the status quo of their complex infrastructural and economic models was no longer worth bearing. Thus, a steady simplifi-cation of their complex systems lead to their eventual dissemination as an empire.

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“The irony of complexity is that it simplifies.”- Joseph A. Tainter

Mulberry Street, c. 1900

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The Emergence of Complexity

An increase in populations results in expo-nential demand in basic needs: food, shel-ter, transportation and an overall awareness of well-being. This demand then obliges the exploitation of our human, natural and tech-nological resources in order to aid in the ef-fort of sustaining a system’s survival. Thus, as a system grows so, too, do the basic needs and problems. As a result, even more

resources are dispatched to respond to a growing network of various social, political, infrastructural and economic demands. The-oretically, then, complexity is an inevitable consequence of organization and differentia-tion that will continue to develop so long as there are demands to address.

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Developing cities are breeding grounds for complexity, having to address urban issues everyday. From congested vehicular traffic to the health of workers inside buildings, cit-ies incubate higher levels of complexity ev-eryday by responding with carefully placed traffic lights and updated health codes, for example. Since the Dutch colonization of Manhattan in the 1600’s, the island has

Responding to Complexity

The Dutch Broadway, 1660 MapLower Manhattan

The Commissioner’s Grid, 1907 MapLower Manhattan

drastically evolved due to the pressures of accommodating a much larger population, an increase in mercantilism and oscillating political discourse. By 1811, New York City had developed what some call as the single most important document that has defined the city’s development, The Commissioner’s Grid. This street plan was a major infrastruc-tural undertaking that, till this day, organizes

all of the activity, transportation and real es-tate growth in the largest city in the United States. Like New York, cities all of over the world are being pressured to continuously add new levels of structure to an ever-grow-ing chain of demands.

If you look at the topography of the island of Manhattan today, that topography is a topography in which the forces of economics, culture and human intent have trumped the forces of geology.- David Deutsch, The Beginning of Infinity

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The World’s CitiesDiagram of Street Layouts

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To recognize complexity is to first under-stand that there are endless amounts of forc-es, both physical and metaphysical, within a system, organism or city that demand at-tention. Thus, through the careful study and implementation of organizational strategies, an entity can properly respond to these forc-es. Architecture and urbanism, for example, design and build environments that alter our

Recognizing Complexity

usage and perception of city space. Politi-cal persuasion and social conditioning are, in contrast, non-physical forces that nonethless influence the manner in which entities behave and network. Regardless, this elaboration of infrastructures and increase in organization comes at a price - an expensive one.

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Moscow Urban Sprowl Lee Jang Sub

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Los Angeles Highway Intersection

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Subway Systems of the WorldDiagrams of Underground Transportation Systems

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Herald Square

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The development of increasingly intercon-nected cities has resulted in a singularity that proliferates this culture into the future. That is, because we live in complex societ-ies we imagine that the future can only be even more tantalizing. Perhaps, here, we into the temptation of confusing complexity with “complicated”. A complicated society, as some of the pictures above envision, is

Complexity vs. Complicated

one in which confusion retards performance and disorganization presides over organiza-tion and structural variation. What we should not see, therefore, in images attempting to predict the future is the exacerbation of the familiar - more roads, more cars, more peo-ple, bigger buildings. This vision is simply un-sustainable. We, as participants in complex and networked societies, must realize that

Picturesque American 1909, Harry Grant Dart

How You May Live and Travel in the City of 1950 1925, Popular Science

to continuously grow, we must always ques-tion every assumption we hold to be true of our understanding of complexity. Keeping in mind, again, that complexity is simplifies and organizes.

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Lower Manhattan Expressway 1960’s, Paul Rudolph

Asian City of Tomorrow 1998, Image from SMLXL

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PATH

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ALAN ANTHONY ROYAL THAI EMBASSY OFFICE NY COFFEE STATION TES USA, INC.STRAWBERRY ANN TAYLOR LOFT DELTA AIRLINES OLYMPIA AIRPORT EXPRESS AVIS PORT AUTHORITY OF NEW YORK & NEW JERSEY GEIGER & GEIGER GAYER, SHYU & WIESEL THAI FARMERS BANK AMERSON GROUP CO., INC.BANK OF AMERICA PORCELLA VICINI & CO. PRIMARCH DECISION ECONOMICS INSTINET, INC. DUN & BRADSTREET, INC. LANDMARK EDUCATION CORPORATION ZIM-AMERICAN ISRAELI SHIPPING CO. EMPIRE HEALTH CHOICE TOWER COMPUTER SERVICE UNITED SEAMEN'S SERVICE AMMLA UNITED HERCULES INC. AVESTA COMPUTER SERVICES, LTD. CONTINENTAL LOGISTICS, INC. DONGWON SECURITIES CO. LTD. DR. TADASU TOKUMARU, M.D. FRIENDS VILLAS FISCHER TRUST FRIENDS IVORY & SIME, INC. INFOTECH LAW OFFICES OF ROMAN V. POPIK LIEF INTERNATIONAL USA UNICOM CAPITAL ADVISORS LLP CHICAGO OPTIONS EXCHANGE CORP. CHENG XIANG TRADING USA INC. G.C. SERVICES GOLD SKY INC. KAISER OVERSEAS INC. KAROON CAPITAL MANAGEMENT MLU INVESTMENT P. WOLFE CONSULTANTS THE SCPIE COMPANIES TAI FOOK SECURITIES R.H. WRIGHTSON & ASSOCIATES, INC. GARBAN-INTERCAPITAL CHINA PATENT & TRADEMARK USA WORLD TRAVEL BANCO LATINOAMERICANO DE CHANG HWA COMMERCIAL BANK ROHDE & LIESENFELD, INC. BEREL & MULLEN CHINA DAILY DISTRIBUTION CORP. DATA TRANSMISSION NETWORK CORP. GOLDEN KING (USA) LIMITED HU TONG INTERNATIONAL (USA) CO., LTD. KOUDIS INTERNATIONAL INC. MANAA TRADING GROUP, INC. MIS SERVICE CO. RACHEL & ASSOCIATES, INC. SERKO & SIMON ANNE POPE, LAW OFFICES OF KEMPER INSURANCE COMPANIES COMMODITY FUTURES TRADING COMMISSION GOVERNMENT OF THAILAND LEHMAN BROTHERS REGIONAL ALLIANCE SMALL TURNER CONSTRUCTION COMPANY THE CULTURAL INSTITUTIONS RETIREMENT SYSTEMS OVERSEAS UNION BANK, LTD. XCEL FEDERAL CREDIT UNION MECHANICAL FLOOR N.Y. SOCIETY OF SECURITY AMERICAN LOTA INTERNATIONAL CHINA CONSTRUCTION AMERICA, INC. THE COMPANY STORE DUNAVANT COMMODITY CORP EMPLOYEE MERIT FERTITTA ENTERPRISES M.A. KATZ, CPA SRA PURE ENERGY CORP. SASSOONS INC. SECURITY TRADERS ASSOCIATION, INC. STREAMLINE CAPITAL, LLC ASTDC, INC. AUTO IMPERIAL CO. BLUE SKY TECHNOLOGIES, INC. CAN-ACHIEVE CONSOLIDATED STEELEX CORP. DAHAO USA CORP J & X TANS INTERNATIONAL KANEBO INFORMATION SYSTEMS CORP. MEGANET MANAGEMENT CONSULTANTS, INC. PROSPECT INTERNATIONAL, INC. SINOPEC USA, INC. SUGGESTED OPEN SYSTEMS, INC. SUNTENDY AMERICA, INC. T&T ENTERPRISES INTERNATIONAL, INC. YONG REN AMERICA, INC. G. Z. STEPHENS, INC. NFA/GGG, INC. AMERICAN TCC INT'L GROUP, INC. PACIFIC AMERICAN CO. QUINT AMASIS, L.L.C. W.J. EXPORT-IMPORT, INC. DAI-ICHI KANGYO TRUST CO. AT&T CORPORATION C & P PRESS TRADEWEB THE WILLIAMS CAPITAL GROUP BRAMAX MANUFACTURING (USA) CORP. GAYER SHYU & WIESEL HILL BETTS & NASH, LLP TEMENOS USA, INC. HOWLY (US) CORPORATION LEEDS & MORRELLI OKASAN INTERNATIONAL (AMERICAN) INC. RGL GALLAGHER PC RICHARD A. ZIMMERMAN, ESQ. A I G AVIATION BROKERAGE, INC. BANK OF TAIWAN CHINA RESOURCE PRODUCTS USA LTD. KEENAN POWERS & ANDREWS LOCURTO & FUNK, INC. NATURAL NYDEGGER TRANSPORT CORP. PACRIM TRADING & SHIPPING, INC. BROWN & WOOD, L.L.P. PACE UNIVERSITY WORLD TRADE INSTITUTE ASAHI BANK, LTD. AIRPORT ACCESS PROGRAM HAL ROTH AGENCY, INC. JUN HE LAW OFFICE, LLC MARTIN PROGRESSIVE LLC NEW-EY INTERNATIONAL CORP. PARTNER REINSURANCE CORP. WORLD TRADE CENTERS ASSOCIATION AVENIR, INC. BALTIC OIL CORPORATION CEDAR CAPITAL MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATES CHENG CHENG ENTERPRISES HOLDING INC. HYUNDAI SECURITIES CO., LTD INTERNATIONAL TRADE CENTER, INC. KOREA LOCAL AUTHORITIES MERIDIAN VENTURES HOLDING, INC. PHINK PATH TRADERS ACCESS CENTER DAYNARD & VAN THUNEN CO. FIRST LIBERTY INVESTMENT GROUP INTERNATIONAL OFFICE CENTERS NIKKO SECURITIES OKATO SHOJI COMPANY, LTD. SECURANT TECHNOLOGIES AGRICOR COMMODITIES CORP. THE BEAST.COMM INTRUST INVESTMENT REALTY, INC. NOGA COMMODITIES OVERSEAS, INC. RLI INSURANCE COMPANY SHIZUOKA BANK LTD. NEW CONTINENTAL ENTERPRISES NETWORK PLUS NY METRO TRANSPORTATION COUNCIL GENERAL TELECOMMUNICATIONS GLOBAL CROSSINGS HOLDINGS LTD. LAVA TRADING, LLC TAIPEI BANK EMERITUS COMMUNICATIONS BRIGHT CHINA CAPITAL, LTD. DAVID PETERSON LG SECURITIES AMERICA, INC. SAN-IN GODO BANK LTD. DAEHAN INTERNATIONAL SMW TRADING CORP. THERMO ELECTRON JULIEN J. STUDLEY, INC. MAY DAVIS GROUP BARCLEY DWYER BROAD USA, INC. CIIC GROUP (USA), LTD. DRINKER BIDDLE & REATH METROPOLITAN LIFE INSURANCE CO. MUTUAL INTERNATIONAL FORWARDING STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS, INC. WAI GAO QIAO USA, INC. WALL STREET PLANNING ASSOCIATION THE CHUGOKU BANK, LTD. AMERICAN BUREAU OF SHIPPING FRED ALGER MANAGEMENT MARSH USA KIDDER PEABODY & CO. CANTOR FITZGERALD SECURITIES THE NISHI-NIPPON BANK, LTD. CHANNEL 4 (NBC) WINDOWS ON THE WORLD GREATEST BAR ON EARTH WORLD TRADE CLUB CHANNEL 5 (WNYW) CHANNEL 31 (WBIS) CHANNEL 47 (WNJU) CHANNEL 2 (WCBS) CHANNEL 11 (WPIX)

PINES INVESTMENT, INC. CASERTA & COMPANY LAW OFFIC-ES OF ABAD, CASTILLA, AND MALLONGA WEILAND INTERNA-TIONAL CHEN, LIN, LI, & JIANG, LLP WATERFRONT COMMIS-SION OF NEW YORK HARBOR N.Y. SHIPPING ASSOCIATION THACHER, PROFFITT & WOOD CAREER ENGINE ADECCO SA CHAROEN POKPHAND USA, INC. SINOCHEM AMERICAN HOLDINGS, INC. WASHINGTON MUTUAL, INC. ANTAL INTER-NATIONAL, INC. SCOR U.S. CORPORATION UNISTRAT CORPO-RATION OF AMERICA ALLSTATE INSURANCE COMPANY TD WATERHOUSE GROUP, INC. CHINA CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, INC. GLOBE TOUR & TRAVEL SINOLION (USA) DECEMBER FIRST PRODUCTIONS, LLC SUN MICROSYSTEMS, INC. NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE, INC. BIG A TRAVEL AGENCY LAW OFFICE OF JOSEPH BELLARD HUA NAN COMMERCIAL BANK LTD. WEATHERLY SECURITIES CORP. HARTFORD STEAM BOILER OPPENHEIMER FUNDS, INC. COMMERZBANK CAPITAL MARKETS ABN-AMRO, INC. FRENKEL & COMPANY, INC. SITAILONG INTERNATIONAL USA, INC. MORGAN STANLEY GUY CARPENTER SEABURY & SMITH GARBAN INTERCAPITAL DOW JONES & COMPANY, INC. FIRST COMMERCIAL BANK FUJI BANK BEPAID.COM HARRIS BEACH & WILCOX, LLP KEEFE, BRUYETTE & WOODS NY STATE DEPARTMENT OF TAXATION & FINANCE CORPORATION SERVICE COMPANY FIDUCIARY TRUST COMPANY INTL. GIBBS & HILL WASHINGTON GROUP INTL. RAYTHEON COMPA-NY AON CORPORATION REGUS BUSINESS CENTRES SANDLER O'NEIL & PARTNERS ATLANTIC BANK OF NEW YORK

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World Trade Center: Narrative of Circulation, Transportation and Program2013, Jose Cruz

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PATH

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ALAN ANTHONY ROYAL THAI EMBASSY OFFICE NY COFFEE STATION TES USA, INC.STRAWBERRY ANN TAYLOR LOFT DELTA AIRLINES OLYMPIA AIRPORT EXPRESS AVIS PORT AUTHORITY OF NEW YORK & NEW JERSEY GEIGER & GEIGER GAYER, SHYU & WIESEL THAI FARMERS BANK AMERSON GROUP CO., INC.BANK OF AMERICA PORCELLA VICINI & CO. PRIMARCH DECISION ECONOMICS INSTINET, INC. DUN & BRADSTREET, INC. LANDMARK EDUCATION CORPORATION ZIM-AMERICAN ISRAELI SHIPPING CO. EMPIRE HEALTH CHOICE TOWER COMPUTER SERVICE UNITED SEAMEN'S SERVICE AMMLA UNITED HERCULES INC. AVESTA COMPUTER SERVICES, LTD. CONTINENTAL LOGISTICS, INC. DONGWON SECURITIES CO. LTD. DR. TADASU TOKUMARU, M.D. FRIENDS VILLAS FISCHER TRUST FRIENDS IVORY & SIME, INC. INFOTECH LAW OFFICES OF ROMAN V. POPIK LIEF INTERNATIONAL USA UNICOM CAPITAL ADVISORS LLP CHICAGO OPTIONS EXCHANGE CORP. CHENG XIANG TRADING USA INC. G.C. SERVICES GOLD SKY INC. KAISER OVERSEAS INC. KAROON CAPITAL MANAGEMENT MLU INVESTMENT P. WOLFE CONSULTANTS THE SCPIE COMPANIES TAI FOOK SECURITIES R.H. WRIGHTSON & ASSOCIATES, INC. GARBAN-INTERCAPITAL CHINA PATENT & TRADEMARK USA WORLD TRAVEL BANCO LATINOAMERICANO DE CHANG HWA COMMERCIAL BANK ROHDE & LIESENFELD, INC. BEREL & MULLEN CHINA DAILY DISTRIBUTION CORP. DATA TRANSMISSION NETWORK CORP. GOLDEN KING (USA) LIMITED HU TONG INTERNATIONAL (USA) CO., LTD. KOUDIS INTERNATIONAL INC. MANAA TRADING GROUP, INC. MIS SERVICE CO. RACHEL & ASSOCIATES, INC. SERKO & SIMON ANNE POPE, LAW OFFICES OF KEMPER INSURANCE COMPANIES COMMODITY FUTURES TRADING COMMISSION GOVERNMENT OF THAILAND LEHMAN BROTHERS REGIONAL ALLIANCE SMALL TURNER CONSTRUCTION COMPANY THE CULTURAL INSTITUTIONS RETIREMENT SYSTEMS OVERSEAS UNION BANK, LTD. XCEL FEDERAL CREDIT UNION MECHANICAL FLOOR N.Y. SOCIETY OF SECURITY AMERICAN LOTA INTERNATIONAL CHINA CONSTRUCTION AMERICA, INC. THE COMPANY STORE DUNAVANT COMMODITY CORP EMPLOYEE MERIT FERTITTA ENTERPRISES M.A. KATZ, CPA SRA PURE ENERGY CORP. SASSOONS INC. SECURITY TRADERS ASSOCIATION, INC. STREAMLINE CAPITAL, LLC ASTDC, INC. AUTO IMPERIAL CO. BLUE SKY TECHNOLOGIES, INC. CAN-ACHIEVE CONSOLIDATED STEELEX CORP. DAHAO USA CORP J & X TANS INTERNATIONAL KANEBO INFORMATION SYSTEMS CORP. MEGANET MANAGEMENT CONSULTANTS, INC. PROSPECT INTERNATIONAL, INC. SINOPEC USA, INC. SUGGESTED OPEN SYSTEMS, INC. SUNTENDY AMERICA, INC. T&T ENTERPRISES INTERNATIONAL, INC. YONG REN AMERICA, INC. G. Z. STEPHENS, INC. NFA/GGG, INC. AMERICAN TCC INT'L GROUP, INC. PACIFIC AMERICAN CO. QUINT AMASIS, L.L.C. W.J. EXPORT-IMPORT, INC. DAI-ICHI KANGYO TRUST CO. AT&T CORPORATION C & P PRESS TRADEWEB THE WILLIAMS CAPITAL GROUP BRAMAX MANUFACTURING (USA) CORP. GAYER SHYU & WIESEL HILL BETTS & NASH, LLP TEMENOS USA, INC. HOWLY (US) CORPORATION LEEDS & MORRELLI OKASAN INTERNATIONAL (AMERICAN) INC. RGL GALLAGHER PC RICHARD A. ZIMMERMAN, ESQ. A I G AVIATION BROKERAGE, INC. BANK OF TAIWAN CHINA RESOURCE PRODUCTS USA LTD. KEENAN POWERS & ANDREWS LOCURTO & FUNK, INC. NATURAL NYDEGGER TRANSPORT CORP. PACRIM TRADING & SHIPPING, INC. BROWN & WOOD, L.L.P. PACE UNIVERSITY WORLD TRADE INSTITUTE ASAHI BANK, LTD. AIRPORT ACCESS PROGRAM HAL ROTH AGENCY, INC. JUN HE LAW OFFICE, LLC MARTIN PROGRESSIVE LLC NEW-EY INTERNATIONAL CORP. PARTNER REINSURANCE CORP. WORLD TRADE CENTERS ASSOCIATION AVENIR, INC. BALTIC OIL CORPORATION CEDAR CAPITAL MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATES CHENG CHENG ENTERPRISES HOLDING INC. HYUNDAI SECURITIES CO., LTD INTERNATIONAL TRADE CENTER, INC. KOREA LOCAL AUTHORITIES MERIDIAN VENTURES HOLDING, INC. PHINK PATH TRADERS ACCESS CENTER DAYNARD & VAN THUNEN CO. FIRST LIBERTY INVESTMENT GROUP INTERNATIONAL OFFICE CENTERS NIKKO SECURITIES OKATO SHOJI COMPANY, LTD. SECURANT TECHNOLOGIES AGRICOR COMMODITIES CORP. THE BEAST.COMM INTRUST INVESTMENT REALTY, INC. NOGA COMMODITIES OVERSEAS, INC. RLI INSURANCE COMPANY SHIZUOKA BANK LTD. NEW CONTINENTAL ENTERPRISES NETWORK PLUS NY METRO TRANSPORTATION COUNCIL GENERAL TELECOMMUNICATIONS GLOBAL CROSSINGS HOLDINGS LTD. LAVA TRADING, LLC TAIPEI BANK EMERITUS COMMUNICATIONS BRIGHT CHINA CAPITAL, LTD. DAVID PETERSON LG SECURITIES AMERICA, INC. SAN-IN GODO BANK LTD. DAEHAN INTERNATIONAL SMW TRADING CORP. THERMO ELECTRON JULIEN J. STUDLEY, INC. MAY DAVIS GROUP BARCLEY DWYER BROAD USA, INC. CIIC GROUP (USA), LTD. DRINKER BIDDLE & REATH METROPOLITAN LIFE INSURANCE CO. MUTUAL INTERNATIONAL FORWARDING STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS, INC. WAI GAO QIAO USA, INC. WALL STREET PLANNING ASSOCIATION THE CHUGOKU BANK, LTD. AMERICAN BUREAU OF SHIPPING FRED ALGER MANAGEMENT MARSH USA KIDDER PEABODY & CO. CANTOR FITZGERALD SECURITIES THE NISHI-NIPPON BANK, LTD. CHANNEL 4 (NBC) WINDOWS ON THE WORLD GREATEST BAR ON EARTH WORLD TRADE CLUB CHANNEL 5 (WNYW) CHANNEL 31 (WBIS) CHANNEL 47 (WNJU) CHANNEL 2 (WCBS) CHANNEL 11 (WPIX)

PINES INVESTMENT, INC. CASERTA & COMPANY LAW OFFIC-ES OF ABAD, CASTILLA, AND MALLONGA WEILAND INTERNA-TIONAL CHEN, LIN, LI, & JIANG, LLP WATERFRONT COMMIS-SION OF NEW YORK HARBOR N.Y. SHIPPING ASSOCIATION THACHER, PROFFITT & WOOD CAREER ENGINE ADECCO SA CHAROEN POKPHAND USA, INC. SINOCHEM AMERICAN HOLDINGS, INC. WASHINGTON MUTUAL, INC. ANTAL INTER-NATIONAL, INC. SCOR U.S. CORPORATION UNISTRAT CORPO-RATION OF AMERICA ALLSTATE INSURANCE COMPANY TD WATERHOUSE GROUP, INC. CHINA CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, INC. GLOBE TOUR & TRAVEL SINOLION (USA) DECEMBER FIRST PRODUCTIONS, LLC SUN MICROSYSTEMS, INC. NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE, INC. BIG A TRAVEL AGENCY LAW OFFICE OF JOSEPH BELLARD HUA NAN COMMERCIAL BANK LTD. WEATHERLY SECURITIES CORP. HARTFORD STEAM BOILER OPPENHEIMER FUNDS, INC. COMMERZBANK CAPITAL MARKETS ABN-AMRO, INC. FRENKEL & COMPANY, INC. SITAILONG INTERNATIONAL USA, INC. MORGAN STANLEY GUY CARPENTER SEABURY & SMITH GARBAN INTERCAPITAL DOW JONES & COMPANY, INC. FIRST COMMERCIAL BANK FUJI BANK BEPAID.COM HARRIS BEACH & WILCOX, LLP KEEFE, BRUYETTE & WOODS NY STATE DEPARTMENT OF TAXATION & FINANCE CORPORATION SERVICE COMPANY FIDUCIARY TRUST COMPANY INTL. GIBBS & HILL WASHINGTON GROUP INTL. RAYTHEON COMPA-NY AON CORPORATION REGUS BUSINESS CENTRES SANDLER O'NEIL & PARTNERS ATLANTIC BANK OF NEW YORK

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World Trade Center: Narrative of Circulation, Transportation and Program (Detail)2013, Jose Cruz

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If a society experiences diminish-ing returns from their investment into complexity then this system will begin to collapse.

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A collapse of a complex system, then, is ulti-mately due to insufficient or excess amounts of complexity - not necessarily due to com-plexity itself but rather from incurring higher costs merely maintain a particular level of complexity.

Collapse

Cruz, Jose. COMPLEXITY