CMBYkTI8 TMn ak;T Mn génFatukñúg taragxYb...TMnakTMngénFatukúgtaragxYb 8-2 EKA-ALUMINUM (Ea)...

CMBYkTI8

8-1

TTMMnnaakk;;TTMMnnggéénnFFaattuukkññ úúggttaarraaggxxYYbb (Relationships of Elements in the Periodic Table)

1 karbegáIttaragxYbKImI enAstvtSTI19 enAeBlKImIviTUeRcInmanKMnitTUlMTUlayEtGMBIGatUmnigm:UelKul nigmin

)andwgBIGtßiPaBéneGLicRtugnigRbUtug eK)anerobcMtaragxYbKImIedayBwgEp¥kelIma:sGatUm eRBaHeKyl;fa lkçN³KImIénFatuTaMgGs;mankarTak;TgeTAnwgma:srbs;va.

kñúgqñaM1864 KImIviTUCnCatiGg;eKøs John Newlands )ankt;sMKal;faenAeBlEdlFatu KImIRtUv)aneKerobcMtamlMdab;ma:sGatUmenaH ral;FatucMnYn8manlkçN³RsedogKña. Kat;)an bkRsaylkçN³BiessenHtamc,ab;Gdæita (law of octaves). b:uEnþ c,ab;enHminRKb;RKan; sMrab;FatubnÞab;BI Ca eT EdleFIVeGaykargarrbs; elak Newlands minRtUv)anTTYlykeday shKmn_GñkviTüasaRsþeLIy.

kúñugqñaM1869 KImIviTUCnCatirusSIúeQµaH Dmitri Mendeleev nigKImIviTUCnCatiGaLWm:g; eQµaH Lothar Meyer )anerobcMtaragxYbKImITUlMTUlayCagEdlmanlkçN³RbesIrCagmun. tarag¬1¦bgðajBItaragxYbdMbUgrbs;elak Mendeleev. karEbgEckFatuKImIrbs;elak Mendeleev manehtuplBIrRbesIrCag Newlands KW³

TI1 ÷ FatuKImIRtUv)anerobcMCaRkumCak;lak; edayEp¥kelIlkçN³rbs;va. TI2 ÷ sMxan;dUcKñaEdlGaceGayeKTsSn_TaynUvlkçN³énFatumYycMnYnEdlminTan;

rkeXIjenAeLIy. ]]]]TahrNTahrNTahrNTahrN____ elak Mendeleev )anesñIeLIgBIGtßiPaBénFatuminsÁal;mYyEdlKat;dak;eQµaHfa Eka-aluminium nig)anTsSn_TayBIlkçN³rbs;vamYycMnYn. (Eka: CaBaküsMRsáwt mann½y fa TImYy rWdMbUg “first” dUecñH Eka-alumium KYrEtCaFatuTImYyenAeRkam Al kñúgRkumCamYy Kña). ry³eBl4qñaMeRkaymk eK)anrkeXIjFatukalüÚm (Ga) EdlmanlkçN³RsedogeTAnwg lkçN³TsSn_TayénFatu Eka-aluminium. (emIltarag).

taragxYbrbs;elakMendeleev manFatucMnYn 66 ehIymkdl;munqñaM1900 manFatuKImI cMnYn 30 eTotRtUv)aneKbBa©ÚlbEnßmeTAkñúgtaragRtg;kEnøgTMenr. rUb1bgðajBIcMnYnFatuKImI nigqñaMEdleKrkeXIj.

TMnakTMngénFatukñúgtaragxYb

8-2

EKA-ALUMINUM (Ea) GALLIUM (Ga)

ma:sGatUm 68 amu 69.9 amu

sItuNðPaBrlay Tab 30.15 oC

dg;sIuet 5.9g/cm3 5.94g/cm3

TMrg;énGuksIut Ea2O3 Ga2O3

eTaHbICataragxYbenHRtUv)anbegáIteLIgedayeCaKC½yk¾eday k¾enAmankEnøgRtUvEk

lMGmYycMnYnEdr. ]]]]TahrNTahrNTahrNTahrN____ ma:sGatUmGakug¬39.95amu¦ FMCagma:sGatUmb:UtasüÚm (39.10amu). RbsinebIFatuKImIRtUv)anerobeTAtamkarekIneLIgénma:sGatUmenaH GakugKYrEt sßitenATItaMgrbs;b:UtasüÚmenAkñúgtaragxYbTMenIbrbs;eyIg. b:uEnþKµanGñkKImINamñak;dak; Gakug EdlCa]sµ½nkMr eTAkñúgRkumCamYy Li nig Na EdlCaelah³BIrmanRbtikmµxøaMgeLIy. enHbgðajfa lkçN³rbs;FatumYycMnYnminTak;TgEteTAnwgma:sGatUmenaHeT KWTak;TgeTAnwg elxGatUmEdlelak Mendeleev min)anKitdl;.

tarag tarag tarag tarag ¬¬¬¬1111¦¦¦¦ taragxYbKUreday taragxYbKUreday taragxYbKUreday taragxYbKUreday Mendeleev dMbUgdMbUgdMbUgdMbUg

REIHEN

GRUPPE I

-----

R2O

GRUPPE II

-----

RO

GRUPPE III

-----

R2O3

GRUPPE IV

RH4

RO2

GRUPPE V

RH3

R2O5

GRUPPE VI

RH2

RO3

GRUPPEVII

RH

R2O7

GRUPPE VIII

-----

RO4

1 H = 1 2 Li = 7 Be = 9.4 B = 11 C = 12 N = 14 O = 16 F = 19 3 Na = 23 Mg = 24 Al = 27.3 Si = 28 P = 31 S = 32 Cl = 35.5 4 K = 39 Fe = 56. Co = 59. Ni = 59. Cu = 63. 5 (Cu = 63) Zn = 65 - = 68 - = 72 As = 75 Se = 78 Br = 80 6 Rb = 85 Sr = 87 ?Yt = 88 Zr = 90 Nb = 94 Mo = 96 - = 100 Ru = 104. Rh = 104. Pd = 106. Ag = 108. 7 (Ag = 108) Cd = 112 In = 113 Sn = 118 Sb = 122 Te = 125 J = 127 8 Cs = 133 Ba = 137 ?Di = 138 ?Ce = 140 - - - --------- 9 (-) - - - - - 10 - - ?Er = 178 ?La = 180 Ta = 182 W = 184 - Os = 195. Ir = 197 Pt = 198. Au = 199.

11 (Au = 199) Hg = 200 Ti = 204 Pb = 207 Bi = 208 - - 12 - - - Th = 231 U = 240 -

*RbeLaHcMhrkSaTuksMrab;FatuminTan;sÁal; Edlmanm:asGatUm 44, 68, 72 nig100

CMBYkTI8

8-3

rUbrUbrUbrUb1 1 1 1 RkahVicbgðajBIcMnYnFatRkahVicbgðajBIcMnYnFatRkahVicbgðajBIcMnYnFatRkahVicbgðajBIcMnYnFatuKImIuKImIuKImIuKImInigqñaMEdleKrkeXIjnigqñaMEdleKrkeXIjnigqñaMEdleKrkeXIjnigqñaMEdleKrkeXIj

mkdl;eBlenaHFatucMnYn112 )anRtUvkMNt;GtþsBaØaN. edaykareRbIR)as;Tinñn½yBIBiesaFn_ α - scattering elak Rutherford )anTsSn_Tay

BIcMnYnénbnÞúkviC¢mankñúgéNVy:Urbs;FatumYycMnYn b:uEnþPaBsMxan;éncMnYnTaMgenHRtUv)aneKemIl rMlgGs;ry³b:unµanqñaMbnÞab;mkeTot. enAqñaM1913 GñkrUbviTüav½yekµgCnCatiGg;eKøs Henry

Mosely )anrkeXIjBITMnak;TMngrvagGIVEdlKat;ehAfaelxGatUmnigeRbkg;kaMrsIµ X EdlRtUv )anbegIátedaybnÞúHFatuEdlmankarbeB©ajfamBleGLicRtugd¾x<s;. Moseley )ankt;cMMMNaM faeRbkg;kaMrsIµ X Edl)anbeB©ajBIFatuEdlKat;Gacdwgtamry³smIkar

v = a(z-b)

Edl v CaeRbkg;énkaMrsIµ x Edl)anbeB©aj ehIy a nig b CaefrEdldUcKñaRKb;FatuTaMgGs;. dUecñH BIrwskaeréneRbkg;Edl)anvas;;kaMrsIµ XEdl)anbeB©aj eyIgGackMnt;elxGatUmén Fatu.

CamYykrNIelIkElgmYycMnYn Moseley )anrkeXIjelxGatUmekIneLIgkñúglMdab; dUcKñadUceTAnwgma:sGatUm. ]TahrN_ kal;süÜm (Ca) CaFatuTI 20 kñúglMdab;ekIneLIg m:asGatUm nigvamanelxGatUm20. PaBxusKñaEdlGñkviTüasaRsþ)ansgS½y \LÚvenH)an dIg. elxGatUmrbs;Gakug(Ar) KW 18 nigelxGatUmrbs;b:UtasüÚm (K) KW 19 dUecñH b:UtasüÚm KYrEtsißtenAeRkamGakugkñúgtaragxYb.


8-4

CaFmµtataragxYbTMenIbbgðajBIelxGatUmCamYynwgnimitþsBaØaénFatu dUcGñk)andwg rYcmkehIy elxGatUmk¾bgðajpgEdrBIcMnYneGLicRtugkñúgGatUménFatur)ayeGLicRtugén FatuCYyBnül;BIlkçN³rUbniglkçN³KImIrbs;Fatu. sar³sMxan;nig sar³RbeyaCn_éntaragxYb KWGac[eyIgdwgBIlkçN³TUeTAnigTMenarénFatuKImIkñúgRkumb¤xYb edIm,ITsSn_TaylkçN³Rtwm RtUvrbs;FatuNamYy eTaHbICaeyIgminFøab;sÁal;pÞal;FatuenaHk¾eday. 2 cMENkfñak;FatuKImIkñúgtaragxYb

rUb2bgðajtaragxYbCamYyr)ayeGLicRtugRsTab;eRkAénFatuKImI. ¬r)ayeGLicRtug énFatuk¾RtUv)anpþl;eGaykñúgtarag3CMBUk7Edr¦cab;BIGuIRdUEsneTA eyIgeXIjfaRsTab;rgRtUv )anbMeBjeGLicRtugtamlMdab; ehIytamry³énkarbMeBjeGLicRtugtamRsTab;enH eKGac EckFatuKImICaeRcInRbePTdUcCa³ FatutMNag ]sµ½nkMr Fatuqøg ¬elah³qøg¦ Lg;tanIt (Lanthanides) nigGak;TInIt (Actinides).

- ----FatutMNag FatutMNag FatutMNag FatutMNag ¬ehAmüa:geTotfa RkuménFatusMxan; ¦ CaFatuEdlsßitenAkñúgRkum 1A

rhUtdl; 7A. FatuTaMgenHmankarbMeBjeGLicRtugminTan;Eq¥tenARsTab;eRkAbg¥s;elIRsTab; rg s nig p éneKalkarN_cMnYnkg;Tic.

----]]]]sµ½nkMr sµ½nkMr sµ½nkMr sµ½nkMr CaFatuEdlsßitenAkñúgRkum8A. elIkElgEt He ecj]sµ½nkMrTaMgGs;suT§Et)an bMeBjeGLicRtugEq¥tenARsTab;eRkAelIRsTab;rg s nig p Edlr)ayeGLicRtugrbs; He KW 1s2

nig ns2np6 sMrab;]sµ½nkMrepSgeTot (n CacMnYnkg;Ticem). ]sµ½nkMrTaMgGs;manGMeBIKImIRsedog KñaEdlsuT§EtCaFatuGskmµKImI¬Fatunicl¦ eRBaHFatuTaMgenHmankarbMeBjeGLicRtugEq¥tenA RsTab; s nig p énRsTab;eRkAbg¥s;naM[vamanesßrPaBbMput.

- ----Fatuqøg Fatuqøg Fatuqøg Fatuqøg CaFatuEdlsßitenAkñúgRkum 1Bnig3B rhUtdl;8B. FatuTaMgenHman karbMeBjeGLicRtugminTan;Eq¥tenARsTab;rgd ¬elah³TaMgenHCYnkaleKGacehAfaFatuqøg block-d¦. elxmintKñaénelah³qøgkñúgtaragxYb ¬KW3B-8Bnig1B-2B¦ manr)ayeGLicRtug RsTab;eRkAdUcKñarvagFatuelah³qøgnigFatutMNag. ]TahrN_ ság;düÚm (Sc) nigkalüÚm (Ga)

EdlmaneGLicRtugRsTab;eRkA3. eTaHbICay:agenHk¾eday k¾BYkvasißtkñúgGrb‘Ítal;GatUm epSgKña nigsißtkñúgRkumepSgKña (3A nig 3B). elah³Edk (Fe) kU)al; (Co) nignIEkl (Ni) minRtUvnwg cMENkfñak;enHnigsißtkñúgRkum 8B TaMgGs;. FatukñúgRkum 2B EdlrYmman Zn Cd

nig Hg minEmnCaFatutMNag ehIyk¾minEmnCaFatuqøgEdr nigminmaneQµaHBiesssMrab;Rkum

CMBYkTI8

8-5

elah³TaMgenHeT. KYrEtkt;cMNaMpgEdrfakarkarkMNt;CaRkum A nig B KWminlkçN³skl. enAGWr:ubB eRbIsMrab;CaFatutMNagnig A Caelah³qøg EdlpÞúynwgkarsnµtenA shrdæGaemric.

rUbrUb rUbrUb 2 2 2 2 taragxYbbgðajBIrtaragxYbbgðajBIrtaragxYbbgðajBIrtaragxYbbgðajBIr )) )) ayeGLicRtugRsTab

ayeGLicRtugRsTabayeGLicRtugRsTabayeGLicRtugRsTab ;; ;; eRkAénFatuKImI

eRkAénFatuKImIeRkAénFatuKImIeRkAénFatuKImI


8-6

- ----LgLgLgLg;;;;tanIttanIttanIttanIt (Lanthanides) nignignignigGakGakGakGak;;;;TInItTInItTInItTInIt (Actinides) enAeBlxøHGacehAmüa:geTot faFatuqøg Block-f eRBaHvamankarbMeBjeGLicRtugminTan;Eq¥tenAelIRsTab;rgf. rUb3Ebg EckRkuménFatuEdlRtUv)anBiPakSaenATIenH. taragtaragtaragtarag2 2 2 2 rrrr))))ayeGLicRtugayeGLicRtugayeGLicRtugayeGLicRtugénFatuénFatuénFatuénFatukñúgRkum kñúgRkum kñúgRkum kñúgRkum 1A nignignignig 2A

KMrUd¾c,as;las;mYy)anelceLIg enAeBleyIgBinitüemIl r)ayeGLicRtugénFatukñúgRkumCak;lak;mYy. r)ay eGLicRtugkñúgRkum1A nig2A RtUv)anbgðajkñúgtarag2. RKb;Fatuelah³Gal;kaLaMgénRkum1A manr)ayeGLic- RtugenARsTab;eRkARsedogKña. FatunImYy²manr)ay

eGLicRtugkñúgdUc]sµ½nkMr nigmaneGLicRtugRsTab;eRkA ns1. dUcKñaEdr Rkum2AEdlCaelah³ Gal;kalINUETruWmanr)ayeGLicRtugkñúgdUc]sµ½nkMr nigmaneGLicRtugRsTab;eRkAns2. eGLic Rtug RsTab;eRkAénGatUmKWCaeGLicRtug cUlrYmkñúgkarcgsm<½n§KImI KWehAfaCaeGLicRtugeGLicRtugeGLicRtugeGLicRtug vavavava:: ::LgLgLgLg;. r)ayeGLicRtugRsTab;eRkAdUcKña¬mancMnYnnigRbePTeGLicRtugva:Lg;dUcKña¦naMFatu kñúgRkumCamYyKñamanlkçN³KImIdUcKñaEdr. enHCakarkt;sMKal;d¾BitmYysMrab;FatutMNag epSg²eTot. ]TahrN_ FatutMNagkñúgRkum 7A ¬RkumGaLÚEsn¦ suT§Etmanr)ayeGLicRtug RsTab;eRkAns2np5 dUcKñanaM[lkçN³rbs;vak¾RsedogKñaEdr. b:uEnþeyIgRtUvRbugRby½tñpgEdr kñúgkarTsSn_TaylkçN³sMrab;FatukñúgRkum 3A dl; 7A. ]TahrN_ FatukñúgRkum 4A TaMgGs; manr)ayeGLicRtugRsTab;eRkA ns2np2 dUcKña EtmanlkçN³KImIxusKñakñúgcMenamFatuTaMgenaH eday C CaGelah³ Si nig Ge CaFatuGMpUET (Metalloids) Sn nig Pb Caelah³.

CaRkummYy]sµ½nkMrmanlkçN³RsedogKña. elIkElgEtRKIbcugnigesNugFatuenAkñúg RkumenHCaFatunicl. ehtuplKWFatuTaMgenH)an bMeBjeGLicRtugEq¥tenARsTab;rgeRkA ns

nig np EdlCalkçxNÐmYytageGayesßrPaBxøaMg. eTaHbICar)ayeGLicRtugRsTab;eRkAén elah³qøgEtgEtmindUcKñaenAkñúgRkumnigminmanKMrU c,as;las;kñúgkarpøas;bþÚrénr)ayeGLic- RtugBIelah³mYyeTAelah³bnÞab;kñúgxYbdUcKñak¾eday k¾elah³qøgTaMgGs;manlkçN³CaeRcIn EdleFIVeGayBYkvamanlkçN³edayELkBIFatudéTeTot. ehtuplKWelah³TaMgenHminTan; bMeBjeGLicRtugEq¥tenARsTab;rg d. FatukñúgRkum Lanthanide nig Actinide KWdUcKñapgEdr BIeRBaHBYkvaminTan;bMeBjeGLicRtugEq¥tenARsTab;rg f.

Rkum Rkum Rkum Rkum 1A Rkum Rkum Rkum Rkum 2A Li [He]2s1 Be [He]2s2 Na [Ne]3s1 Mg [Ne]3s2 K [Ar]4s1 Ca [Ar]4s2 Rb [Kr]5s1 Sr [Kr]5s2 Cs [Xe]6s1 Ba [Xe]6s2 Fr [Rn]7s1 Ra [Rn]7s2

CMBYkTI8

8-7

]]]]TahrNTahrNTahrNTahrN_1³ GatUmNWtmYyman15eGLicRtug. edayKµankareRbInUvtaragxYbcUreqIøynUvsMNYr³ sresrr)ayeGLicRtugénFatu?

a) etIFatuenHKYrEtEbgEcky:agdUcemþc? b) etIGatUménFatuenHCadüama:ejTic( diamagnetic)rW Ca)a:ra:ma:ejTic (paramagnetic)?

cMelIycMelIycMelIycMelIy³ ³ ³ ³ a) kareRbIeKalkarN_sagsg; nigkardwgBIeGLicRtugGtibrmaénRsTab;rg s nig p

eyIgGacsreser)ayeGLicRtugCa 1s22s22p63s23p3 . b) edayRsTab;rg 3p minTan;RtUv)anbMeBjFatuenHCaFatutMNag. GaRs½yelIBt’manpþl; eGay eyIgminGacniyayfa vaCaelah³ Gelah³ rW CaGMpUET)aneT. c) tamc,ab; Hund. eGLicRtug3kñúgGrb‘Ítal; 3p mansI<nRsbKña. dUecñH GatUménFatuenHCa

)a:ra:ma:ejTic EdlmansI<nKµanKU 3. lMhatlMhatlMhatlMhat;;;;GnuvtþnGnuvtþnGnuvtþnGnuvtþn__ __1111³ GatUmNWténFatumYyman 20 eGLicRtug.

a) cUrsresrr)ayeGLicRtugénFatuenaHkñúgPaBRKwH. b) cUreFVIcMNat;fñak;FatuenaH. c) cUrkMNt;faetIGatUménFatuenHCadüama:ejTic rWCa)a:ra;ma:ejTic.

2>1 kartagFatuesrIkñúgsmIkarKImI

karmancMNat;fñak;FatuenAtamr)ayeGLicRtugkñúgPaBRKwHrbs;va \lUvenHeyIgGac BinitüemIlrebobEdlGñkKImItag elah³ GMpUET nigGelah³ CaFatuesrIkñúgsmIkarKImI. edaysarelah³minmanm:UelKulEdlenAdac;²BIKña eyIgEtgEteRbIrUbmnþgayrbs;vaenAkñúg smIkarKImI. rUbmnþgayenHdUcKñaeTAnwgnimitþsBaØaEdltagFatuenaHEdr ]TahrN_ rUbmnþgay énEdkKW Fe dUcnimitþsBaØasMrab;EdkEdr.

sMrab;BYkGelah³ minEmnviFanEtmYyeT. ]TahrN_³ dUcCakabUnkabUnkabUnkabUnmanGtßiPaBCa bNþajvimaRtTUlMTUlayénGatUm dUecñHeyIgRbIrUbmnþgayrbs;vaKWC edIm,ItagkabUnCaFatukñúg smIkarKImI. EtGuIRdUEsn GasUt GuksIuEsn nigGaLÚEsn manGtßiPaBCam:UelKulDIGatUm dUecñH eyIgeRbIrUbmnþþm:UelKul rbs;vaKW H2. N2. O2. F2... kñúgsmIkarKImI.


8-8

TMrg;zitefrrbs;pUsVrKWTMrg;m:UelKul (P4) dUecñHeyIgeRbI P4 sMrab;sresrkñúgsmIkar KImI. sMrab;s<an;F½r GñkKImIviTüaeRcIneRbIrUbmnþgay (S) kñúgsmIkarKImI CaCag S8 EdlCaTMrg; zitefrrbs;va. ]TahrN_ CaCMnYssmIkarcMehHs<an;F½rEdleKsresr³

S8(s) + 8O2 (g) 8SO2 (g)

eyIgeRcInsresr³ S(s) + O2 (g) SO2 (g)

]sµ½nkMrTaMgGs;CaRbePTm:UNUGatUm dUecñHeyIgeRbInimitþsBaØarbs;vaKW He. Ne. Ar. Kr.

Xe nigRn. elah³GMpUET (Metalloids) k¾dUcelah³EdrsuT§EtmanTMrg;vimaRtbIsaMjauM dUecñH eyIgtagvakñúgsmIkarKImIedayrUbmnþgay EdlCanimitþsBaØarbs;vaKW B. Si. Ge.... rUbrUbrUbrUb3 3 3 3 taragxYbbgðajBIPaBxusKñaénFatuKImItamRkumnImYytaragxYbbgðajBIPaBxusKñaénFatuKImItamRkumnImYytaragxYbbgðajBIPaBxusKñaénFatuKImItamRkumnImYytaragxYbbgðajBIPaBxusKñaénFatuKImItamRkumnImYy²²²². . . . cMENkfñakcMENkfñakcMENkfñakcMENkfñak;;;;FatuFatuFatuFatu. . . . FatukñúgRkumFatukñúgRkumFatukñúgRkumFatukñúgRkum 2BeRcInEtRtUveRcInEtRtUveRcInEtRtUveRcInEtRtUv))))anEbgEckCaelahanEbgEckCaelahanEbgEckCaelahanEbgEckCaelah³³³³qøg eTaHbIvaminbgðqøg eTaHbIvaminbgðqøg eTaHbIvaminbgðqøg eTaHbIvaminbgðajlkçNajlkçNajlkçNajlkçN³³³³elahelahelahelah³³³³qøgk¾edayqøgk¾edayqøgk¾edayqøgk¾eday....

2>2 r)ayeGLicRtugénkacugnigGaj:úg

edaysarsmasFatuGIuy:ugCaeRcInRtUv)anbgáeLIgedayGaj:úgnigkacugm:UNUGatUm va manplRbeyaCn_kñúgkardwgBIrebobsresrr)ayeGLicRtugénRbePTGIuy:ugTaMgenH. dUcsMrab; GatUmNWtEdr eyIgeRbIeKalkarN_pþac;ecjrbs; Pauli nigviFan Hund edIm,Isresrr)ay

CMBYkTI8

8-9

eGLicRtugkñúgPaBRKwH (ground-state) rbs;kacugnigGaj:úg. eyIgnwgEckRkumGIuy:ugCaBIr RbePT. 2>2>1 karkekItGIuy:ugBIFatutMNag

GuIy:ugkekItBIGatUmNWténFatutMNagPaKeRcInmanr)ayeGLicRtugdUc]sµ½nkMr(ns2np6).kñúgkarbegáItkacug¬+¦BIGatUmNWténFatutMNageGLicRtug mYyb¤eRcInRtUv)ane)aHbg;BIRsTab; eRkAbg¥s;rbs;GatUmenaH. xageRkamenH Car)ayeGLicRtugénGatUmNWt nigkacugrbs;va ÷

Na : [Ne]3s1 Na+ : [Ne] Ca : [Ar]4s2 Ca2+ : [Ar] Al : [Ne]3s23p1 Al 3+ : [Ne]

cMNaMcMNaMcMNaMcMNaM³³³³ kacugnImYy²manr)ayeGLicRtugdUc]sµ½nkMr.

kñúgkarbegáItGaj:úg ¬-¦ eGLicRtugmYyb¤eRcInRtUv)anbMeBjbEnßmeTAelIRsTab;eRkA bg¥s;énGatUmmYy. ]TahrN_

H : 1s1 H- : 1s2 = [He] F : 1s22s22p5 F- : 1s22s22p6 = [Ne] O : 1s22s22p4 O2-:1s22s22p6 = [Ne] N : 1s22s22p3 N3-: 1s22s22p6 = [Ne]

dUecñH eyIgeXIjfaGaj:úgTaMgenaHmanr)ayeGLicRtugzitefrdUc]sµ½nkMrEdr. cUrkt;sMKal;fa F-. O2-. N3-. Na+. Al3+ nigNe manr)ayeGLicRtugdUcKña. eKfa RbePTKImITaMgenHCa GIusU eGLicRtUnic BIeRBaHvamancMnYneGLicRtugesµIKña. dUecñH vak¾manr)ayeGLicRtugenAPaBRKwH dUcKñaEdr. dUcKñaEdr H- nig He KWCaGIuGIuGIuGIusUeGLicRtUnicsUeGLicRtUnicsUeGLicRtUnicsUeGLicRtUnic. 2>2>2 kacug)anmkBIelah³qøg

eyIg)anBinitüeXIjfa elah³qøgenACYredkTI1 ¬BI Sc eTA Cu¦ Grb‘Ítal; 4s EtgEt bMeBjmunGrb‘Ítal;3d. ]TahrN _ Mn: [Ar] 4s23d5. enAeBlGIuy:ug Mn2+ kekIteLIg eyIg RbEhlCaKitfa 2e- RtUv)ane)aHbg;ecjBIGrb‘Ítal; 3d edIm,ITTYl)an [Ar] 4s23d3. Ettam Bit r)ayeGLicRtug Mn2+ KW [Ar]3d5. ehtuplKWGnþrkmµrvageGLicRtug-eGLicRtugnig eGLicRtug-éNVy:UkñúgGatUmNWtGacxusKñaxøaMgBIGnþrkmµkñúgGIuy:ugrbs;va. dUecñH eTaHbIGrb‘Í- tal;; 4s Canic©kalRtUv)anbMeBjmunGrb‘Ítal; 3d enAkñúgGatUm Mn eGLicRtugRtUv)anpþac; ecjBIGrb‘Ítal;4skñúgkMNGIuy:ug Mn2+ eRBaHGrb‘Ítal; 3d manesßrPaBCag 4skñúgGIuy:ugelah³


8-10

qøg. dUecñHelah³qøg begáItkacugedaypþac;eGLicRtugecjBIGrb‘Ítal;; ns Camunsin bnÞab;mk eTIbGrb‘Ítal;; (n-1)d.

elah³qøgPaKeRcInGacbegáIt)ankacugeRcInCagmYy ehIyCajwkjab;kacugTaMgenaH minGIusUeGLicRtUnic¬EdlmancMnYneGLicRtugdUcKña¦ CamYy]sµ½nkMreT. 3 bMErbMrYllkçN³rUbkñúgtaragxYb

eyIgdwgehIyfa r)ayeGLicRtugénFatuTaMgLay)anbgðaj[eXIjBIbMErbMrYlFatukñúg taragxYbtamkarekIneLIgénelxGatUm. dUecñHmankarERbRbYllkçN³rUbniglkçN³KImIrbs; FatupgEdr. eyIgnwgBinitüemIllkçN³rUbénFatumYycMnYnEdlsßitenAkñúgRkumb¤xYbCamYyKña niglkçN³epSg²eTotEdlman\T§iBlelIlkçN³KImIrbs;Fatu. CadMbUgenH eyIgBinitüemIl bBaØtþiénbnÞúkéNVy:URbsiT§pl EdlmanedaypÞal;enAelITMhMGatUmnigenAelITMenarsMrab; GIuy:ugkmµ. 3>1 bnÞúkéNVy:URbsiT§pl (effective nuclear charge) eyIgFøab;)ansikSaBIplénRsTab;karBar EdleGLicRtugenACitéNVy:UmaneGLicRtug

RsTab;eRkAénGatUmmaneGLicRtugeRcIn. vtþmaneGLicRtugRsTab;karBarGacbnßyTMnaj eGLicRtUsþaTicrvagRbUtug bnÞúkviC©mankñúgéNVy:U nigeGLicRtugRsTab;eRkA. elIsBIenHeTot kMlaMgRcanrvageGLicRtugkñúgGatUmmaneGLicRtugeRcIn GaceFVItulüPaBCamYykMlaMgTMnaj énéNVy:U. bBaØtþiplbnÞúkéNVy:URbsiT§plGaceGayeyIgBnül;BIplénRsTab;karBarkñúg lkçN³taragxYb.

eyIgBinitüemIlGatUmeGlüÚm Edlmanr)ayeGLicRtugkñúgPaBRKwH1s2. RbUtugBIrén eGlüÚmpþl;éNVy:Urbs;vamanbnÞúk+2Edr EtkMlaMgTMnajeBjeljénbnÞúkenHeTAelIeGLic- Rtug 1s BIrRtUv)anTUTat;edayEpñkedaycMraneGLicRtug-eGLicRtug. dUecñH eyIgniyayfa eGLicRtug 1s karBarKñaeTAvijeTAmkBIkarRsUbTajénéNVy:U. bnÞúkéNVy:URbsiT§pl (Zeff)

EdlCabnÞúkrgGMeBIedayeGLicRtug KW³ (Zeff = Z – σ ) Edl Z CabnÞúkéNVy:UBit ¬mann½yfa elxGatUmrbs;Fatu¦nigσ ¬suicma:¦ Caefr

karBar¬b¤efrbiT)aMg¦. efrkaBarFMCagsUnü bu:EnþtUcCag Z.

CMBYkTI8

8-11

viFImYyedIm,IbgðajBIkarkarBareGLicRtug KWKitBIfamBlRtUvkaredIm,Ipþac;BIreGLicRtug BIGatUmeGlüÚm. karvas;bgðajfaedIm,Ipþac;eGLicRtugmYydMbUgBI 1molénGatUm He eKRtUvkar famBl 2373kJ nigeGLicRtugcugeRkayBI 1mol én He+ RtUvkarfamBl 5251kJ. dUecñH edIm,Ipþac;eGLicRtugTIBIrecjBIHe+ eKRtUvkarfamBleRcInCagkarpþac;eGLicRtugmYydMbUgecj BIHe. ehtuplKWfaeGLicRtugTIBIrenHRtUv)anRsUbTajTaMgRsugBIéNVy:UbnÞúk +2 edayKµankar karBar BIeRBaHeGLicRtugenAsl;manEtmYy.

cMeBaHGatUmEdlmancab;BIbIeGLicRtugeLIgeTA eGLicRtugEdlenAkñúgRsTab;eRkA RtUv)ankarBaredayeGLicRtugRsTab;xagkñúgva ¬EdlCaRsTab;CitéNVy:UCag¦ EtminEmnRtUv karBaredayeGLicRtugkñúgRsTab;xageRkAeT. ]TahrN_ GatUmNWtrbs; Li manr)ay eGLicRtug 1s22s1 dUecñH 1e- enARsTab; 2s RtUv)ankarBareday 2e- enARsTab; 1s Et 1e- én RsTab; 2s min)ankarBar 2e- énRsTab; 1s vijeT.

eGLicRtugenARsTab;xagkñúgkarBareGLicRtugenARsTab;xageRkAedayRbsiT§PaBCag eGLicRtugkñúgRsTab;dUcKñakarBarKñaeTAvijeTAmk.

3>2 kaMGatUm

lkçN³rUbmYycMnYndUcCadg;sIuet cMnucrlay nigcMnucrMBuHmanTMnak;TMngeTAnwgTMhM GatUm b:uEnþTMhMGatUmBi)akkMNt;Nas;. dUceyIg)aneXIjkñúgCMBUkmun dg;sIueteGLicRtugkñúg GatUmeTA hYséNVyU: b:uEnþeyIgEtgKitBITMhMGatUmCamaDEdlman90% éndg;sIueteGLicRtug

rUbrUbrUbrUb4 4 4 4 (a) enAkñúgenAkñúgenAkñúgenAkñúgelahelahelahelah³³³³dUcCa ebrIlüÚm kaMGatUmRtUvdUcCa ebrIlüÚm kaMGatUmRtUvdUcCa ebrIlüÚm kaMGatUmRtUvdUcCa ebrIlüÚm kaMGatUmRtUv ))))ankMankMankMankMNtNtNtNt;;;;fa CaBakfa CaBakfa CaBakfa CaBak;;;;kNþalcMgayrvagcMNuckNþalcMgayrvagcMNuckNþalcMgayrvagcMNuckNþalcMgayrvagcMNuckNþalkNþalkNþalkNþal GatUmBIrenACabGatUmBIrenACabGatUmBIrenACabGatUmBIrenACab;;;;KñaKñaKñaKña.... (b) sMrabsMrabsMrabsMrab;;;;FatuEdlCamUFatuEdlCamUFatuEdlCamUFatuEdlCamU:: ::elKulDIGatUm dUcCa GIuyUelKulDIGatUm dUcCa GIuyUelKulDIGatUm dUcCa GIuyUelKulDIGatUm dUcCa GIuyU:: ::t t t t kaMGatUmRtUvkaMGatUmRtUvkaMGatUmRtUvkaMGatUmRtUv))))ankMNtankMNtankMNtankMNt;;;;fa CaBakfa CaBakfa CaBakfa CaBak;;;;kNþalcMgayrvagkNþalcMgayrvagkNþalcMgayrvagkNþalcMgayrvag cMNuc kNþalénGatUmkñúgcMNuc kNþalénGatUmkñúgcMNuc kNþalénGatUmkñúgcMNuc kNþalénGatUmkñúgmUmUmUmU:: ::elKulenaHmYyelKulenaHmYyelKulenaHmYyelKulenaHmYy....


8-12

srubCMuvijéNVy:U. dUecñHedIm,IPaBCak;lak; eKkMNt;TMhMGatUmmYytamkaMGatUmkaMGatUmkaMGatUmkaMGatUmrbs;va EdlCa cMgayBak;kNþalrvagéNVy:UBIrkñúgGatUmelah³enACab;KñaBIr¬rUb4¦.

rUbrUbrUbrUb5 5 5 5 kaMGatUménFatutMNagRtUvkaMGatUménFatutMNagRtUvkaMGatUménFatutMNagRtUvkaMGatUménFatutMNagRtUv))))antMerobeTAtamTItaMgrbsantMerobeTAtamTItaMgrbsantMerobeTAtamTItaMgrbsantMerobeTAtamTItaMgrbs;;;;vakñúgtaragxYbvakñúgtaragxYbvakñúgtaragxYbvakñúgtaragxYb eyIgGacemIlTMenaénkaMGatUmkñúgtaragxYb¬rUb5¦ Edl)ankMnt;TMhMedayTMnajrvag

eGLicRtugRsTab;eRkA nigéNVy:U. eKcat;TukfaGatUmmanragCaEsV‘tUcbMput EdleKkMNt;kaM rbs;vacenøaHBI 50 - 300 pm eKfa tMélkaMGatUmsßitkñúglMdab; 102 pm. ]TahrN_ kaMGatUm

He = 50 pm = 0.50 x 102 pm Fe = 120 pm = 1.20 x 102 pm kaMGatUmbBa¢ak;GMBITMhMén kMlaMgRsUbrvageGLicRtugRsTab;eRkA nigéNVy:U. kalNaplbnÞúkéNVyU:kan;EtFM TMnajrvag éNVyU:nigeGLicRtugkan;EtxøaMg nigkaMGatUmkan;EttUc. ]TahrN_ FatuEdlsßitenAkñúgxYbTI 2 rYmman Li rhUtdl; F eyIgeXIjfa BIeqVgeTAsþaMcMnYneGLicRtugRsTab; 1s2 mantMélefrenA eBlbnÞúkéNVy:UekIneLIg. eGLicRtugEdlRtUvbEnßmedIm,I[mantulüPaBKñanwgkarekIneLIgén bnÞúkéNVy:U KWminmanplGIVeT kñúgkarkarBarKñaenaH. dUecñH plbnÞúkéNVy:UminERbRbYleT xN³

CMBYkTI8

8-13

EdlcMnYnkg;TicemmantMélefr (n = 2). ]TahrN_ 1e- enARsTab;rgeRkA (2s) rbs; Li RtUv )ankarBarBIéNVy:U (3RbUtug) eday 2e- énRsTab; 1s. dUecñHeyIgGacsnñidæan)anfa plkarBar rbs; 2e- énRsTab; 1s KW)anbnSab (cancel) bnÞúk +2 kñúgéNVy:UEdlnaM[ 1e- elIRsTab; 2s

rgnUvkarRsUbBIéNVy:UEtmYyRbUtugb:ueNÑaH ¬bnÞúkéNVy:UeBlenHKWesµInwg +1¦. kñúgGatUm Be ( 1s22s2 ) eGLicRtugnImYy²enARsTab;rg 2s RtUv)ankarBareday 2e-

RsTab;rgkñúg (1s) Edl)anbnSab 2 RbUtug (+2) kñúgcMenam 4 RbUtug (+4) rbs;éNVy:U. eday sar 2e- énRsTab; 2s minGackarBarKña)aneTIbplbnÞúkéNVy:UéneGLicRtugnImYy²kñúgRsTab; 2s RtUvFMCag +1. dUecñHenAeBlbnÞúkéNVy:UekIneLIg kaMGatUmfycuHCalMdab;BI Li eTA F.

enAkñúgRkuménFatu eyIgeXIjfa kaMGatUmekIneLIgtamkMeNInénelxGatUm. sMrab; elah³Gal;kaLaMgkñúgRkum1A eGLicRtugRsTab;eRkAbMputsßitenAelIGrb‘Ítal; ns. edaysar TMhMGrb‘Ítal;ekIneLIgtamcMnYnkg;Ticem n ekIneLIg TMhMénGatUmelah³k¾ekIneLIgEdrBI Li

eTA Cs. eyIgGacBnül;dUcKñaEdrcMeBaHFatukñúgRkumepSgeTot.

rUrUrUrUbbbb6 6 6 6 RkamRkamRkamRkamkaMGatUm¬kñúgxñatkaMGatUm¬kñúgxñatkaMGatUm¬kñúgxñatkaMGatUm¬kñúgxñatpm¦¦¦¦énFatutamelénFatutamelénFatutamelénFatutamelxxxxGatUmGatUmGatUmGatUmrbsrbsrbsrbs;;;;vavavava

]]]]TahrNTahrNTahrNTahrN____2222³³³³ edayeyageTAelItaragxYb cUrtMerobGatUmteTAenHtamlMdab;ekIneLIgénkaM GatUm³ P, Si, nig N.


8-14

yuT§sa®sþyuT§sa®sþyuT§sa®sþyuT§sa®sþ³ ³ ³ ³ etITMenarkaMGatUmkñúgRkum nigxYbenAkñúgtaragxYbmanlkçN³ERbRbYlya:gdUcemþc? etIFatuNaEdlenAmuxeKkñúgRkumEtmYy? kñúgxYbEtmYy? cMelIycMelIycMelIycMelIy³ ³ ³ ³

tamtarag 8>1 eyIgeXIjfa N nig P sßitenAkñúgRkumCamYyKña¬Rkum 5A¦nig N enAelI P. dUecñHkaMrbs; N tUcCagkaMrbs; P ¬kñúgRkumCamYyKña kaMGatUmekIneLIgBIelIcuHeRkam¦. cMENk Si nig P sßitenAkñúgxYbTIbIdUcKña ehIy Si sßitenAxageqVg P. dUecñH kaMrbs; Si FMCag kaMrbs; P ¬kñúgxYbCamYyKña kaMGatUmfycuHBIeqVgeTAsþaM¦.

dUecñH lMdab;kaMGatUmekIneLIgKW³ N < P < Si. lMhatlMhatlMhatlMhat;;;;GnuvtþGnuvtþGnuvtþGnuvtþnnnn____2222³³³³ cUrtMerobGatUmteTAenH tamlMdab;kaMGatUmfycuH³ C, Li, Be.

rUbrUbrUbrUb7 7 7 7 kareRbobeFobkaMGatUmnigkaMGuIykareRbobeFobkaMGatUmnigkaMGuIykareRbobeFobkaMGatUmnigkaMGuIykareRbobeFobkaMGatUmnigkaMGuIy:::: ugugugug. . . . (a)elahelahelahelah³³³³GalGalGalGal;;;;kaLaMgkaLaMgkaLaMgkaLaMgnignignignigkacugelahkacugelahkacugelahkacugelah³

GalGalGalGal;;;;kaLaMgkaLaMgkaLaMgkaLaMg (b): GaLÚEsnGaLÚEsnGaLÚEsnGaLÚEsnnigGIuynigGIuynigGIuynigGIuy:::: ugGaLÚEsnYugGaLÚEsnYugGaLÚEsnYugGaLÚEsnY 3>3 kaMGIuy:ug

kaMGuIykaMGuIykaMGuIykaMGuIy:::: ugugugug CakaMénkacugb¤Gaj:úg EdleKvas;)antamry³karcaMgpøatkaMrsµI-X. kaMGIuy:ug man\T§iBlelIlkçN³rUbniglkçN³KImIénsmasFatuGIuy:ug. ]TahrN_³ TMrg;vimaRtbIén smasFatuGIuy:ug GaRs½yelITMhMeFobénkacugnigGaj:úgrbs;va.

CMBYkTI8

8-15

eBlGatUmNWtRtUv)anbMEbøgCaGIuy:ug eyIgrMBwgfanwgmankarERbRbYlTMhM. RbsinebI GatUmenaHbegáItGaj:úg TMhMb¤kaMrbs;vaekIneLIgedaysarbnÞúkéNVy:UenAdEdl b:uEnþcMranEdl ekIteLIgBIeGLicRtugbEnßmBRgIkEdlénBBkBBkeGLicRtug. mü:agvijeTot karpþac; eGLicRtugmYyb¤eRcInBIGatUmkat;bnßycMraneGLicRtug-eGLicRtug EtbnÞúkéNVy:UenAdEdl dUecñHBBkeGLicRtugrYjtUcnigkacugKWtUcCagGatUm. rUb7 bgðajBIkarERbRbYlTMhMenAeBlEdl elah³Gal;kaLaMgRtUv)anbMEbøgeTACakacug nigGaLÚEsnRtUv)anbMEbøgeTACaGaj:úg. rUb8bgðajBIkarERbRbYlTMhMEdlekIteLIgenAeBlGatUm Li RbtikmµCamYyGatUm F

edIm,I)anCa LiF.

rUbrUbrUbrUb8 8 8 8 karERbRbYlTMhMénFatu karERbRbYlTMhMénFatu karERbRbYlTMhMénFatu karERbRbYlTMhMénFatu Li nignignignigF eBlvaeBlvaeBlvaeBlvaeFVIeFVIeFVIeFVIRbtikmµRbtikmµRbtikmµRbtikmµbegáItbegáItbegáItbegáIt))))ananananCaCaCaCa LiF

rUb9bgðajBIkaMGIy:ugrbs;FatuEdlRtUv)anerobeTAtamTItaMgrbs;vakñúgtaragxYb. eyIg GaceXIjTMenarRsbKñarvagkaMGatUmnigkaMGIuy:ug. ]TahrN_³ BIelIcuHeRkamkaMGatUmnigkaM GIuy:ugekIneLIgenAkñúgRkum. sMrab;GIuy:ugEdl)anBIRkumepSg²Kña karebobeFobTMhMmanGtßn½y ebIsinGIuy:ugTaMgenaHGIusUeGLicRtUnic.

rUbrUbrUbrUb9 9 9 9 kaMGuIykaMGuIykaMGuIykaMGuIy:::: ugénFatuugénFatuugénFatuugénFatuEdlEdlEdlEdlerobeTAtamTItaMgrbserobeTAtamTItaMgrbserobeTAtamTItaMgrbserobeTAtamTItaMgrbs;;;;vakñúgtaragxYbvakñúgtaragxYbvakñúgtaragxYbvakñúgtaragxYb


8-16

ebIeyIgBinitüemIlGIuy:ugGIusUeGLicRtUniceyIgeXIjfakaMkacugtUcCagkaMGaj:úg. ]TahrN_ kaMGIuy:ug Na+ tUcCag F- . GIuy:ugTaMgBIrmancMnYneGLicRtugdUcKña EtNa (Z = 11)

manRbUtugeRcInCag F (Z = 9). bnÞúkéNVy:URbsiT§plFMCagrbs; Na+ CamUlehtubNþal[va mankaMtUcCag F-.

cMeBaHkacugGIusUeGLicRtUnic eyIgeXIjfa kaMGIuy:ugEdlmanbnÞúk 3+ tUcCagkaMGIuy:ug bnÞúk 2+ ehIykaMGIuy:ugbnÞúk 2+ tUcCagkaMGIuy:ugbnÞúk 1+. ]TahrN_ GIy:ugkñúgxYbTI 3 ³ Al 3+.

Mg2+ nigNa+. GIuy:ug Al 3+ mancMnYneGLicRtugdUc Mg2+ Edr b:uEnþvamanRbUtugelIs Mg2+

cMnYnmYy. dUecñHBBkeGLicRtugrbs; Al3+ RtUv)anTajcUlkñúgxøaMgCag Mg2+. cMeBaHkaM Mg2+

tUcCag Na+ GacRtUv)anBnül;tamrebobdUcKña. cMeBaHkaMGaj:úgGIusUeGLicRtUnicvij eyIgeXIjfakaMGuIy:ugekIneLIgBIGuIy:ugbnÞúk1-eTA

2- nigeTA3-.l. dUecñHGIuy:ugGuksIut ( O2-) FMCag F- BIeRBaHGuksIuEsnmanRbUtugticCagGIuy:ug PøúyGrBBkeGLicRtugénGIuy:ug O2- rIkFMCag F-. ]]]]TahrNTahrNTahrNTahrN____3333 sMrab;KUénRbePTKImInImYy²teTAenH cUrcg¥úlbgðajRbePTKImINamYyénRbePTBIr EdlFMCag³ (a) N3- b¤ F- (b) Mg2+ b¤ Ca2+ (c) Fe2+ b¤ Fe3+ . yuT§sa®sþyuT§sa®sþyuT§sa®sþyuT§sa®sþ³ ³ ³ ³ kñúgkareRbobeFobkaMGIuy:ug CakargayRsYleyIgRtUveFIVcMNat;fñak;GIuy:ugTaMgenaH CabIRbePT³ (1) GIuy:ugGIusUeGLicRtUnic (2) GIuy:ugEdlmanbnÞúkGKÁisnIdUcKña nigbegáIt)anBI GatUmenAkñúgRkumEtmYynig (3) GIuy:ugEdlmanbnÞúkGKÁisnIxusKña b:uEnþbegáIteLIgBIGatUmEt mYy.

kñúgkrNI (1) GIuy:ugmanbnÞúkGKÁisnIGviC¢manFMCag¬tMéldac;xat¦ KWCanic©kalFMCag GIuy:ug EdlmanbnÞúkGKÁisnItUc. kñúgkrNI (2) GIuy:ugEdlekIteLIgBIGatUm EdlmanelxGatUm FMCagKWCanic©kalFMCag. kñúgkrNI (3) GIuy:ugEdlmanbnÞúkGKÁisnItUcCag¬tMéldac;xat¦KWCa nic©kalFMCag.

cMelIycMelIycMelIycMelIy³³³³ (a) N3- nig F- KWCaGaj:úgGIusUeGLicRtUnic ehIyvaTaMgBIrman 10 eGLicRtugdUcKña.

edaysar N3- manEt 7 RbUtug ehIy F- man 9 RbUtug dUecñH N3- FMCag F-. (b) Mg2+ nig Ca2+ sßitenAkñúgRkum 2A ¬elah³Gal;kaLaMg¦. GIuy:ug Ca2+ FMCag Mg2+

BIeRBaHeGLicRtugva:Lg;rbs; Ca sßitenAkñúgRsTab; (n = 4) FMCag Mg (n = 3).

CMBYkTI8

8-17

(c) Fe2+ nig Fe3+ manbnÞúkéNVy:UdUcKña b:uEnþ Fe2+ ¬24e-¦manmYyeGLicRtugeRcInCag Fe3+ ¬23e-¦ nigmancMraneGLicRtug-eGLicRtugFMCag. dUecñH Fe2+

mankaMGatUmFMCag Fe3+ . lMhatlMhatlMhatlMhat;;;;GnuvtþGnuvtþGnuvtþGnuvtþnnnn____3333³ ³ ³ ³ cUreRCIserIsGIuy:ugtUcCagkñúgKURbePTKImInimYy²teTAenH³ (a) K+, Li+ (b)

Au+, Au3+ (c) P3-, N3-.

3>4 bMErbMrYllkçN³rUbrbs;FatutamRkumnigxYb

BIeqVgeTAsþaMéntaragxYbmankarqøgBIelah³eTAelah³GMpUET (Metalloids) nigBI elah³GMpUETeTAGelah³. kñúgxYbTI3 BIsUdüÚm(Na) eTAGakug(Ar) eKeXIjfaFatuTI1 (Na) Ca elah³RbtikmµxøaMgNas; cMENkÉkør(Cl) EdlCaFatuTI2rab;BIxagcugKWCaGelah³RbtikmµxaøMg Nas;. FatuenAcenøaHFatuTaMgBIrenHbgðajBIkarERbRbYlbnþicmþg²BIelah³eTAGelah³ ÷

- Na. Mg nig Al suT§EtCaelah³manbNþajvimaRtbITUlMTUlayEdlP¢ab;Kñaeday kMlaMgmYytamlkçN³elah³.

- Si Caelah³GMpUETmanTMrg;vimaRtbIykSEdlGatUm Si P¢ab;Kñaya:gmaM. - cab;BI P eTA FatumanlkçN³Fmµta Cam:UelKuldac;²BIKña ( P4, S8, Cl2 nig Ar) Edl

mancMnucrlaynigrMBuHTab. karERbRbYllkçN³rUbkñúgRkumCamYyKñaGac[eyIgTsSn_Tay)an CaBiessRbsinebIFatu

TaMgenaHsßitenAkñúgPaBrUbdUcKña. ]TahrN_ cMnucrlayrbs;Ar nigXeKW –189.2oC nig-111.9

erogKña. eyIgGac):an;sµankMritrlayrbs;Kr )anedayyktMélmFümPaKéncMnucrlayrbs; FatuTaMgBIrenH ÷

tMélenHRbhak;RbEhleTAnwgtMélBitrbs;va KW -156.6 oC. 4 famBlGIuy:ugkmµ

r)ayeGLicRtugminRtwmEtmanTMnak;TMngeTAnwglkçN³rUbb:ueNÑaHeT EtenAmanTMnak; TMngCamYylkçN³KImIpgEdr. dUceyIg)aneXIjehIyfalkçN³KImIrbs;GatUmNamYyRtUv)an kMNt;edayr)ayeGLicRtugva:Lg;¬eGLicRtugRsTab;eRkA¦rbs;va. esßrPaBéneGLicRtug RsTab;eRkAqøúHbBa©aMgelIfamBlGIuy:ugkmµ.

CoKr 6,1502

)9,111()2,189( −=−+−=


8-18

famBlGIuyfamBlGIuyfamBlGIuyfamBlGIuy:::: ugkmµugkmµugkmµugkmµ CafamBlGb,brma ¬KitCa kJ.mol-1¦RtUvkaredIm,Ipþac; 1e- ecjBI GatUmCa]sµ½nenAkñúgPaBRKwHrbs;va b¤Gacniyaymüa:geTotfa famBlGIuy:ugkmµCabrimaN famBl ¬KitCa kJ¦ RtUvkaredIm,Ipþac; 1mol eGLicRtugBI 1mol GatUmCa]sµ½n.

TMhMfamBlGuIy:ugkmµCargVas;kMritEdleGLicRtugPöab;xøÜnenAkñúgGatUm. kalNa famBlGIuy:ugkmµkan;EtFM karpþac;eGLicRtugk¾kan;EtlM)akEdr. sMrab;GatUmmaneGLicRtug eRcIn brimaNfamBlEdlRtUvkaredIm,Ipþac;eGLicRtugTI1 BIGatUmenaHmaneQµaHfa famBl GIuy:ugkmµTI1 ( I1).

famBl + X(g) X+

(g) + 1e- ( I1)

famBl + X+ X2+(g) + 1e- ( I2)

famBl + X2+ X3+(g) + 1e- ( I3)

X tageGayGatUménFatuNamYy .e- tageGayeGLicRtug . g tageGayPaB]sµ½n. (I2) CafamBlGIuy:ugkmµTIBIr nig (I3) CafamBlGIuy:ugkmµTIbI.

enAeBlmYyeGLicRtugRtUv)anpþac;ecjBIGatUmNWt kMlaMgcMranrbs;eGLicRtugEdl enAsl;RtUvfycuH. edaybnÞuúkéNVy:UenAdEdl famBleRcInRtUvkaredIm,Ipþac;eGLicRtugdéT eToteTotBIGIuy:ugbnÞúkviC©manenaH. dUcenHfamBlGIuy:ugkmµekIneLIgCanic©tamlMdab;KW I1<I2<I3....

KImIGnuvtþn¾KImIGnuvtþn¾KImIGnuvtþn¾KImIGnuvtþn¾³³³³ FaturavTIbIFaturavTIbIFaturavTIbIFaturavTIbI????

kñúgcMeNamFatuTaMg112RtUv)aneKsÁal;manFatu11KWCa]sµ½neRkamlkçxNÐsMBaF

briyakas. Fatu6 énFatu11enaHsißtenAkñúgRkum 8A ¬CaBBYk]sµ½nkMr He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe nig Rn ¦ nigFatu5eTotKWGIuRdUEsn (H2) GuksIEsn (O2) nIRdUEsn rWGasUt (N2) PøúyGr (F2) nig kør (Cl2). KYreGayq¶l;KWmanFatuEtBIrEdl CaGgÁFaturavenAsItuNðPaB 25 ºC KW)art (Hg) nig RbUm (Br2).

eyIgmindwgBIlkçN³énFatuTaMgGs;EdleyIgsÁal;)aneT BIeRBaHFatumYycMnYnminEdl )anRtUverobcMkñúgbrimaNRKb;RKan;sMrab;eFIVBiesaFn_. kñúgkrNITaMgenH eyIgRtUvEtBwgEp¥keTA

CMBYkTI8

8-19

elITMenarxYbkñúgtaragedIm,ITsSn_TaylkçN³rbs;va. GIVeTACakar»kasénkarrkeXIjFaturav TIbI?

eyIgBinitüemIlRhVg;süÚm(Fr)EdlCaFatucugeRkaykñúgRkum 1A faetIvaGacravenA sItuNðPaB25ºCEdrrWeT. GIusUtUbrbs;RhVg;süÚm(Fr)TaMgGs;KWCaFatuviTüúskmµ. GIusUtUbzitefr CageKKWRhVg;süÚm-223 EdlmanBak;kNþalCIvit21naTI. ¬Bak;kNþalCIvitKWCaeBlEdlFatu viTüúskmµbMEbk)anBak;kNþalénéNVy:U.¦ Bak;kNþalCIvitd¾xIøenHmann½yfa brimaNd¾tictUc énRhVg;süÚmGacekItmanenAelIEpndI. eTaHbICaGacerobcMvakñúgmnIÞrBiesaFEtminEdlman brimaNGacfwøg)anrbs;Fatu)anRtUverobcM¬plit¦eLIy. dUecñHeyIgdwgBIlkçN³rUbniglkçN³ KImIrbs;RhVg;süÚm(Fr)tictUcNas;. b:uEnþ eyIgGacTsSn_TaydwgBIlkçN³TaMgenaHmYycMnYn rbs;vaedayeRbIRkumxYbkñúgtaragxYb. ]TahrN_³ cMnuHrlayrbs;RhVg;süÚm(Fr). Rkabxag eRkambgðajBIcMnucrlayrbs;elah³Gal;kaLaMg EdlERbRbYltamelxGatUm. cab;BIlIcUm (Li) eTAsUdüÚm(Na) cMnucrlayFøak;cuHmkdl;81.4º. BIsUdüÚm(Na)mk b:UtasüÚm(K) 34.6o BI b:UtasüÚm(K) mkruyb‘ÍdüÚm (Rb) 24º .BIruyb‘ÍdüÚm (Rb)mkessüÚm(Cs). 11º. Ep¥kelImUldæan énTMenarenH eyIgGacTsSn_Taykarpøas;bþÚrBIessüÚm(Cs) eTARhVg;süÚm(Fr) GacmanRbEhl 5º. dUecñH cMnucrlayrbs;RhVg;süÚm(Fr)KW23º EdlGaceFIVeGayvaraveRkamlkçxNÐsMBaF briyakas.


8-20

tarag3bgðajBIfamBlGIy:ugkmµénFatu20dMbUg. GIy:ugkmµCalMnaMRsUbkMedA. tam karsnµtfamBlRtUv)anRsUbedayGatUm¬rWGIuy:ug¦kñúgdMeNIrkarGIuy:ugkmµmantMélviC©man. dUecñHfamBlGIuy:ugkmµmantMélviC©manTaMgGs;. tamrUb11 ¬bgðajBIbMErbMrYlfamBlGIuy:ug kmµTI1 eFobeTAnwgelxGatUm¦. RkabenHbgðajc,as;nUvlkçN³xYbkñúgsßirPaBéneGLicRtugFUr rlugCageK. cUrkt;sMKal;fa eRkABIPaBmineTogTat;tUctac famBlGIuy:ugkmµTI1énFatuekIn eLIgtamelxGatUmekIneLIg. TMenarenHbNþalmkBIbnÞúkéNVy:URbsiT§iplekIneLIgBIeqVgeTA sþaM¬dUckñúgkrNIbMErbMrYlkaMGatUm¦. bnÞúkéNVy:URbsiT§plFMCagmann½yfa karsßitenAén eGLicRtugRsTab;xageRkArwgmaMCag dUecñHfamBlGIuy:ugkmµTI1k¾x<s;CagEdr.

ttttaragaragaragarag3333 famBlGIuyfamBlGIuyfamBlGIuyfamBlGIuy:::: ugkmµ ugkmµ ugkmµ ugkmµ ( kJ.mol-1 ) énFatuénFatuénFatuénFatu20202020dMbUgdMbUgdMbUgdMbUg Z ELEMENT FIRST SECOND THIRD FOURTH FIFTH SIXTH 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

H He Li Be B C N O F

Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar K Ca

1312 2373 520 899 801

1086 1400 1314 1680 2080

495.9 738.1 577.9 786.3

1012 999.5

1251 1521

418.7 589.5

5251 7300 1757 2430 2350 2860 3390 3370 3950 4560 1450 1820 1580 1904 2250 2297 2666 3052 1145

11815 14850 3660 4620 4580 5300 6050 6120 6900 7730 2750 3230 2910 3360 3920 3900 4410 4900

21005 25000 6220 7500 7470 8400 9370 9540

10500 11600 4360 4960 4660 5160 5770 5900 6500

32820 38000 9400

11000 11000 12200 13400 13600 14800 16000 6240 6990 6540 7240 8000 8100

47261 53000 13000 15200 15000 16600 18000 18400 20000 21000 8500 9300 8800 9600

11000

]sµ½nkMrmankMritfamBlGIuy:ugkmµx<s;BIeRBaHr)ayeGLicRtugkñúgPaBRKwHrbs;vaman

esßrPaB dUecñH vaCaFatuKµanRbtikmµµKImIPaKeRcIn. tamBiteGlüÚm(He: 1s2) manfamBlGIuy:ug kmµTI1 x<s;CageKbMputénFatuTaMgGs;.

pÞúyeTAvijelah³Gal;kaLaMgenAxageRkameKénRkabkñúgrUb11¬FatuRkum1A¦man famBlGIuy:ugkmµTI1 TabCageKbMput. FatunImYy²kñúgRkum1A enHmaneGLicRtugva:Lg;enA RsTab;eRkACageKmYy(ns1) RtUv)ankarBaredayeGLicRtugRsTab;Eq¥txagkñúgy:agmanRbsiT§-

CMBYkTI8

8-21

PaB. CaTUeTAvamanlkçN³gayRsYlkñúgkarpþac; 1e- ecjBIGatUménelah³Gal;kaLaMgedIm,I )anCaGIuy:ugbnÞúk +1 ( Li+, Na+, K+...). r)ayeGLicRtugrbs;kacugTaMgenHKWGIusUeGLicRtUnic CamYy]sµ½nkMrTaMgenaHenABImuxvakñúgtaragxYb.

FatukñúgRkum 2A ¬elah³Gal;kalINUETruW¦ manfamBlGIuy:ugkmµx<s;Cagelah³Gal;- kaLaMgeRBaHelah³Gal;kalINUETruWmaneGLicRtugRsTab;eRkA ns2 dUecñH 2e- énRsTab; ns min karBarKña)anl¥naM[bnÞúkéNVy:URbsiT§plsMrab;GatUmelah³Gal;kalINUETrWuFMCagelah³ Gal;kaLaMg. smasFatuelah³Gal;kalINUETruWPaKeRcInmanGIuy:ugbnÞúk +2 ( Mg2+, Ca2+,

Sr2+, Ba2+ ). GIuy:ug Be2+ GIusUeGLicRtUnicCamYy Li + nig He.. GIuy:ug Mg2+ GIusUeGLic- RtUnicCamYy Na+nig Ne.l.

rUbTI10bgðajfaelah³manfamBlGIuyu:gkmµTI1TabKYrsmebIeFobCamYyGelah³ ehIyfamBlGuIy:ugkmµTI1 énelah³GMpUETCaTUeTAenAcenøaHfamBlGIy:ugkmµénelah³nig Gelah³. PaBxusKñaénfamBlGIuy:ugkmµenHGac[eyIgyl;c,as;BImUlehtuEdlbNþal[ elah³manTMenarbegáItkacug nigGelah³manTMenarbegáItGaj:úgkñúgsmasFatuGIuy:ug. ¬kacug Gelah³sMxan;KWmanEtGIuy:ug NH4

+¦. rUbrUbrUbrUb10101010 bMErbMrYlfamBlGIuybMErbMrYlfamBlGIuybMErbMrYlfamBlGIuybMErbMrYlfamBlGIuy:::: ugkmµTIugkmµTIugkmµTIugkmµTI1111énFatueFobnwgelxGatUmrbsénFatueFobnwgelxGatUmrbsénFatueFobnwgelxGatUmrbsénFatueFobnwgelxGatUmrbs;;;;vavavava

sMrab;RkummYyfamBlGIuy:ugkmµfycuHCamYyelxGatUmekIneLIgenAeBleyIgrMkilBI

elIcuHeRkam. FatukñúgRkumCamYyKñamanr)ayeGLicRtugRsTab;eRkAdUcKña. b:uEnþedaysarcMnYn kg;Ticem(n)ekIneLIg cMgaymFümrvageGLicRtugva:Lg;nigéNVy:Ukan;Etq¶ay. KMlatrvag


8-22

eGLicRtug nigéNVy:Ukan;EtFMmann½yfaTMnajkan;EtexSay dUecñHBIelIcuHeRkamkñúgRkumCamYy KñalkçN³e)aHbg;eGLicRtugkan;EtgayRsYl ehIylkçN³elah³rbs;Fatuk¾ekIneLIgEdr. TMenarenHRtUv)ankt;sMKal;edayELksMrab;FatukñúgRkum 3A eTA 7A. ]TahrN_ FatukñúgRkum

4A kabUnCaGelah³ Si nigGe Caelah³GMpUET nigSn nigPb Caelah³. CaTUeTAeTaHbIfamBlGIuy:ugkmµekIneLIgBIeqVgeTAsþaMkñúgtaragxYbk¾eday enAEtman

krNIERbRbYlmYycMnYnEdr. krNITIkrNITIkrNITIkrNITI1111 ekIteLIgcMeBaHFatukñúgRkum 2A nig3A kñúgxYbdUcKña. ]TahrN_ rvagBenigB nigrvag MgnigAl. FatukñúgRkum 3A manfamBlGIuy:ugkmµTI1 Tab CagFatukñúgRkum 2A edaysarvamaneGLicRtugEtmYyenAkñúgRsTab;rgeRkA p ( ns2np1) Edl RtUv)ankarBarya:gl¥BIeGLicRtugRsTab;xagkñúgnigRsTab; ns2. dUecñH vaRtUvkarfamBledIm,I pþac;eGLicRtugEtmYykñúgRsTab; p enHTabCageGLicRtugKUénRsTab;rg s. krNITIkrNITIkrNITIkrNITI2222ekIteLIg cMeBaHFatukñúgRkum 5A nig6A kñúgxYbdUcKñaEdr. ]TahrN_ rvag N nig O nigrvag P nig S. FatukñúgRkum 5A manTMrg;eGLicRtugRsTab;eRkA ns2np3 tameKalkarN_ Hund Edl 3e- én RsTab; p RtUvsßitenAkñúgGrb‘Ital;dac;BIKña. FatukñúgRkum 6A manr)ayeGLicRtugRsTab;eRkA ns2np4 dUecñH kñúgRsTab; p RtUvmaneGLicRtugKUmYy ehIyedaysarEteGLicRtugKUenHehIy EdlbNþal[mancMraneGLicRtUsþaTicekIneLIg Edlbgá[manlkçN³gayRsYlkñúgkarbegáIt CaGIuy:ugCagFatukñúgRkum 6A eTaHbICabnÞúkéNVy:UvaekIneLIg +1k¾eday. dUecñHfamBlGIy:ug kmµTI1 énFatukñúgRkum 6A TabCagRkum 5A kñúgxYbdUcKña.

]]]]TahrNTahrNTahrNTahrN____4444 (a) etIGatUmNaKYrmanfamBlGIuy:ugkmµTImYytUcCag³ GuksIuEsn b¤s<an;F½r? (b) etIGatUmNaKYrmanfamBlGIuy:ugkmµTIBIrx<s;Cag³ lIcUm b¤ebrIlüÚm? yuT§sa®sþyuT§sa®sþyuT§sa®sþyuT§sa®sþ³ ³ ³ ³ (a) famBlGIuy:ugkmµTImYyfycuHBIelIcuHeRkamenAkñúgRkumCamYyKña BIeRBaH eGLicRtugRsTab;eRkAbg¥s;sßitenAq¶ayBIéNVy:U nigTTYlrgkMlaMgTMnajticCag. (b) karpþac; eGLicRtugRsTab;eRkARtUvkarfamBlticCag RbsinebIvaRtUv)ankarBaredayRsTab;eBj EdlenAxagkñúg. cMelIycMelIycMelIycMelIy³³³³

(a) GuksIuEsnnigs<an;F½rsßitenAkñúgRkum 6A. vamanr)ayeGLicRtugva:Lg;dUcKña (ns2np4)

b:uEnþeGLicRtug3pkñúgs<an;F½rKWenAq¶ayBIéNVy:U nigmanTMnajéNVy:UticCageGLicRtug 2p

CMBYkTI8

8-23

rbs;GuksIuEsn. dUecñH tamc,ab;TUeTA famBlGIuy:ugkmµénFatufycuHBIelIcuHeRkamtam RkumEdleyIgTsSn_Tayfa s<an;F½rmanfamBlGIuy:ugkmµTI1 tUcCagGuksIuEsn.

(b) r)ayeGLicRtugén Li nig Be Kw 1s22s1 nig 1s22s2 tamerog. famBlGIuy:ug kmµTI2

KWCafamBlGb,rmaEdlRtUvkaredIm,Ipþac;eGLicRtugmYyBIGIuy:ugbnÞúkGKiÁsnIviC¢manmYy (+1) enAPaB]sµ½nkñúgPaBRKwHrbs;va. dMeNIrkarGIuy:ugkmµTI2KW³

Li(g) Li+ (g) + e- 1s2 1s1

Be+ (g) Be2+ (g) + e- 1s22s1 1s2

edaysareGLicRtug 1s karBareGLicRtug 2s manRbsiT§PaBCageGLicRtugenARsTab; EtmYykarBarKña eyIgTsSn_TayfavagayRsYledIm,Ipþac;eGLicRtug 2s BI Be+ Cagpþac; eGLicRtug 1s BI Li+. lMhatlMhatlMhatlMhat;;;;GnuvtþGnuvtþGnuvtþGnuvtþnnnn____4444³³³³ (a) etIGatUmNamanfamBlGIuy:ugkmµTI1FMCag³ N b¤ P?

(b) etIGatUmNamanfamBlGIuy:ugkmµTI2tUcCag³ Na b¤ Mg?

5555 cMNUlcMNUlcMNUlcMNUleGLicRtugeGLicRtugeGLicRtugeGLicRtug (electron affinity) manlkçN³mYyeTotEdlman\T§iBlelIlkçN³KImIénGatUmKWlT§PaBrbs;vakñúgkar

TTYlykmYyb¤eRcIneGLicRtug. lkçN³EbbenHehAfa cMNUlcMNUlcMNUlcMNUleGLicRtugeGLicRtugeGLicRtugeGLicRtug EdlCabMErbMrYl famBlEdlekIteLIgenAeBleGLicRtugmYyRtUv)anTTYlykedayGatUmmYyenAPaB]sµ½n edIm,IbegáItGaj:úg ÷

X (g) + 1e- X-(g) ¬beBa©jfamBl¦

sBaØacMNUleGLicRtugpÞúyBIsBaØaEdleyIgeRbIsMrab;famBlGIuy:ugkmµ. famBl GIuy:ugkmµviCömanmann½yfafamBlRtUv)anpþl;edIm,Ipþac;mYyeGLicRtugecjBIGatUm. cMENk cMNUleGLicRtugviCömanmann½yfafamBlRtUvbeBa©jenAeBleGLicRtugmYyRtUv)anbEnßmeTA elIGatUm. edIm,I[kan;Etc,as;eyIgBinitüemIlkñúglMnaMTTYlykeGLicRtugrbs;GatUmPøúyGr÷

F(g) + 1e- F-(g) ∆H = -328 kJ.mol-1


8-24

tMélenHbgðajfaCalMnaMbeBa©jfamBl EtcMNUleGLicRtugénPøúyGrCatMélviC¢man (+328KJ.mol-1). dUecñHeKGackMNt;)anfacMNUleGLicRtugCafamBlRtUvpþl;edIm,Ipþac;mYy eGLicRtugecjBIGuIy:ugGviC¢manenaHvij÷

F-(g) F(g) + 1e- ∆H = +328 kJ.mol-1

dUecñHfamBlcMNUleGLicRtugrbs;PøúyGrKW +328 kJ.mol-1. cMNUleGLicRtugmanlkçNcMNUleGLicRtugmanlkçNcMNUleGLicRtugmanlkçNcMNUleGLicRtugmanlkçN³³³³sMKalsMKalsMKalsMKal;;;;BIrKW BIrKW BIrKW BIrKW ÷

1- cMNUleGLicRtugénFatumYyKWesµInwgbMErbMrYlGg;tal;BIEdlnaMmknUvlMnaMGIuy:ugkmµén Gaj:úgrbs;va.

2- tMélviC¢manéncMNUleGLicRtugFMmann½yfaGIuy:ugGviCömanzitefrxøaMgNas;¬GatUmenaH manTMenarTTYlykeGLicRtugxøaMg¦KWdUcCafamBlGIuy:ugkmµx<s;énGatUmmYymann½yfa GatUmenaHzitefrxøaMgNas;.

cMNaMcMNaMcMNaMcMNaM³ ³ ³ ³ cMNUleGLicRtugviC¢man ebIsinCaRbtikmµbeBa©jkMedA nigGviC¢man ebIsinCaRbtikmµ RsUbkMedA.

tamBiesaFn_ cMNUleGLicRtugRtUv)ankMNt;edaykarpþac;mYyeGLicRtugecjBIGaj:úg mYy. pÞúyBIfamBlGIuy:ugkmµ cMNUleGLicRtugBi)akkñúgkarvas; BIeRBaHGaj:úgénFatuCaeRcIn minzitefr.

ttttaaaaragragragrag4444 cMNUlcMNUlcMNUlcMNUleGLicRtugeGLicRtugeGLicRtugeGLicRtug ( kJ.mol-1 ) énFatutMNagnigénFatutMNagnigénFatutMNagnigénFatutMNagnig]]]]sµ½nkMrsµ½nkMrsµ½nkMrsµ½nkMr*mYycMnYnmYycMnYnmYycMnYnmYycMnYn 1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 8A H 73

He < 0

Li 60

Be ≤ 0

B 27

C 122

N 0

O 141

F 328

Ne < 0

Na 53

Mg ≤ 0

Al 44

Si 134

P 72

S 200

Cl 349

Ar < 0

K 48

Ca 2.4

Ga 29

Ge 118

As 77

Se 195

Br 325

Kr < 0

Bb 47

Sr 4.7

In 29

Sn 121

Sb 101

Te 190

I 295

Xe < 0

Cs 45

Ba 14

Tl 30

Pb 110

Bi 110

Po ?

At ?

Rn < 0

* cMNUleGLicRtugrbs;]sµ½nkMr. Be nigMg minTan;RtUv)ankMNt;tamBiesaFn_eT EteKeCOfavamantMélEk,r sUnü b¤GviC¢man.

CMBYkTI8

8-25

rUbrUbrUbrUb11111111 RkabénRkabénRkabénRkabéncMNUlcMNUlcMNUlcMNUleGLicRtugénFeGLicRtugénFeGLicRtugénFeGLicRtugénFatuatuatuatu20 20 20 20 dMbUgeFobeTAnwgelxGatUmrbsdMbUgeFobeTAnwgelxGatUmrbsdMbUgeFobeTAnwgelxGatUmrbsdMbUgeFobeTAnwgelxGatUmrbs;;;;vavavava

tarag4 bgðajcMNUleGLicRtugénFatutMNagmYycMnYnnig]sµ½nkRm nigrUb10 CaRkab

éncMNUleGLicRtugénFatu20dMbUgeFobnwgelxGatUm. TMenarTTYlykeGLicRtugekIneLIg BIeqVgeTAsþaMkñúgtaragxYb. cMNUleGLicRtugrbs;elah³CaTUeTATabCagGelah³. tMélenH ERbRbYltictYccMeBaHFatukñúgRkumCamYyKña. GaLÚEsn (Rkum7A) manfamBlcMNUleGLicRtug x<s;CageK. dUecñHvamanlkçN³RsUbeGLicRtugk¾xøaMgCageKEdr ehIyGaj:úgEdlTTYl)anman sßirPaB nigmanr)ayeGLicRtugdUc]sµ½nkMr. ]TahrN_ r)ayeGLicRtugénGIuy:ug F-:

1s22s22p6 <=> [Ne] Cl- : [Ne]3s23p6 <=> [Ar] . karKNnabgðajfa]sµ½nkMrTaMgGs;man famBlcMNUleGLicRtugtUcCagsUnü dUecñHGaj:úgrbs;vaminmansßirPaBeT.

famBlcMNUleGLicRtugénGuksIuEsnmantMélviC¢man (141 KJ/mol) Edlmann½yfa vamanTMenarTTYlykeGLicRtug¬beBa©jkMedA¦

O (g) + e- O- (g) ∆H = -141 kJ/mol

cMENkÉcMNUleGLicRtugénGIuy:ug O- KWGviC¢manxøaMgNas; (-780 kJ/mol)

O- (g) + e- O2- (g) ∆H = 780 kJ/mol


8-26

Edlmann½yfaCalMnaMRsUbkMedA eTaHbICa O2- CaGIusUeGLicRtUnicCamYy]sµ½nkMr Ne

k¾eday. lMnaMenHminGMeNayplkñúgpas]sµ½neT edaysarlT§plrbs;vabegáIncMran eGLicRtug-eGLicRtugelIssßirPaBTTYl)anedaykarbegáItr)ayeGLicRtug]sµ½nkMr. b:uEnþcUr kt;sMKal;fa O2- sMbUrenAkñúgsmasFatuGIuy:ug ¬]TahrN_ Li 2O nig MgO¦ nigkñúgGgÁFaturwg GIuy:ug O2- RtUv)aneFVIeGaymansßirPaBedaysarkacugenAEk,rva.

xageRkamenH Ca]TahrN_EdlbgðajBImUlehtu Edlelah³Gal;kalINUETrWumin manTMenarTTYlykeGLicRtug. ]]]]TahrNTahrNTahrNTahrN____5555³³³³ etIehtuGIu)anCacMNUleGLicRtugénelah³Gal;kalINUETriWu Edlbgðajkñúgtarag 3 mantMélGviC¢man b¤viC¢mantUc? yuT§sa®sþyuT§sa®sþyuT§sa®sþyuT§sa®sþ³ ³ ³ ³ etIr)ayeGLicRtugrbs;elah³Gal;kalINUETruWmanlkçN³dUcemþc? etIeGLicRtug EdlbEnßmeTAelIGatUmEbbenaH mansßirPaBxøaMgedaysaréNVy:UEdrb¤eT? cMelIycMelIycMelIycMelIy³³³³

r)ayeGLicRtugénelah³Gal;kalINUETrWuKW ns2 Edl n KWCacMnYnkg;Ticemx<s;bMput. lMnaMbegáItGIuy:ugKW M (g) + e- M- (g) ns2 ns2np1

Edl M tageGayelah³Rkum2A eGLicRtugEdlbEnßmRtUvcUlbMeBjkñúgRsTab;rg np

EdlRtUvkarBarya:gmanRbsiT§PaBedayeGLicRtugBIrenARsTab; ns ¬eGLicRtugenAelIRsTab; rg np enAq¶ayBIéNVy:UCageGLicRtugenAelIRsTab;rg ns¦ nigeGLicRtugRsTab;kñúg. dUecñH elah³Gal;kalINUETruWmanTMenartictYcedIm,ITTYlykeGLicRtugbEnßm. lMhatlMhatlMhatlMhat;;;;GnuvtGnuvtGnuvtGnuvtþþþþnnnn____5555³³³³ etI Ar manTMenarnwgbegáItCaGaj:úg Ar - b¤eT? 6 bMErbMrYllkçN³KImIénFatutMNag

famBlGIuy:ugkmµnigcMNUleGLicRtugCYy[GñkKImIyl;BIRbePTRbtikmµKImI EdlFatu rgGMeBI nigFmµCatismasFatuénFatuTaMgenaH. famBlGIuy:ugkmµbBa¢ak;BITMnajeGLicRtug rbs;vapÞal;énGatUmmYy. cMENkÉcMNUleGLicRtugbBa¢ak;BITMnajeGLicRtugbEnßmBIRbPB déTénGatUmmYy. CamYyKñavaTaMgBIrenHeFIVeGayeyIgdwgBITMnajeGLicRtugTUeTAénGatUm

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8-27

mYy. bBaØtþienHeFVI[eyIgGac):an;sµanlkçN³BIRbtikmµKImIénFatuCaRbB½n§edayykcitþTukdak; eTAelITMnak;TMngrvaglkçN³KImInigr)ayeGLicRtug.

eyIg)andwgfalkçN³elah³énFatufycuHBIeqVgeTAsþaMenAkñúgxYb nigekIneLIgBIelIcuH eRkamenAkñúgRkumCamYyKña. edayEp¥kelImUldæanénTMenarTaMgenHnigcMeNHdwgEdlfaelah³ CaFmµtamanfamBlGIuy:ugkmµTab cMENkÉGelah³FmµtamancMNUleGLicRtugx<s;enaHeyIg GacTsSn_TayplitplénRbtikmµEdlcUlrYmedayFatuTaMgenHxøH.

6>1 TMenarTUeTAénlkçN³KImI eyIg)anniyayfa :FatuEdlsßitkñúgRkumCamYyKñamanlkçN³KImIdUcKña BIeRBaHvaman

r)ayeGLicRtugRsTab;eRkAdUcKña :. BMenalenHCaTUeTARtwmRtUvEtRtUvGnuvtþedayRbugRby½tñ. tamkarsikSarbs;GñkKImIman[dwgfaFatuTI1kñúgRkumnImYy² ¬FatukñúgxYbTI2 rab;BI Li eTA F¦ xusBIIFatuEdlenAsl;kñúgRkumCamYyKñaenaH. ]TahrN_ Li manlkçN³sMKal;Caelah³ Gal;kaLaMgexSay. dUcKñaEdrcMeBaH Be nigFatukñúgRkumepSg²eTot. lkçN³xusKñaenHGac bNþalmkBIFatunImYy²TaMgenaHmanTMhMCaFmµtaénFatuTImYykñúgRkumnImYy² ebIeFobeTAnwg FatuenAsl;kñúgRkumCamYyKña ¬emIlrUb5¦.

TMenarmYyeTotkñúglkçN³KImIénFatutMNagKW TMnakTMnakTMnakTMnak;;;;TMngTMngTMngTMngbnbnbnbnÞatÞatÞatÞat;;;;RTUgRTUgRTUgRTUg (Diagonal

relationships). TMnak;TMngGgát;RTUgKWCalkçN³RsedogKñarvagFatuBIrEdlsßitkñúgRkumnigxYb xusKñakñúgtarabxYb. CaBiess FatubIdMbUgénxYbTI2 (Li, Be, nigB) bgðajlkçN³RsedogKña CaeRcIneTAnwgFatuEdlCaGgát;RTUgenAxageRkamvakñúgtaragxYb¬rUb12¦. )atuPUtenHKWPaBEk,r Kñaéndg;sIuetbnÞúkénkacugrbs;va ¬dg;sIuetbnÞúkKWCabrimaNbnÞúkénGuIy:ugmYyEck[maDrbs; va¦. FatuEdlmandg;sIuetbnÞúkRbhak;RbEhlKñamanRbtikmµRsedogKñaCamYyGaj:úg ehIy begáIt)anCasmasFatuRbePTdUcKña.

rUbrUbrUbrUb11112222 TMnakTMnakTMnakTMnak;;;;TMngTMngTMngTMngbnbnbnbnÞÞÞÞabababab;;;;RTUgénFatuRTUgénFatuRTUgénFatuRTUgénFatukñúgtaragxYbkñúgtaragxYbkñúgtaragxYbkñúgtaragxYb

dUecñH Li manlkçN³KImIxøHRsedogKñanwg Mg

Be manlkçN³KImIxøHRsedogKñanwg Al

Li Be B C

Na Mg Al Si


8-28

B manlkçN³KImIxøHRsedogKñanwg Si

eKfaKUelah³nImYy²manlkçN³RsedogKñatamTMnak;TMngbnÞat;RTUg. cUrcgcaMfakar eRbobeFoblkçN³énFatukñúgRkumCamYyKñamansuBlPaBbMput ebIeyIgdMeNIrkarCamYyFatuén RbePTdUcKñaGMBIlkçN³elah³. eKalkarN_ENnaMenHGnuvtþcMeBaHFatukñúgRkum1A nig2A Edl suT§EtCaelah³nigcMeBaHFatukñúgRkum7Anig8A EdlCaGelah³. kñúgRkum3A eTAdl;Rkum 6A

CaFatuERbRbYlBIGelah³eTAelah³ nigBIGelah³eTAelah³GMpUETvaCalkçN³FmµCatikñúgkar rMBwgTukBIkarERbRbYleRcInCagnUvlkçN³KImI eTaHbICaFatuTaMgkñúgRkumEtmYymanr)ayeGLic- RtugRsTab;eRkAdUcKñak¾eday.

\LÚveyIgnwgsikSa[kan;Etc,as;eTAelIlkçN³KImIénFatutMNagnig]sµ½nkMr. 6>1>1 GuIRdUEsn ( 1s2 )

minmanTItaMgsmRsbTaMgRsugsMrab;GIuRdUEsnkñúgtaragxYbKImIeT. CaTUeTAGuIRdUEsnRtUv )aneKdak;kñúgRkum 1A b:uEnþvaGacCafñak;mYyrbs;va. dUcelah³Gal;kaLaMgEdrRtg;vaman eGLicRtugEtmYyKt;enARsTab; s nigbegáIt)anCaGIuy:ugbnÞúk +1 (H+) kñúgsUluysüúgTwk. müa:geTot GIuRdUEsnk¾begáItGIuy:ugGIuRdYpgEdr(H-)enAkñúgsmasFatuGIuy:ug dUcCaNaH nig

CaH2. kñúglkçN³enH GIuRdUEsndUcKñaeTAnwgGaLÚEsn EdlTaMgGs;GacbegáItGIuy:ugbnÞúk GviC¢man –1 kñúgsmasFatuGuIy:ug(F-, Cl-, Br- nig I-). GIuy:ugGIuRdYmanRbtikmµCamYyTwkbegáIt )anCa]sµ½nGIuRdUEsn nigGIuRduksuItelah³÷

2NaH(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) CaH2(s) + 2H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(s) + 2H2(g)

smasFatusMxan;énGuIRdUEsnKWTwk(H2O) EdlkekIteLIgenAeBlGIuRdUEsneqHkñúgxül;³ 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)

6>1>2 FatukñúgRkum 1A ( ns1. n ≥≥≥≥ 2)

FatuTaMgenHmanfamBlGIuy:ugkmµTab CaehtunaM[vamanTMenare)aHbg;eGLicRtug RsTab;eRkArbs;vamYyecjedIm,I)anCaGuIy:ugbnÞúk+1. elah³TaMgenHmanRbtikmµKImINas; EdlminEdlRbTHeXIjCaPaBsuT§kñúgFmµCatieT. elah³TaMgenHmanRbtikmµCamYyTwkbegáIt )anCa]sµ½nGuIRdUEsn nigGIuRduksIutelah³EdlRtUvnwgva÷

2M(s) + 2H2O(l) 2MOH(aq) + H2(g)

( M tag[elah³Gal;kaLaMg )

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8-29

- eBlelah³Gal;kaLaMgb:Hxül; vargRbtikmµGuksIutkmµCamYyGuksIuEsn (O2) kñúg xül;PøamedaybegáIt)anCaGuksIut. lIcUm (Li) begáIt)anCa Li 2O tamsmIkar÷

4Li(s) + O2(g) 2Li2O(s) <=> ( 2Li+ + O2- )

- elah³Gal;kaLaMgepSgeTotTaMgGs;begáItGuksIutpgnigEBGuksIut¬manGIuy:ugO22-¦.

]TahrN_ dUcCa Na tamsmIkar÷ 4Na(s) + O2(g) 2Na2O(s) <=> ( 2Na+ + O2- ) 2Na(s) + O2(g) Na2O2(s) <=> ( 2Na+ + O2

2- )

- K. Rb nigCs k¾GacbegáIts‘ubEBGuksIut (manGIuy:ug O-2) pgEdrtamsmIkar÷

K(s) + O2(g) KO2(s) <=> ( K+ + O2- )

ehtuplEdlGuksIutRbePTepSg²KñaRtUv)anbegáIteLIgedayelah³Gal;kaLaMgeFVI RbtikmµCamYyGuksIuEsnKWGaRs½y elIsßirPaBrbs;GuksIutTaMgkñúgPaBCaGgÁFaturwg. edaysar GuksIutTaMgenaHCasmasFatuGIuy:ugsßirPaBrbs;vaGaRs½yeTAelITMnajxøaMgy:agdUcemþcrvag kacugnigGaj:úg. Li manTMenarbegáItlIcUmGuksIut (Li 2O) CasMxan; BIeRBaHsmasFatuenHman sßirPaBCaglIcUmEBGuksIut (Li 2O2). kMNGuksIutelah³Gal;kaLaMgepSgeTotGacRtUv)an Bnül;tamrebobdUcKñaenHEdr. 6>1>3 FatukñúgRkum 2A ( ns2. n ≥≥≥≥ 2)

FatukñúgRkum 2A Caelah³Gal;kalINUETruW EdlmanRbtikmµKImIexSayCagelah³ Gal;kaLaMg ¬1A¦. famBlGIuy:ugkmµTI1 nigTI2 fycuHBI Be eTA Ba. dUecñHTMenarKWbegáIt GIuy:ug M2+ ¬Edl M tageGayGatUmelah³Gal;kalINUETrWu¦ niglkçN³elah³ekIneLIgBI elIcuHeRkam. smasFatuebrIlüÚmPaKeRcIn (BeH2. BeCl2...) nigsmasFatum:aejsüÚmxøH ]TahrN_ MgH2 CasmasFatum:UelKulCaCagsmasFatuGIuy:ugkñúgFmµCati.

lkçN³Rbtikmµénelah³Gal;kalINUETruWCamYyTwkmankarERbRbYlKYr[kt;sMKal;. Be KµanRbtikmµCamYyTwkeT Mg manRbtikmµyWtCamYyTwkekþA ehIy Ca, Sr nig Ba man RbtikmµRKb;RKan;CamYyTwkRtCak;³

Ba(s) + 2H2O(l) Ba(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

PaBRbtikmµénelah³Gal;kalINUETrWuTaMgenHCamYy O2 ekIneLIgBI Be eTA Ba. Be nig Mg

begáIt)anCaGuksIut (BeO nigMgO) EtenAsItuNðPaBx<s;. edayELk CaO, SrO nig BaO

RtUv)anbegáIteLIgenAsItuNðPaBbnÞb;.


8-30

Mg eFVIRbtikmµCamYyGasIutkñúgsUluysüúgTwk edaybeBa©j]sµ½n H2÷

Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)

Ca, Sr nigBa k¾manRbtikmµCamYysUlusüúgGasIut[Ca]sµ½n H2 Edr. b:uEnþeday elah³TaMgenHmanRbtikmµCamYyTwkEdr dUecñHFatuRbtikmµxusKñaBIrnwgekIteLIgkñúgeBlCamYy Kña ÷

Ca(s) + 2H+(aq) Ca2+(aq) + H2(g) Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

lkçN³KImIénkal;süÚmnigRsþúgcUmpþl;]TahrN_mYyKYrcab;GarmµN_PaBRsedogKñakñúgRkuméntaragxYb. GIusUtUbviTüúskmµRsþúgcUm-90CaplitplsMxan;énkarpÞúHRKab;EbkGatUmic. ebIsinCaRKab;EbkRtUv)anpÞúHkñúgbriyakas RsþúgcUm-90nwgekItmankñúgTwknigelIkdIEdlnwgcUl eTAdl;sarBagÁkayrbs;eyIgtamry³RcvakcMNIGaharxøIKYrsm.

]TahrN_³ ebIsineKasIuesµAnigpwkTwkEdlmanpÞúknUvRsþúgcUm-90 vanwgqøgcUl eTAkñúgTwkedaHrbs;eKa. BIeRBaHkal;süÚmnigRsþúgcUmmanlkçN³KImIRsedogKñaGIuy:ug Sr2+Gac CMnYs Ca2+ )anenAkñúgqw¥grbs;eyIg. kaMrsµIfamBlxøaMgpSBVpSayedayGIusUtUmRsþg-90 enAkñúg sarBagÁkayeyIgnwgnaMeGaymanCMgWxVHQamxVHeKalikasnigCMgWrauMér:epSgeTot. 6>1>4 FatukñúgRkum 3A ( ns2np1. n ≥≥≥≥ 2)

FatuTImYyénRkum 3A KWbCaelah³GMpUET (Metalloid) nigFatuEdlenAsl;Caelah³. minbegáItCasmasFatuGIuy:ugeTVtaeT nigKµanRbtikmµelI]sµ½n O2 nigTwkEdr. FatubnÞab;eTot KW Al EdlbegáIt)anCaGaluymIn ( Al2O3 ) y:aggayeBlb:HCamYyxül;tamsmIkar ÷

4Al(s) + 3O2(g) 2Al2O3(s)

RsTab; Al 2O3 EdlekIteLIg)ankarBar Al eFVI[vargGuksIutkmµticCagGaluymIj:Úm CaFatuFmµta. Al begáIt)anEtGIuy:ug Al 3+. vamanRbtikmµCamYyGasIutkørIRDictamsmIkar ÷

2Al(s) + 6H+(aq) 2Al3+(aq) + 3H2(g)

elah³Rkum 3A epSgeTotbegáItGuIy:ug M+ nigM3+ ehIyBIelIcuHeRkamGuIy:ug M+ man esßrPaBCagGIuy:ug M3+.

Fatuelah³kñúgRkum3A k¾begáItsmasFatum:UelKulCaRcInpgEdr. ]TahrN_ Al man RbtikmµCamYy]sµ½n H2 [Ca AlH3 EdldUcKñanwg BeH2 énlkçN³rbs;va ¬Ca]TahrN_én

CMBYkTI8

8-31

TMnak;TMngGgát;RTUg¦. dUecñHBIeqVgeTAsþaMtamxYbéntaragxYb eyIgeXIjfalkçN³Fatupøas;bþÚr bnþicmþg²BIelah³eTAGelah³kñúgFatutMNag. 6>1>5 FatukúñgRkum 4A ( ns2n p2. n ≥≥≥≥ 2)

FatuTImYyénRkum 4A KWkabUn ¬C¦CaGelah³ nigFatuBIrbnÞab;eTotKW Si nig Ge Ca elah³GMpUET. FatuTaMgenHminbegáItsmasFatuGIuy:ugneT. FatucugeRkayénRkumenHKW Sn nig PbCaelah³EdlKµanRbtikmµCamYyTwkeT EtmanRbtikmµCamYyGasIut[Ca]sµ½n H2 tam smIkar÷

Sn(s) + 2H+(aq) Sn2+(aq) + H2(g) Pb(s) + 2H+(aq) Pb2+(aq) + H2(g)

FatukñúgRkumenHbegáItsmasFatukñúgPaBGuksIutkmµ +II nig+IV. cMeBaHkabUn (C) nig sIulIsüÚm (Si) PaBGuksIutkmµEdlmansßirPaBKW +IV. ]TahrN_ CO2 mansßirPaBCag CO

SiO2 mansßirPaBCag SiO b:uEnþ SiO minmaneTkñúglkçxNÐFmµta. b:uEnþ kalNaeyIgrMkilcuHRkumenaH TMenarsßirPaBKWpÞúyeTAvij. kñúgsmasFatu Sn PaBGuksIutkmµ +4 zitefrCagPaBGuksIutkmµ +2 EtbnþicbnþÜcb:ueNÑaH.

kñúgsmasFatu Pb PaBGuksIutkmµ +II mansßirPaB. r)ayeGLicRtugrbs;vaenARsTab; eRkA 6s26p2 ehIy Pb manTMenare)aHbg; 2e- ecjBIGrb‘Ítal; 6p ¬edIm,I)an Pb2+¦CaCag e)aHbg; 4e- ecjBIGrb‘Ítal; 6s nig6p TaMgBIr ¬edIm,I)an Pb4+¦. 6>1>6 FatukñúgRkum 5A ( ns2np3. n ≥≥≥≥ 2)

FatukñúgRkum 5A enHman N, P, As, Sb nigBi EdlkñúgenaH N nigP CaGelah³ ehIy As nigSb Caelah³GMpUET nigBi Caelah³. dUecñHeyIgrMBwgfamanlkçN³xusKñaxøaMgenAkñúg RkumenH.

GasUtCa]sµ½nDIGatUm (N2). vabegáIt)anCaGuksIutmYycMnYn dUcCa NO, N2O, NO2,

N2O4 nigN2O5 EdlkñúgenaHmanEt N2O5 eTCaGgÁFaturwg eRkABIenaHCa]sµ½nTaMgGs;. GasUt manTMenarcab;yk3e- edIm,I)anCa N3-(N3- GIusUeGLicRtUnicCamYy Ne nigmanr)ayeGLicRtug 2s22p6). elah³nIRdY(metallic nitrides) PaKeRcInCasmasFatuGIuy:ug ¬]TahrN_ Li 3Nnig

Mg3N2¦.


8-32

pUsVrmanGtßiPaBCam:UelKul P4 nigbegáIt)anCaGuksIutrwgBIrKW P4O6 nigP4O10 (cMnYn GuksIutkmµ +III nig+V).

GuksIutGasIutsMxan;BIrKW HNO3nigH3PO4 kekIteLIgenAeBlGuksIutteTAenHeFVI RbtikmµCamYyTwk÷

N2O5(s) + H2O(l) 2HNO3(aq) P4O10(s) + 6H2O(l) 4H3PO4(aq)

As, Sb nigBi suT§EtCaFatumanTMrg;vimaRtbITUlMTUlay. Bi Caelah³manRbtikmµKImI exSayCagelah³EdlenAkñúgRkummun²xøaMg. 6>1>7 FatukúñgRkum 6A ( ns2np4. n ≥≥≥≥ 2)

FatubIdMbUgkñúgRkumenHman O, S nig Se CaGelah³nigFatuBIreRkayeK Te nig Po Caelah³GMpUET. GuksIuEsnCa]sµ½nDIGatUm (O2). S nigSe manrUbmnþm:UelKul S8 nigSe8

cMENkÉ Te nigPo CaFatumanTMrg;vimaRtbITUlMTUlayCag. Po CaFatuviTüúskmµEdlBi)aksikSakñúgTIBiesaF. GuksIuEsnmanTMenarTTYlyk 2e-

edIm,IbegáItGIuy:ugGuksIut (O2-) kñúgsmasFatuGIuy:ugCaeRcIn. rIÉ S, Se nigTek¾begáItGaj:úg bnÞúk –2 pgEdrKW S2-, Se2- nigTe2-.

FatukñúgRkumenH CaBiessGuksIuEsnbegáItsmasFatum:UelKulCaRcInCamYyGelah³. smasFatusMxan;rbs;s<an;F½rKW SO2, SO3 nig H2S.

H2SO4 RtUv)anbegáIteLIgenAeBls<an;F½rRTIGuksIut (SO3) RbtikmµCamYyTwktam smIkar÷

SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq)

6>1>8 FatukñúgRkum 7A ( ns2np5. n ≥≥≥≥ 2)

FatukñúgRkum 7A ¬b¤ehAmü:ageTotfa RkumGaLÚEsn¦ TaMgGs;CaGelah³ nigman rUbmnþm:UelKulTUeTAtagedayX2¬EdlXtageGayFatuGaLÚEsn¦. edaysarvamanRbtikmµ KImIxøaMg GaLÚEsnminEdlRtUv)anRbTHeXIj kñúgTMrg;CaFatuenAkñúgFmµCati.

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8-33

FatucugeRkayeKkñúgRkumenHKWGasþaTIn (At) CaFatuviTüúskmµEdleKsÁal;lkçN³rbs; vatictYcNas;. PøúyGr (F) k¾manlkçN³KImIskmµEdr vamanRbtikmµCamYyTwk[Ca]sµ½n GuksuIEsn (O2) :

2 F2(g) + 2 H2O(l) 4 HF(aq) + O2(g)

tamBitRbtikmµrvag F2 CamYyTwkCaRbtikmµmYysaMjúaM nigplitplEdlTTYl)anKW GaRs½yeTAelIlkçxNÐénRbtikmµ. RbtikmµxagelICabMErbMrYlmYykñúgcMeNambMErbMrYlCaeRcIn EdlGacekItman.

GaLÚEsnmanfamBlGuIy:ugkmµnigcMNUleGLicRtugx<s;. Gaj:úg)anBIGaLÚEsn (F-

,Cl-, Br-, I-)maneQµaHfaGaLÚEsnY (halides) EdlGIusUeGLicRtUnicCamYy]sµ½nkMr EdlsißtenA xagsþaMbnÞab;vakñúgtaragxYb. ]TahrN_ F- GIusUeGLicRtUnicCamYy Ne, Cl

- GIusUeGLicRtUnic CamYy Ar.l.

GMbilGaLÚEsnYPaKeRcInCasmasFatuGuIy:ug. GaLÚEsnk¾begáItsmasFatuCaeRcInkñúg cMeNamKñava ¬dUcCa ICl nig BrF3¦ nigCamYyFatuGelah³kñúgRkumepSg ¬dUcCa NF3, PCl5 nig

SF6¦. GaLÚEsnRbtikmµCamYy]sµ½nGuIRdUEsn[CaGuIRdUEsnGaLÚEsnY³ H2 (g) + X2 (g) 2HX (g)

CaRbtikmµpÞúHenAeBleFVICamYy F2 nigkan;EtexSayeTACamYy Cl2, Br2 nigI2. GuIRdUEsn GaLÚEsnYrlay kñúgTwkbegáIt)anCaGasuItGIRdUGalic (Hydrohalic Acid). GasuItGIuRdUPøúy Gric (HF) CaGasuItexSay¬CaeGLicRtUlItexSay¦ EtGasuItGaLÚEsnicepSgeTotCaGasuIt xøaMg ¬eGLicRtUlItxøaMg¦. 6>1>9 FatukñúgRkum 8A ( ns2np6. n ≥≥≥≥ 2)

FatukñúgRkum 8A enHCa]sµ½nkMrTaMgGs; EdlmanGtßiPaBCaRbePTm:UNUGatUm. GatUm rbs;vaRtUv)anbMeBjeGLicRtugEq¥tenARsTab;eRkA ns nigRsTab;rg np EdleFVI[vaman sßirPaBbMput. famBlGuIy:ugkmµrbs;FatukñúgRkumenHmankMritx<s;bMputebIeFobnwgRkumepSg eTot ehIy]sµ½nTaMgenHBuMmanTMenarTTYlykeGLicRtugbEnßmeToteT. Gs;ry³eBleRcInqñaM eK)an[eQµaH]sµ½nTaMgenHfaCa :]sµ½nnicl : eRBaHKµanGñkKImINamñak;GacerobcMbegáItsmas FatuCamYy]sµ½nkMr)aneT.


8-34

rhUtdl;qñaM1963 KImIviTUeQµaH Neil Barlett CnCatiGg;eKøs)anBüayambegáIt smasFatu]sµ½nkMr)ansMerceday[ Xe manRbtikmµCamYy)øaTInGuicsaPøúyGrY (PtF6) EdlCa Pñak;garGuksuItkmµxøaMgtamsmIkar÷

Xe (g) + PtF6 (g) XePtF6 (S)

cab;taMgBIeBlenaHmk smasFatu Xe mYycMnYnRtUv)aneKbegáIteLIg dUcCa XeF4,

XeO3 , XeO4 , XeOF4 nigsmasFatu Kr mYycMnYntUceTot dUcCa KrF2 CaedIm. b:uEnþeTaHbICa cMNab;GarmµN_xøaMgkñúgKImIcMeBaH]sµ½nkRmk¾eday k¾smasFatu]sµ½nkMrminRtUv)anykmkeRbI R)as;kñúgBaNiCökmµeLIg ehIyvak¾min)ancUlrYmkñúglMnaMCIvsaRsþFmµCatiEdr. eKmin)ansÁal; smasFatuén He, Ne nigAr eT. 6>2 kareRbobeFobFatuKImIénRkum1A nig1B

Rkum 1A manFatu Li . Na . K . Rb . Cs nigFr nigRkum 1B manFatu Cu . Ag nigAu eTaHbICaelah³kñúgRkumTaMgBIrenHmanr)ayeGLicRtugRsTab;eRkAdUcKña (ns1) k¾eday Et lkçN³KImIrbs;vamindUcKñaeT.

famBlGuIy:ugkmµTImYyén Cu, Ag nigAu KW 745 KJ/mol-1, 731 KJ/mol-1 nig 890

KJ/mol-1erogKña. edaysartMélenHFMCagtMélfamBlGuIy:ugkmµrbs;Rkumelah³Gal;kaLaMg eTIbFatukñúgRkum 1B manRbtikmµKImIexSayCageRcIn.

famBlGuIy:ugkmµx<s;Cagrbs;FatukñúgRkum1BbNþalmkBIkarkarkarBarmineBjelj énéNVy:UedayeGLicRtug d RsTab;xagkñúgEdlxusBIFatuRkum 1A EdleGLicRtugRsTab;eRkA mankarkarBarmanRbsiT§PaBCagéNVy:UedayeGLicRtugRsTab;xagkñúg. dUecñH eGLicRtug RsTab;eRkAénFatuRkum1BRtUv)anTak;TajxøaMgCagedayéNVy:U. tamBit Tg;Edg R)ak; nigmas KµanRbtikmµKImIdUcEdlvaRtUv)anRbTHeXIjCaFmµtaCaPaBsuT§kñúgFmµCati. niclPaBnigPaBkMr énelah³TaMgenH eFVI[vamantMélkñúgkarplitkak; (Coins) nigeRKOgGlgáar. sMrab;ehtupl enH elah³TaMgenHk¾RtUv)aneKehAfa elah³eFVIkak; (Coinage metale) .

PaBxusKñarvagFatukñúgRkum 2A elah³GakalINUr:u nigelah³Rkum 2B GacBnül;)an tamrebobdUcKñaenHEdr.

CMBYkTI8

8-35

6>3 lkçN³GuksuIttamxYb viFImYykñúgkareRbobeFoblkçN³énFatutMNagtamtaragxYbKWBinitülkçN³énes‘rIsma

sFatudUcKña. edaysarGuksIuEsnpSMCamYyFatuesÞIrTaMggs; eyIgnwgeFVIkareRbobeFoblkçN³ GuksuIténFatukñúgxYbTI3 edIm,I[eXIjfalkçN³elah³xusBIelah³GMpUET nigGelah³y:ag dUcemþc.

FatuxøHkñúgxYbTI3 (P. S nig Cl) GacbegáIt)anCaGuksIuteRcInRbePTEtsMrab;PaBgay RsYleyIgBinitüEtGuksIutEdlFatumancMnYnGuksIutkmµx<s;bMputb:ueNÑaH. tamtarag5 bgðaj lkçN³TUeTAmYycMnYnénGuksIutTaMgenH. eyIgeXIjmunenHfa GuksIuEsnmanTMenarbegáItGIuy:ug GuksIut(O2-). TMenarenHekIneLIgenAeBlGuksIuEsnpSMCamYyelah³EdlmanfamBlGIuy:ug kmµTabdUcCaRkum 1A. 2ArYmTaMg Al eTot. dUecñH Na2O, MgO nigAl 2O3 CasmasFatuGIuy:ug EdlRtUv)ansMKal;edaycMnucrlay nigcMnucrMBuHx<s;rbs;va. vamanTMrg;vimaRtbITUlMTUlayEdl kacugnImYy²RtUv)anrMuB½T§edayGaj:úgcMnYnCak;lak;nigpÞúymkvij. edaysarfamBlGIuy:ugkmµ énFatuekIneLIgBIeqVgeTAsþaM dUecñHFmµCatim:UelKulGuksIutkekIteLIgk¾RtUvekIneLIgtamenaH Edr.

ttttaragaragaragarag5 5 5 5 lkçNlkçNlkçNlkçN³³³³GuksIutmYycMnYnénFatukñúgxYbTI GuksIutmYycMnYnénFatukñúgxYbTI GuksIutmYycMnYnénFatukñúgxYbTI GuksIutmYycMnYnénFatukñúgxYbTI 3333 Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P4O10 SO3 Cl2O7

smasFatu GIuy:ug m:UelKul

TMrg; vimaRtbI dac;²BIKña cMNucrlay (oC) 1275 2800 2045 1610 580 16.8 -91.5

cMNucrMBuH (oC) ? 3600 2980 2230 ? 44.8 82

lkçN³GasIut)as )as )as GMpUET GasIut Si Caelah³GMpUET GuksIutrbs;va (SiO2) k¾manbNþajvimaRtbIpgEdr eTaHbIKµan

GIuy:ugk¾eday. GuksIuténpUsVr (P) s<an;F½r (S) nigkør (Cl)CasmasFatu m:UelKulEdlpSMeLIg edayÉktadac;²BIKña. edaysarm:UelKulTaMgenHmanTMnajexSayeFVI[vamancMnucrlay nig cMnucrMBuHTab.

GuksIutPaKeRcInRtUv)ancat;fñak;CaGuksIutGasIut GuksIut)as nigGuksIutGMpUET ÷


8-36

GuksIutGasIut GuksIutGasIut GuksIutGasIut GuksIutGasIut CaGuksIutTaMgLayNaEdl[CasUluysüúgGasIuteBlvamanRbtikmµ CamYyTwk b¤CaGuksIutTaMgLayNaEdlmanRbtikmµCamYysUluysüúg)as.

GuksIutGuksIutGuksIutGuksIut))))asasasas CaGuksIutTaMgLayNaEdl[CasUluysüúg)aseBlvamanRbtikmµCamYy Twk b¤CaGuksIutTaMgLayNaEdlmanRbtikmµCamYysUluysüúgGasIut.

GuksIutGMpUET GuksIutGMpUET GuksIutGMpUET GuksIutGMpUET CaGuksIutTaMgLayNaEdledIrtYCaGasIutpg nigCa)aspg. Na2O RbtikmµCamYyTwk[CasUdüÚmGIuRduksIut ( NaOH ) EdlmanlkçN³Ca)as ÷

Na2O(s) + H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq)

MgO rlayticbMputkñúgTwk. vaKµanRbtikmµCamYyTwkTaMgRsugenaHeT EtvamanRbtikmµ CamYyGasIutdUcRbtikmµGasIut-)asEdr ÷

MgO(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l)

plitplénRbtikmµenHKW GMbil MgCl2 nigH2O EdlCaplitplRbtikmµbnSabGasIut-)as. Al 2O3 rlaykñúgTwkticCag MgO eTAeTot. vaKµanRbtikmµCamYyTwkeT Etvabgðaj

lkçN³Ca)asedayeFVIRbtikmµCamYyGasIut ÷

Al 2O3(s) + 6HCl(aq) 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2O(l)

Al 2O3 k¾bgðajlkçN³CaGasIutpgEdr edayRbtikmµCamYy)astamsmIkar ÷

Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 3H2O(l) 2NaAl (OH)4(aq)

b¤ Al 2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq) 2NaAlO2(aq) + H2O(l)

dUecñH Al 2O3 RtUv)ancat;CaGasIutGMpUET eRBaHvamanlkçN³CaGasIutpg nigCa)as pg. GuksIutGMpUETepSgeTotmandUcCa ZnO, BeO nigBi2O3.

SiO2 minrlaykñúgTwknigKµanRbtikmµCamYyTwkeLIy. vamanlkçN³CaGasIut eRBaHva manRbtikmµCamYy)asxøaMg ÷

SiO2(s) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SiO3(aq) + H2O(l)

dUecñHsUlusüúg)asxøaMgdUcCaNaOHminGacrkSaTukkñúgEkvBIruic ( Pyrex glass ) EdleFVI BI SiO2 )aneT.

GuksIutEdlenAsl;kñúgxYbTI3 enHsuT§EtCaGuksIutGasIut eRBaHvamanRbtikmµCamYyTwk [CaGasIut ÷

P4O10(s) + 6H2O(l) 4H3PO4(aq) SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq) Cl2O7(l) + H2O(l) 2HClO4(aq)

CMBYkTI8

8-37

GuksIutmYycMnYndUcCa CO nig NO manlkçN³NWt. mann½yfa BYkvaminmanRbtikmµ CamYyTwkedIm,IbegáItCasUluysüúgGasIutnig)aseT. CaTUeTAGuksIuténFatuGelah³KWKµan lkçN³)aseT.

lkçN³GuksIutkñúgxYbTI3enHbgðaj[eXIjfalkçN³elah³énFatufycuHBIeqVgeTAsþaMkñúgtaragxYb ehIyGuksIutrbs;vaERbRbYlBI)aseTAGMpUET nigBIGMpUETeTAGasIut.

GuksIutelah³CaFmµtaCaGuksIut)as ehIyGuksIutGelah³PaKeRcInCaGuksIut GasIut. GuksIutGMpUETKWCaGuksIuténFatuEdlmanTItaMgenAkNþalxYb. cMNaMcMNaMcMNaMcMNaMfafafafa edaylkçN³elah³énFatuekIneLIgBIelIcuHeRkamkñúgRkuménFatutMNag dUecñHGuksIut elah³EdlmanelxGatUmFMCag manlkçN³)asxøaMgCagFatuEdlmanelxGatUmtUcCag. ]]]]TahrNTahrNTahrNTahrN____6666³³³³ cUreFIVcMNat;fñak;GuksIutteTAenH CaGuksIutGasIut GuksIut)as b¤GuksIutGMpUET³ (a) Rb2O. (b) BeO. (c) As2O5. yuT§sa®sþyuT§sa®sþyuT§sa®sþyuT§sa®sþ³ ³ ³ ³ etIRbePTFatuGIVEdlbegáItCaGuksIutGasIut? GuksIut)as? GuksIutGMpUET? cMelIycMelIycMelIycMelIy³³³³

(a) edaysarruyb‘ÍdüÚmCaelah³Gal;kaLaMg dUecñH Rb2O CaGuksIut)as. Rbtikmµruyb‘ÍdüÚmGuksIutCamYyTwkbegIát)anCaruyb‘ÍdüÚmGIuRduksIut³ Rb2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2RbOH(aq)

(b) ebrIlüÚmCaelah³Gal;kalINUETrWu. b:uEnþedaysarvaCaFatuTI1kñúgRkum 2A dUecñH vaxusBIFatudéTeTotenAkñúgRkumCamYyKña. eyIg)andwgehIyfa Al 2O3 manlkçN³GMpUET dUecñH ebrIlüÚmGacmanlkçN³dUcKñaeTAnwgGaluymIj:ÚmEdr BIeRBaHebrIlüÚmnigGaluymIj:ÚmCaFatu sßitenACaTMnak;TMngbnÞat;RTUg. dUecñH BeO k¾CaGuksIutGMpUETpgEdr. RbtikmµebrIlüÚmGuksIutCamYyGasIutnig)as³ BeO(s) + 2H+ (aq) + 3 H2O(l) → Be(H2O)2+

4 (aq) BeO(s) + 2OH- (aq) + H2O(l) → Be(OH)2-

4 (aq) (c)edaysarGasenic (As) CaGelah³ dUecñH As2O5 CaGuksIutGasIut.

RbtikmµGaesnicGuksIutCamYyTwk³ As2O5(s) + 3H2O(l) → 2H3AsO4(aq)

lMhatlMhatlMhatlMhat;;;;GnuvtþGnuvtþGnuvtþGnuvtþnnnn____6666³ ³ ³ ³ cUreFIVcMNat;fñak;GuksIutteTAenHCaGuksIutGasIut GuksIut)as b¤GuksIut GMpUET³ (a) ZnO. (b) P4O10. (c) CaO.


8-38

KImIGnuvtþn¾KImIGnuvtþn¾KImIGnuvtþn¾KImIGnuvtþn¾³³³³ rbkKMehIjrbkKMehIjrbkKMehIjrbkKMehIj]]]]sµ½nkMrsµ½nkMrsµ½nkMrsµ½nkMr

enAcugstvtSqñaM 1800 John William Strutt EdlCasaRsþacarürUbviTüaenAmnIÞr BiesaF Cavendish RbeTsGg;eKøs)ankMnt;y:agRtwmRtUvma:sGatUménFatumYycMnYnEtKat;)an TTYllTæplminc,as;las;cMeBaHGasUt. viFImYykñúgcMenamviFIsaRsþrbs;Kat;énkarerobcM GasUtKWkarbMEbkedaykMedAénGamUjak;³

2NH3(g) → N2(g) + 3H2(g)

viFIsaRsþmYyeTotKWcab;epIþmCamYyxül; KWykecjvaBIxül;nUvO2, CO2 nigcMhayTwk. GasUt )anBIxül;F¶n;CagGasUt)anBIGam:Uj:ak;bnþic¬RbEhl 0.5%¦.

kargarrbs; Lord Rayleigh )anRtUvcab;GarmµN_edayelak William Ramsay EdlCa saRsþacarüKImIenAÉ University College TIRkugLúg. enAqñaM 1898 Ramsay )anykGasUt EdlTTYl)anBIxül;tamviFIrbs; Rayleigh eTAdutelIma:ejsüÚm edIm,IbMEbøgeTACama:ejsüÚm nIRtY³

3Mg(s) + N2(g) → Mg3N2(s)

bnÞab;BIGasUtTaMgGs;eFVIRbtikmµCamYyma:ejsüÚm Ramsay )aneXIj]sµ½nsl;minsÁal;Edl minGacpSMCamYyGVI)aneLIy.

CamYykarCYyBIelak William Crookes EdlCaGñkbegIátbMBg;beBa©jBnøW (discharge

tube) Ramsay nig Lord Rayleigh )anrkeXIjbnSays,iúcén]sµ½n EdlminRtUvKñaCamYyFatu sÁal;NamYy. ]sµ½nenaHCaFatu fIµmYyEdl RtUv)ankMNt;ma:sGatUm 39.95 am RtUv)an eKehAfa Gakug. Baküfa GakugGakugGakugGakug mann½yfa xöixöixöixöil l l l kñúgPasaRkic.

eBlEdlGakug)anRtUvrkeXIj]sµ½nkMr epSg²eTotRtUv)ankMNt;GtþsBØaaNy:agrh½s.

enAqñaM1898enHEdr elak Ramsay )an bMEbkeGlüÚm (He) ecjBIEr:Gu‘yra:j:Úm (U). BIma:sGatUméneGlüÚmnigGakug kgVHPaB RbtikmµKImIrbs;BYkva nigGIVEdlKat;dwg

CMBYkTI8

8-39

bnÞab;eTotBI taragxYbelak Ramsay )aneFIVeGayeKeCOfa man]sµ½nminRbtikmµepSgeTot ehIyvasißtkñúgRkumCamYyKñakñúgtaragxYb. Kat;nigsisSrbs;Kat; Morris Travers )ancab;epIþm eFIVBiesaFn_ edIm,IEsVgrk]sµ½nminsÁal;enaH. CadMbUgBYkeK)aneRbIma:sIunRtCak;edIm,Iplit xül;rav. edayGnuvtþbec©keTsehAfa bMNitRbPaKBYkKat;)anykxül;raveTAdutkMedAbnþic mþg² nig)anRbmUlsmasPaKPayecjBIkardutkMedAénsItuNðPaBxus²Kña. tamrebobenH BYkKat;)anviPaKnig kMNt;GtþsBØaaNbIFatufIµ EdlrYmmaneNGug (Ne) RKIbtug (Kr) esNug (Xe) kñúgry³eBlEt 3 ExKt;. rkeXjFatufIµTaMgbIkñúgryHeBl3ExenH CaÉkTKÁkmµmYyEdl minGacRtUv)anbMEbk)an .

rbkKMehIj]sµ½nkMr)anCYybMeBjkñúgtaragxYb. ma:sGatUmrbs;vanaMeGayeKdak;Fatu ]sµ½nkMrTaMgGs;;enAxagsþaMGaLÚEsn. PaBedayELkc,as;GMBITItaMgrbs;GakugRtUv)anedaH RsayeLIgvijedayelak Moseley.

enATIbB©ab; FatucugeRkayén]sµ½nkMr KWra:dug (Rn) )anRtUvrkeXIjedayGñkKImICnCati GaLWm:g; Frederick Dorn kñúgqñaM1900. rbkKMehIjra:dug (Rn) EdlCaFatuviTüúskmµ]sµ½nF¶n; CageK)anbMeBjukñúgRkum 8A nigmansar³RbeyaCn_kñúgkaryl;rbs;eyIg GMBIkarbMEbkFatuviTüú skmµnigkarpøas;bþÚrénFatu.

Lord RayleighnigRamsay)anTTYlrgVan;NUEbl (Nobel Prize) kµñúgqñaM1904sMrab; rbkKMehIjénGakug. Lord Rayleigh)anTTYlrgVan;EpñkrUbviTüanig Ramsay )anTTYlrgVan; EpñkKImIviTüa.

segçbehtukarN_nigbBaØtþi 1. KImIviTUenAstvtSTI19)anbegáIttaragxYbedaykarerobcMFatutamlMdab;kMeNInma:sGatUm.

PaBmincuHsRmugKña enAkñúgkarbegáIttaragxYbepSg²KñakñúgRKamun²RtUv)anedaHRsayeday kartMerobFatutamlMdab;kMeNInelxGatUmrbs;va.

2. r)ayeGLicRtugkMNt;lkçN³rbs;FatumYy. taragxYbfµI¬TMenIb¦eFIVcMENkfñak;FatuGaRs½y eTAtamelxGatUmrbs;va nigeTAtamr)ayeGLicRtugrbs;vapgEdr. r)ayeGLicRtugén eGLicRtugv:aLg; man\T§iBledaypÞal;elIlkçN³rbs;GatUménFatutMNag.


8-40

3. bERmbRmYllkçN³rUbénFatukñúgxYbqøúHbBa©aMgBIPaBxusKñakñúgTMrg;GatUm. lkçN³elah³ rbs;FatufycuHtamxYbBIelah³eTAelah³GMpUET eTAGelah³ nigekIneLIgBIelIcuHeRkam kñúgRkumedayELkénFatutMNag.

4. kaMGatUmERbRbYleTAtamxYbénkartMerobFatuenAkñúgtaragxYb. kaMGatUmfycuHBIeqVgeTAsþaM nigekIneLIgBIelIcuHeRkam.

5. famBlGIuy:ugkmµKWCargVas;TMenarénGatUmTb;Tl;eTAnwgkar)at;bg;eGLicRtug. famBl GIuy:ugkmµkan;Etx<s;TMnajrvagéNVy:UnigeGLicRtugkan;EtxøaMg. cMNUleGLicRtugKWCargVas; TMenarénGatUmedIm,IcMeNjeGLicRtug. cMNUleGLicRtugkan;EtviC¢manTMenarénGatUm edIm,IcMeNjeGLicRtugkan;EtxøaMg. tamFmµta elah³manfamBlGIuy:ugkmµTabnig Gelah³mancMNUleGLicRtugx<s;.

6. ]sµ½nkMrmansßirPaBxøaMgNas; BIeRBaHRsTab;eRkA ns nig np RsTab;rgrbs;vaRtUv)anbMeBj edayeGLicRtugTaMgRsug. elah³kñúgFatutMNag¬kñúgRkum1A, 2A nig 3A¦ manTMenar e)aHbg;eGLicRtugrhUtTal;Etkacugrbs;vakøayCaGIusUeGLicRtUnicCamYy]sµ½nkMrEdlenA munbnÞab;vakñúgtaragxYb. Gelah³enAkñúgRkum5A, 6A nig7A manTMenarTTYlykeGLicRtug rhUtTal;EtGaj:úgrbs;vaGIusUeGLicRtUnicCamYy]sµ½nkMrEdlenAeRkaybnÞab;vakñúgtarag xYb.

BaküKnøwH ]sµ½nkMr Noble gases 8-4

FatutMNag Representative elements 8-4

eGLicRtugva:Lg; Valence electrons 8-6

GIusUeGLicRtUnic Isoelectronic 8-9

kaMGatUm Atomic radius 8-11

kaMGIuy:ug Ionic radius 8-14

famBlGIuy:ugkmµ Ionisation energy 8-18

cMNUleGLicRtug Electron affinity 8-23

TMnak;TMngbnÞab;RTUg Diagonal relationship 8-26

CMBYkTI8

8-41

GuksIutGMpUETr Amphoteric oxide 8-34

sMNYrniglMhat; karGPivDÆtaragxYb sMNYrrMlwksMNYrrMlwksMNYrrMlwksMNYrrMlwk

1. cUrBiBN’naedaysegçbBIPaBsMxan;éntaragxYb Mendeleev. 2. GIVCakarpþl;viPaKTanrbs;elak Moseley cMeBaHtaragxYbfIµ? 3> cUrBiBN’naBIlkçN³TUeTAéntaragxYbfIµ. 4> etITMnak;TMngsMxan;bMputrvagFatukñúgRkumCamYyKñakñúgtaragxYbKWGIV?

cMENkfñak;FatukñúgtaragxYb sMNYrrMlwksMNYrrMlwksMNYrrMlwksMNYrrMlwk 5> etIFatuteTAenHNaxøHCaelah³ Gelah³ b¤GMpUET? As, Xe, Fe, Li, B, Cl, Ba, P, I, Si. 6> cUreRbobeFoblkçN³rUbniglkçN³KImIénelah³nigGelah³. 7> cUrKUrKMnUsRBagéntaragxYb ¬mincaM)ac;lMGiteT¦. cg¥úlbgðajBItMbn;Edlelah³ Gelah³ nigGMpUETtaMgenA. 8> GIVeTACaFatutMNag? eGayeQµaHnignimitþsBaØaénFatutMNagbYn. 9> edaymineRbItaragxYb cUrsresreQµaH nigeGaynimitþsBaØaénFatumYykñúgRkumnImYy²teTA enH³ 1A, 2A, 3A, 4A, 5A, 6A, 7A, 8A nigelah³qøg. 10> cUrcg¥úlbgðajfaetIFatuteTAenHmanGtßiPaBCaRbePTGatUm RbePTm:UelKul rWRbePT TMrg;vimaRtbITUlMTUlaykúñgPaBsßirPaBbMputrbs;vaenA 250C nig 1atm nigsresrrUmnþm:UelKul nigrUbmnþgayrbs;vanImYy²³ pUsV½r GIuy:Ut ma:ejsüÚm enGug Gaesnic br s<an;F½r eseljÚm nigGuksIuEsn. 11> eKeGayGgÁFaturwgEdlmanepøkRkemA. eKsuMeGayGñkkMNt;fa vaCaGIuy:Ut b¤CaFatu elah³. cUrbBa¢ak;BIetsþminbMpøaj (nondestructive) EdlGaceGaydwgfacMelIyrbs;Gñk RtwmRtUv. 12> etIeGLicRtugva:Lg;KWCaGIV? sMrab;FatutMNagcMnYneGLicRtugva:Lg;énFatumYyesµInwgelx Rkumrbs;va. cUrbgðajfa vaRtwmRtUvsMrab;FatuteTAenH³ Al, Sr, K, Br, P, S, C.


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13> cUrsresrr)ayeGLicRtugRsTab;eRkAsMrab; (a) elah³Gal;kaLaMg (b) elah³ Gal;kalINUETrWu (c) GaLÚEsn (d) ]sµ½nkMr. 14> cUrcg¥úlbgðajBIlkçN³r)ayeGLicRtugénelah³qøgkñúgCYredkTI1BI Sc eTA Cu. 15>etIr)ayeGLicRtugrbs;GIuy:ugEdlTajecjBIFatutMNageGayBYkvanUvsßirPaBya:gdUcemþc? 16> etIGIuy:ugBIr b¤GatUmmYy nigGIuy:ugmYy GIusUeGLicRtUnicnwgKñamann½yya:gdUcemþc? 17> etImanGIVxuscMeBaHkarniyayfa «GatUménFatuX GIusUeGLicRtUnicCamYyGatUménFatuY»?

18>cUreGay]TahrN_bIénGIuyu:gelah³qøgCYrTImYy ¬Sc eTA Cu¦ Edlr)ayeGLicRtugrbs; vatageGayGakug.

lMhatlMhatlMhatlMhat;;;; 19> kñúgtaragxYb FatuGIuRdUEsnCYnkalRtUv)aneKdak;kúñgRkumCamYyelah³Gal;kaLaMg ¬dUckñúg esovePAenH¦ nigCYnkalRtUv)aneKdak;kñúgRkumCamYyGaLÚEsn. cUrBnül;faehtuGIV)anCa GIuRdUEsnGacdUcFatukñúgRkum 1A nigRkum 7A. 20> GatUmNWténFatumYyman17eGLicRtug. edayBMucaM)ac;eRbItaragxYbKImI³

(a) cUrbgðajBIr)ayeGLicRtugkñúgPaBRKwHénFatuenH. (b) cUreFIVcMNat;fñak;énFatuenH. (c) cUrkMNt;faetIFatuenHCadüama:ejTic b¤)a:ra:ma:ejTic. 21> cUrdak;r)ayeGLicRtugxageRkamenHCaKUEdltageGaylkçN³KImIRsedogKñaénGatUmTaMg enaH³ (a) 1s22s22p63s2 (b) 1s22s22p3

(c) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p6

(d) 1s22s2 (e) 1s22s22p6 (f) 1s22s22p63s23p3

22> cUrdak;r)ayeGLicRtugxageRkamenHCaKUEdltageGaylkçN³KImIRsedogKñaénGatUm TaMgenaH³ (a) 1s22s22p5 (b) 1s22s1

(c) 1s22s22p6

(d) 1s22s22p63s23p5 (e) 1s22s22p63s23p64s1 (f) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p6

23> edaymineRbItaragxYb cUrsresrr)ayeGLicRtugénFatuEdlmanelxGatUm dUcteTAenH enH³ (a) 9, (b) 20, (c) 26, (d) 33. cUreFVIcMENkfñak;FatuTaMgenaH.

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24> cUrbBa¢ak;faFatunimYy²xageRkamenH sßitenAkñúgRkumNaéntaragxYb³ (a) [Ne]3s1 (b) [Ne]3s23p3 (c) [Ne]3s23p6 (d) [Ar]4s24d8

25> GuIy:ug M2+ TTYl)anBIelah³énelah³qøges‘rITImYyEdlman 4e- enARsTab;;rg 3d. etIFatuMenaHGacCaFatuGVI? 26>GIuy:ugelah³mYymanbnÞúk+3man 5e- enAkñúgRsTab;rg 3d. etIGIuy:ugelah³enaHeQµaHGVI? 27> cUrsresrr)ayeGLicRtugkñúgPaBRKwHénGIuy:ugxageRkamenH³

(a) Li+ (b) H- (c) N3- (d) F- (e) S2-

(f) Al 3+ (g) Se2- (h) Br- (i) Rb+ (j) Sr2+

(k) Sn2+ (l) Te2- (m) Ba2+ (n) Pb2+ (o) In3+ (p) Tl+ (q) Tl3+

28> cUrsresrr)ayeGLicRtugkñúgPaBRKwHénGIuy:ugxageRkam³ a) Na+ , b) Mg+, c) Cl-, d) K+, e) Ca2+, f) Fe2+, g) Cu2+, h) Zn2+

etIGIuy:ugNaxøHedIrtYsMxan;kñúgdMeNIrkarKImICIv³kñúgragkayrbs;eyIg? 29> cUrsresrr)ayeGLicRtugénGIuy:ugelah³qøgxageRkam³

a) Sc3+, b) Ti4+, c) V5+, d) Cr3+, e) Mn2+, f) Fe2+, g) Fe3+, h) Co2+, i) Ni2+,

j) Cu+, k) Cu2+, l) Ag+, m) Au+ . n) Au3+, o) Pt2+ .

30> cUreGayeQµaHGIuy:ugmanbnÞúk +3 Edlmanr)ayeGLicRtug³ (a) [Ar]3d3, (b) [Ar], (c) [Kr]4d6, (d) [Xe]4f145d6

31> etIRbePTKImINaxøHEdlCaGIusUeGLicRtUnicnwgKña? C, Cl -, Mn2+, B- , Ar, Zn, Fe3+, Ge2+. 32> etIRbePTKImINaxøHEdlCaGIusUeGLicRtUnicnwgKña³ Be 2+ , F - , Fe2+ , N3-, He, S2-, Co3+, Ar . bMErbMrYllkçN³rUbkñúgtaragxYb sMNYrrMlwksMNYrrMlwksMNYrrMlwksMNYrrMlwk 33> cUreGayniymn½ykaMGatUm. etITMhMGatUmmann½yCak;lak;Edrb¤eT? 34> etIkaMGatUmERbRbYlya:gdUcemþc (a)BIeqVgeTAsþaMenAkñúgxYbnig (b)BIelIcuHeRkamenAkñúg Rkum? 35> cUreGayniymn½ykaMGIuy:ug. etITMhMGatUmERbRbYldUcemþc enAeBlvaRtUv)anbMEbøgeTACa (a) Gaj:úg nig (b) kacug? 36> sMrab;GIuy:ugGIusUeGLicRtUnic cUrBnül;faehtuGIV)anCaGaj:úgFMCagkacug. lMhatlMhatlMhatlMhat;;;; 37>edayEp¥kelItaragxYb cUreRCIserIsGatUmEdlmankaMGatUmFMCagkñúgKUnImYy²xageRkamenH³ (a) Na, Cs (b) Be, Ba (c) N, Sb (d) F, Br (e) Ne, Xe


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38> cUrerobGatUmxageRkamenH tamlMdab;fycuHénkaMGatUm³ Na, Al, P, Cl, Mg

39> etIGatUmNaEdlFMCageKbMputenAkñúgRkum 4A? 40> GatUmNaEdltUcCageKbMputenAkñúgRkum 7A? 41> etIehtuGIV)anCakaMGatUmrbs;lIcUmFMCagkaMGatUmrbs;GIuRdUEsnxøaMg? 42> cUreRbIxYbTI2éntaragxYbCa]TahrN_edIm,IbgðajBIkarfycuHTMhMGatUmenAeBleyIgrMkilBI eqVgeTAsþaM. 43> cUrbgðajfaetINaénRbePTTaMgBIrkñúgKUnImYy²manTMhMtUcCag³ a) Cl rW Cl-, b) Na rW Na+,

c) O2- rW S2-, d) Mg+ rW Al3+, e) Au+ rW Au3+ . 44> cUrerobGIuy:ugteTAenHtamlMdab;ekIneLIgénkaMGIuy:ug³ N3-, Na+, F-, Mg2+, O2-. 45> cUrBnül;faetIkacugNamYyFMCag nigehtuGIV³ Cu+ b¤ Cu2+. 46> cUrBnül;faetIGaj:úgNamYyFMCag nigehtuGIV³ Se2- b¤ Te2-. 47> cUreGaylkçN³rUb¬]sµ½n rav rW rwg ¦ énFatutMNagkñúgxYbTIbYn ( K, Ca, Ga, Ge, As, Se,

Br) enAsMBaF 1atm nig sItuNðPaB 25 ºC. 48> cMNucrMBuHénenNug nigRKIbtugKw -245.90C nig -152.90C tamerog. edayeRbITinñn½yenH cUrTsSn_TaycMNucrMBuHénGakug. famBlGIuy:ugkmµ sMNYrrMlwksMNYrrMlwksMNYrrMlwksMNYrrMlwk 49> cUreGayniymn½yfamBlGIuy:ugkmµ. CaFmµtakareKvas;famBlGIuy:ugkmµRtUv)aneFVIenA eBlGatUmsßitenAkñúgPaBCa]sµ½n. BIeRBaHGIV? etIehtuGIV)anCafamBlGIuy:ugkmµTI2énFatumYy Canic©kalFMCagfamBlGIuy:ugkmµTI1rbs;va? 50> cUrKUrKMnUseRKagéntaragxYb nigbgðajTMenarfamBlGIuy:ugkmµTI1énFatuenAkñúgRkumnigxYb CamYyKña. etIFatuRbePTNaEdlmanfamBlGIuy:ugkmµx<s;CageKbMput nigRbePTNaEdlman famBlGIuy:ugkmµTabCageKbMput? lMhatlMhatlMhatlMhat;;;; 51> cUreRbIxYbTIbIéntaragxYbeFIVCa]TahrN_edIm,IbgðajBIkarERbRbYlfamBlGIuy:ugkmµTImYy rbs;Fatu enAeBleyIgrMkilBIeqVgeTAsþaM. cUrBnül;TMenarenH.

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52> CaTUeTA famBlGIuy:ugkmµekIneLIgBIeqVgeTAsþaMenAkñúgxYbCamYyKña. b:uEnþ GaluymIj:Úm manfamBlGIuy:ugkmµTabCagma:ejsüÚm. cUrBnül;. 53> famBlGIuy:ugkmµTImYynigTIBIrénb:UtasüÚmKW 419KJ/mol nig 3052KJ/mol nigfamBl GIuy:ugkmµTI1nigTIBIrrbs;kal;süÚmKW 590KJ/mol nig 1145KJ/molerogKña. eRbobeFobtMél TaMgenaH nigpþl;eyabl;BIPaBxusKñaTaMgenaH. 54> GatUmBIrmanr)ayeGLicRtug 1s22s22p6 nig 1s22s22p63s1. famBlGIuy:ugkmµTI1én GatUmmYyKW 2080kJ/mol nigfamBlGIuy:ugkmµTI1énGatUmmYyeTotKW496kJ/mol. cUrpÁÚrpÁg famBlGIuy:ugkmµnImYy²CamYyr)ayeGLicRtugEdlpþl;eGay. bBa¢ak;ehtuplBICMerIsrbs; Gñk. 55> GIuy:ugdUcGIuRdUEsnKWCaGIuy:ugmaneGLicRtugEtmYyb:ueNÑaH. famBleGLicRtugkñúgGIuy:ug dUcGIuRdUEsnKW

En = - (2.18 x 10-18J) Z2 (1/n2)

Edl n KWCacMnYnkg;Ticem nig Z KWCaelxGatUménFatu. cUrKNnafamBlGIuy:ugkmµ ¬KitCa kJ/mol¦énGIuy:ug He+. 45> )aøsµa (Plasma) KWCasarFatumYyEdlpSMBIGIuy:ug]sµ½nbnÞúkviC¢man nigeGLicRtug. kñúg sPaBCa)aøsµa GatUm)artRtUvpþac;eGLicRtugTaMg80rbs;va nigkøayeTACaHg80+. cUreRbIsmIkar kñúglMhat;TI55 edIm,IKNnafamBlRtUvkarcaM)ac;sMrab;dMNak;kalGIuy:ugkmµcugeRkayKW

Hg79+ (g) Hg80+ (g) + e-

cMNUleGLicRtug sMNYrrMlwksMNYrrMlwksMNYrrMlwksMNYrrMlwk 57> (a) cUreGayniymn½ycMNUleGLicRtug. (b) karvas;famBlcMNUleGLicRtugRtUv)aneFVI CamYyGatUm]sµ½n. etIehtuGIV? (c) famBlGIuy:ugkmµKWCanic©kalCabrimaNviC¢man cMENkÉ cMNUleGLicRtugKWGacviC¢man b¤GviC¢man. cUrBnül;. 58> cUrBnül;BITMenarkñúgcMNUleGLicRtugBIGaluymIj:ÚmeTAkør ¬emIltarag 7¦. lMhatlMhatlMhatlMhat;;;; 59>cUrerobFatukñúgRkumnImYy²xageRkamtamlMdab;ekIneLIgéncMNUleGLicRtugviC¢man xøaMgCageK³ (a) Li, Na, K (b) F, Cl, Br, I


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60> cUrbBa¢ak;faetIFatuNaénFatuteTAenHcMNUleGLicRtugFMCageK³ He, K, Co, S, Cl. 61> edayeyageTAtamcMNUleGLicRtug etIGñkKitfaelah³Gal;kaLaMgGacbegáItCaGaj:úg (M-) Edl M Caelah³Gal;kaLaMg)anEdrb¤eT? 62> cUrBnül;faehtuGIV)anCaelah³Gal;kaLaMgmancMNUleGLicRtugFMCagelah³Gal;kalI- NUETrWu. bMErbMrYllkçN³KImIénFatutMNag sMNYrrMlwksMNYrrMlwksMNYrrMlwksMNYrrMlwk 63> etITMnak;TMngbnÞat;RTUgmann½ydUcemþc? cUreGayeQµaHFatuBIrKUEdlmanTMnak;TMng EbbenH. 64> etIFatuNaEdlmanTMenarxøaMgedIm,IbegáItCaGuksIutGasIut? GuksIut)as? GuksIutGMpUET? lMhatlMhatlMhatlMhat;;;; 65> cUreRbIR)as;elah³Gal;kaLaMgnigelah³Gal;kalINUETrWuCa]TahrN_ edIm,IbgðajBIrebob EdlGñkGacTsSn_TaylkçN³KImIénFatuedaygayBIr)ayeGLicRtugrbs;va. 66> cUrTsSn_TaylkçN³KImIxøH²énRbg;süÚmEdlCaFatucugeRkayénRkumelah³Gal;kaLaMg. 67> ]sµ½nkMrmansßirPaBKImIxøaMgNas; ¬manEt Kr nig Xe RtUv)andwgfaGacbegáItCasmas Fatu¦. etIehtuGIV? 68> etIehtuGIV)anCaFatuRkum 1B mansßirPaBCagFatuRkum 1A eTaHbICavahak;dUcCamanr)ay eGLicRtugRsTab;eRkAdUcKña ns1 Edl n CacMnYnkg;TiceménRsTab;eRkAbg¥s;. 69> etIlkçN³KImIénGuksIutERbRbYldUcemþc BIeqVgeTAsþaMenAkñúgxYb? BIelIcuHeRkamenAkñúgRkum? 70> cUrsresrsmIkarlMnwgsMrab;RbtikmµrvagGuksIutnImYy²teTAenHCamYyTwk³ (a) Li2O, (b)

CaO, (c) SO3. 71> cUrsresrrUbmnþnigehAeQµaHsmasFatueTVtaGIuRdUEsnénFatukñúgxYbTIBIr(Li eTA F). cUr BiBN’nafaetIlkçN³rUbnigKImIénsmasFatuTaMgenHERbRbYlya:gdUcemþcBIeqVgeTAsþaMenAkñúg xYbenH. 72> etIGuksIutNamanlkçN³)asCag MgO b¤ BaO? etIehtuGIV? lMhat;bEnßm

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73> cUrBN’nafaetIlkçN³xageRkaménFatutMNag CaTUeTAvaekIneLIgrWfycuH a) BIeqVgeTAsþaMtamxYb. b) BIelIcuHeRkamtamRkum³ lkçN³elah³ TMhMGatUm famBlGIuuy:ugkmµ PaBGuksIutén

GuksIut. 74> edayeRbItaragxYb cUreGayeQµaHFatu ³

a) FatuGaLÚEsnkñúgxYbTIbYn. b) FatuEdlmanlkçN³KImIRbhak;RbEhlnwgpUs½Vr. c) CaFatuelah³RbtikmµCageKkñúgxYbTIR)aM. d) FatuEdlmanelxGatUmtUcCag20 nigRbhak;RbEhleTAnwgRsþúgcUm.

75> sresrsmIkartageGaydMeNIrkarxageRkam³ a) cMnUleGLicRtugén S-. b) famBlGIuy:ugkmµTIbIénTItan (Ti). c) cMnUleGLicRtugén Mg2+. d) famBlGIuy:ugkmµén O2-.

76> erobcMRbePTGIusUeGLicRtUnictamlMdab;én³ a) karekIneLIgkaMGIuy:ug b) karekIneLIgfamBlGIuy:ugkmµ FatuTaMgenaHKW³ O2-, F

-, Na+, Mg2+.

77>sresrrUbmnþgay ¬rWrUbmnþm:UelKul¦énsmasFatuEdlpSMeLIgBIFatusißtkñúgxYbTIbI ¬sUdüÚm eTAkør¦CamYy³

a) m:UelKulGuksIuEsn b) m:UelKulkør

kñúgkrNInImYy² cUrbgðajfaetIvamanlkçN³CasmasFatum:UelKul rWCasmasFatuGIuy:ug. 78> FatuMCaelah³EdlmanRbtikmµx<s;nigmanlkçN³PWø ¬mancMnucrlay63ºC¦ nig Fatu X

CaGelah³ EdlmanRbtikmµx<s;¬mancMnucrlay -7.2ºC¦. FatuTaMgBIreFVIRbtikmµCamYyKña begIát)anCarUbmnþgaymYyKW MX KµanBN’CaGgÁFaturwgBN’s RsYy EdlvarlayenA sItuNðPaB 734ºC. enAeBlrMlayvakñúgTwkva)aneFIVeGaymankarcMlgcrnþGKiÁsnI. bnÞab;mk


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enAeBl]sµ½nkørdak;eGayqøgkat;sUuluuuu uysüúgEdlmanpÞúk MX sUluysüúg)anERbBN’Ca Rkbametñat (reddish-brown) nigekItmanGIuy:ug Cl-. tamkarsegátTaMgenH cUrkMNt;Fatu M nig X . ¬GñkRbEhlCaRtUvkaresovePA Handbook of chemistry sMrab;tMélcMNucrlay¦. 79> pÁÚrpÁgFatuxageRkamenH [RtUveTAnwglkçN³rbs;vanImYy²³

a) kal;süÚm (Ca) >>> GgÁFaturavBN’Rkhmcas; b) mas (Au) >>> ]sµ½nKµanBN’ nigeqHkñúgGuksIuEsn

c) GIuRdUEsn (H2) >>> elah³RbtikmµCamYyTwk

d) RbUm (Br2) >>> elah³PøWEdleKeRbICaeRKÓgGlgáar e) Gakug (Ar) >>> ]sµ½nkMr

80> erobRbePTxageRkamCaKUGIusUeGLicRtUnic³ O+, Ar, S2-, Ne, Zn, Cs+, N3-, As3+, N, Xe .

81> etIRbePTNaxøH EdlsresrkñúglMdab;fycuHedatTMhMénkaM? a) Be, Mg, Ba b) N3-, O2-, F- c) Tl3+, Tl2+, Tl+.

82> etIlkçN³Na xøHEdlbgðajBIbMErbMrYlxYbc,as;³ a) famBlGIuy:ugkmµTImYy b) ma:smUlénFatu c) cMnYnGIusUtUbénFatu d) kaMGatUm .

83> enAeBlkabUnDIGuksIut (CO2) RtUv)andak;eGaymanRbtikmµCamYykal;süÚmGIuRduksIut (Ca(OH)2) eKsegáteXIjvaERbCasUluysüúgBN’sdUcTwkedaHeKa. cUrsresrsmIkarsMrab; RbtikmµenHnigBnül;ehtudUcemþc)anCakabUnDIGuksIut(CO2) CaGuksIutGasIut. 84>GñkmansarFatubYn³ GgÁFaturavBN’RkbamGgÁFaturwgemIleTACaelah³BN’RkemA/]sµ½n BN’elOgx©Inig]sµ½nelOg-ébtgEdlRbtikmµCamYyEkv. eKR)ab;favasißtenAkñúgRkumGaLÚEsn 7A. cUreGayeQµaHsarFatunImYy². 85> sMrab;KUénFatunImYy²teTAenH cUreGaylkçN³bIEdlbgðajBIlkçN³KImIRsedogKña³

a) sUdüÚmnigb:UtasüÚm b) kørnigRbUm

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86>cUUrdak;eQµaHFatuEdlbegIátCasmasFatu eRkamlkçx½NÐsmRsbCamYyRKb;FatudéTeTot kñúgtaragxYbelIkElg He. Ne nig Ar. 87> cUrBnül; ehtuGIV)anCacMNUleGLicRtugTImYyrbs;s<an;F½rmantMélesIµ 200 KJ/mol Et cMNUleGLicRtugTIBIrmantMélesIµ -649 KJ/mol . 88> GIuy:ug H- nigGatUm He manBIreGLicRtugelIRsTab;rg 1s dUcKña. etIkñúgRbePTTaMgBIr RbePTNaFMCag? cUrBnül;. 89> cUrTsSn_TayplitplGuksIutxageRkamEdlmanRbtikmµCamYyTwk³ Na2O, BaO, CO2, N2O5, P4O10, SO3 . cUrsresrsmIkarsMrab;RbtikmµnImYy²? cUrkMNt;fa GuksIutTaMgenaHCaGuksIutGasIut GuksIut)as rWGuksIutGMpUET. 90> sresrrUbmnþnigeQµaHGuksIuténFatukñúgxYbTIBIr (Li eTA N). cUrkMNt;faGuksIutTaMgenaH Ca GuksIutGasIut GuksIut)as rWGuksIutGMpUET. 91> cUrbBaöak;faFatuxageRkamCa]sµ½n CaGgÁFaturag rWCaGgÁFaturwg eRkamlkçxNÐsMBaF briyakas. Mg, Cl, Si, Kr, O, I, Hg, Br. cUrbBaöak;Edrfa manGtßiPaBCaTMrg;samBaØCa GatUm Cam:UelKul rWCabNþajvimaRtbI.

92> etIktþaGIVEdlCaFmµCatiEtmYyrbs;GIuRdUEsn? 93>karbnSúTæxül;EdlmanenAkµñúg yanGvkas rWnavamuCTwk)anbeB©ajcMhaykabUnDIGuksIut. cUrsresrsmIkarRbtikmµrvagkabUnDIGuksIutnig³

a) lIcUmGuksIut (Li 2O)

b) sUdüÚmEBGuksIut (Na2O2)

c) b:UtasüÚms‘ubEBGuksIut (KO2) .

94> rUbmnþsMrab;KNnafamBleGLicRtugkñúgGIuy:ugdUcGIuRdUEsnRtUv)anpþl;enAkñúglMhat;55. smIkarenHminGacGnuvtþcMeBaHGatUmEdlmaneGLicRtugeRcIn)aneT. viFImYyedIm,IEkERbva sMrab;GatUmEdlsaMjaMu KWCMnYs Z eday (Z-σ ) Edl Z CaelxGatUm σ CabrimaNviC©manKµan xñatEdlehAfaefrkarBar. ykGatUmeGlüÚmCa]TarhN_. sarsMxan;én σ KWfavatageGay visalPaBénkarkarBarBIeGLicRtugelIRsTab;rg 1s EdlBwgKñaeTAvijeTAmk dUecñH brimaN (Z-σ )RtUv)anehAfabnÞúkéNVyU:RbsiT§pl. KNnatMélEnσ RbsinebIfamBlGIuy:ukmµTI1En He KW 3.94 x 10-18 J kñúg1GatUm. ¬edayminKitBIsBaØaGviC¢mankñúgsmIkar¦

95> ehtuGIV)anCa]sµ½nkMrmancMnUleGLicRtugCatMélGviC©man?


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96> kaMGatUmrbs;b:UtasüÚm (K) KW 126 pm nigrbs; K+ KW 133 pm. cUrKNnatMélPaKry fycuHEdlekItmanenAeBl K(g) RtUv)anbMEbøgeTACa K+(g). ¬maDEs‘VKW V = 4/3Π R3 Edl R CakaMrbs;Es‘V¦. 97> kaMGatUménPøúyGr(F)KW 72pm nigrbs; F- KW 136pm . cUrKNnaPaKryCamaDekIneLIg EdlekItmanenAeBl F(g) RtUv)anbMEbøgeTACa F-(g). ¬maDEs‘VKW V = 4/3Π R3 Edl R CakaM rbs;Es‘V¦. 98> viFIsaRsþmYyehAfa s,iúcRtUTsSn_pUtUeGLicRtug ( photoelectron spectroscopy) RtUv)an eRbIedIm,Ivas;famBlGIuy:ugkmµénGatUm. PaKsMNakmYyRtUv)andak;eGayRtUvBnWø UV nig eGLicRtug)anpþac;ecjBIRsTab;eRkA ( Valence shell). famBlsIuenTicéneGLicRtugRtUv)an pþac;)anRtUvvas;. edayfamBlénpUtug UV nigfamBlsIuenTicéneGLicRtug RtUv)anpþac;RtUv )andwg eyIgGacsresr³

hv = IE + ½ mu2

Edl v CaeRbkg;énBnWø UV, m nigu Cama:snigCael,ÓnéneGLicRtugtamerog. kñúgkarBiesaF mYyfamBlsIuenTirbs;eGLicRtugRtUv)anpþac;BIb:UtasüÚm KW 5.34 10-19J edayeRbIR)as;RbPB BnWø UV manCMhanrlk 162 nm. cUrKNnafamBlGIuuy:ugkmµénb:UtasüÚm. etIGñkGacR)akd y:agdUcemþcfafamBlGIuy:ugkmµvaRtwmRtUvcMeBaHeGLicRtugkñúgRsTab;eRkA (Valence shell) . 99> edayeyagKImIGnuvtþn_kñúgTMB½r 38 cUreqøIysMnYrxageRkam³

a) ehtuGIV)anCaRtUvcMNayeBlyUrkñúgkarEsVgrk ]sµ½nkMr (Ar) CaelIkdMbUgelIEpndI? b) enAeBlEdlGakugRtUv)anrkeXIj ehtuGIV)anCaRtUvcMNayeBlticKYrsmkñúgkar

EsVgrk]sµ½nkMr? c) ehtuGIV)anCaeGlüÚm (He) minRtUv)ancMraj;ecj (isolated) edaybMNitRbPaK

énxül;rav? 100> famBlEdlRtUvkarcaM)ac;sMrab;dMeNIrkarxageRkamKW 1.96 104 KJ/mol .

Li(g) → Li3+ (g) + 3e-

RbsinebIfamBlGIuy:ugkmµTImYyrbs;lIcUm (Li) KW 520 KJ/mol . cUrKNnafamBlGIuy:ugkmµ TIBIrrbs;lIcUm EdlRtUvkarcaM)ac;sMrab;dMeNIrkarxageRkam³

Li+ (g) → Li2+ (g) + e-

¬ GñkRtUveRbIsmIkarkñúglMhat;TI 55 KW³ En = -(2.18 x 10-18 J) Z2(1/n2) ¦.

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101> Fatu X mYymanRbtikmµCamYy]sµ½nGIuRdUEsn(H2) enAsItuNðPaB 200 ºCedIm,IbegIát)an CasmasFatuY. enAeBlsmasFatu Y dutkMedA enAsItuNðPaBx<s; vabMEbkCaFatu X nig]sµ½n GIuRdUEsnkñúgGRta 559 ml én H2¬vas;enA STP¦sMrab; 1g énX RtUv)aneFVIRbtikmµ. ehIy X

k¾)anpSMCamYykør (Cl) begIát)anCasmasFatu Z mYyEdlman 63.89% Cama:srbs;kør. cUrrk Fatu X. 102> nisiStmñak;RtUv)anpþl;eGaynUvPaKsMNak (samples) énFatubI X, Ynig Z EdlGacCa BYkelah³Gal;kaLaMgCaFatunUvkñúgRkum 4A nigkñúgRkum 5A . nisSitenaH)aneFVIkarsegátdUct eTA³ Fatu X manepøkelah³ (metallic luster) nigcMlgcrnþGKiÁsnI. vamanRbtikmµyWtCamYy GasIutkørrIRDic (HCl) edIm,I]sµ½nGIuRdUEsn(H2). Fatu Y CaGgÁFaturwgBN’elOgPWø ( light-

yellow) EdlmincMlgcrnþGKiÁsnI. Fatu Z manepøkelah³ nigcMlgcrnþGKÁisnI. enAeBlvab:H CamYyxül;vakøayCaemSABN’s. sUluysüúgénemSABN’senAkñúgTwkCasUluysüúg)as. etIGñkGacsnñidæanGMBIFatuTaMgenaHBIkarsegátTaMgenaHy:agdUcemþc? . 103> edaykareRbITinñn½ycMnucrMBuH xageRkamniglMnaMkñúgKImIGnuvtþn_kñúgTMB½r19 cUrTsSn_Tay cMnucrMBuHrbs;Rbg;süÚm (Fr) . elah³ Li Na K Rb Cs

cMnucrMBuH (ºC) 1347 882.9 774 688 678.4 104> GIVeTACacMNUleGLicRtugrbs;GIuy:ug sUdüÚm Na+ ? 105> famBlGIuy:ugkmµrbs;sUdüÚm¬KitCa kJ/mol¦KW¬BITImYydl;TIR)aMBIr¦495.9, 4560, 6900,

9540, 13400, 16600, 20120, 25490, 28930, 141360, 170000 . cUrKUsRkab log famBlGIuy:ugkmµ Edltageday(y-axis) nigcMnYnGIuy:ugkmµEdltageday(x-axis). ]TahrN_ log 495.9 KUsCamYyfamBlGIuy:ugkmµTImYytageday I1 log 4560 KUsCamYyfamBlGIuy:ug kmµTIBIrtageday I2. nigbnþbnÞab;.

a) cUrdak;søak I1 dl; I11CamYyeGLicRtugkñúgGrb‘Ítal;dUcCa³ 1s, 2s, 2p nig 3s. b) GIVEdlGñkGacTajykn½yGMBIRsTab;eGLicRtugBIcenøaHExSekag?

106> tamry³karBiesaF cMNUleGLicRtugénFatumYyGacRtUv)ankMNt;edaykareRbIkaMrsIµ LaEs‘edIm,IeFVIGIuy:ugkmµGaj:úgénFatukñúgpas]sµ½n.

X-(g) + hv → X(g) + e-


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GaRs½ytarag3 cUrKNnaCMhanrlkpUtug ¬KitCaNaNUEm:Rt¦RtUvnwgcMNUleGLicRtugrbs; kør. etIkñúgtMbn;Naéns,iúceGLicRtUma:ejTicEdlCMhanrlkenHFøak;cuH? 107> cUrBnül;ehtuGIV )anCa Fe2+ gayGuksIutkmµeTACa Fe3+ Cag Mn2+ eTA Mn3+ kñúgr)ay eGLicRtugrbs;va. 108> Gg;tal;BIsþg;daénFatu KWCafamBlRtUvkarcaM)ac;edIm,Ipøas;bþÚr1mol énFatukñúgTMrg;zitefr rbs;vaenAsItuNðPaB25ºC eTA 1molénm:UNUGatUm]sµ½n. eKeGayGg;tal;BIsþg;daénGatUmkmµ sUdüÚmKW108.4kJ/mol. cUrKNnafamBlEdlRtUvkarcaM)ac;edIm,Ipøas;bþÚr1molénelah³sUdüÚm enAsItuNðPaB 25ºC eTA 1mol énGIuy:ugsUdüÚm (Na+)Capas]sµ½n. 109> sresrrUbmnþnigeQµaHGIuRdUénFatukñúgxYbTIBIrteTAenH³ Li, C, N, O, F. cUrTsSn_Tay Rbtikmµrbs;vaCamYyTwk? 110> Ep¥kelIcMeNHdwgénr)ayeGLicRtugrbs;TItan (Ti) cUrbBaöak;faetIsmasFatu TItan xageRkamNaxøH EdlminGacekItman³ K3TiF6, K2Ti2O5, TiCl3, K2TiO4, K2TiF6 . 111> cUreGayeQµaHFatukñúgRkum 1A rW 2A minrMlayGaharGasIutEdlCaFatusMxan;enAkñúg sarFatunImYy²dUcxageRkam³

a) »sfsMrab;bM)at;CMgWminrMlayGaharGasIut. b) FatuRsUbkMedAkñúgRbtikmµnuyekøEG‘. c) GMbil Epsom. d) emSAdutnM. e) emSArMesv. f) sMelah³EdlmanlkçN³PWø. g) CIEdlbnSabGasIutePøóg. h) sIum:g;. i) xSac;sMrab;pøÚvmanTwkkk.

112>kñúgRbtikmµCMnYsGaLÚEsn FatuGaLÚEsnmYyGacRtUv)anbegIátedayGuksIutkmµGaj:úg rbs;vaCamYyFatuGaLÚEsnmYyeTotEdlsißtenABIelIvakñúgtaragxYb. enHmann½yfa eyIgmin manviFINamYyedIm,IerobcMPøúyGr)aneT edaysarvaCaFatudMbUgeKkñúgRkum7A. tamBitGs; ry³eBlCaeRcInqñaMmanviFIEtmYyKt;KWeFVIGuksIutkmµ F- edayeGLicRtUlIt. bnÞab;mkkñúgqñaM 1986GñkKImImñak;)ansresrr)aykarN_sIþBIRbtikmµrvagb:UtasüÚmGicsaPøúyGrYm:g;kaENs

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(K2MnF6) CamYyGg;TIm:nb:g;taPøúyGrIt(SbF5) enAsItuNðPaB150ºC ehIyKat;k¾TTYl)an PøúyGr. cUrfwøgsmIkarxageRkamtageGayRbtikmµenaH³

K2MnF6 + SbF5 → KSbF6 + MnF3 + F2

113> sresrsmIkarmanlMnwgénkarerobcMsarFatuxageRkam³ a) m:UelKulGuksIuEsn (O2) b) Gam:Uja:k; (NH3) c) kabUnDIGuksIut (CO2) d) m:UelKulGIuRdUEsn (H2) e) kal;süÚmGuksIut (CaO)

cUrbgðajBIPaBrUbénFatuRbtikrnigplitplkñúgsmIkarnImYy². 114> cUrsresrrUbmnþKImIsMrab;GuksIuténnIRdUEsnCamYycMnYnGuksIutkmµteTAenH³ +1. +2. +3.

+4. +5. ¬manGuksIuténnIRdUEsnBIrCamYycMnYnGuksIutkmµ+4¦. 115> PaKeRcInénGIuy:ugrbs;elah³qøgKWmanBN’. ]TahrN_ dUcCa CuSO4 vamanBN’exov. cUrbgðajfa BN’exovenHCarbs; Cu2+ rgGIuRdatkmµminEmnCarbs; SO4

2- eT. 116> CaTUeTA kaMGatUmnigfamBlGIuy:ugkmµmanTMenarpÞúyBItaragxYb. ehtuGIV? 117>cUrBnül;ehtuGIV)anCacMNUleGLicRtugrbs;GasUt(N2)esIµsUnüenAeBlEdlFatudéTeTot EdlrYmman kabUn (C) nigGuksIuEsn (O2) mancMNUleGLicRtugviC¢manc,as;. 118> eyIgBinitüemIlGaLÚEsnEdlmankør(Cl2 ) RbUm (Br2 ) nigGIuy:Ut(I2 ). cMNucrlaynig rMBuHrbs;kør(I2 ) KW -101.0 ºC nig -34.6 ºC ehIyGIuy:UtmancMNucrlaynigrMBuHKW 113.5 ºC nig 184.4ºC. dUecñH kør Ca]sµ½n nigGIuy:UtCaGgÁFaturwg eRkamlkçxNÐbnÞb;. cUrTsSn_TaycMNuc rlaynigrMBuHrbs;RbUm. eRbobeFobtMélrbs;GñkCamYytMélEdl)anBIesovePATinñn½y SI. 119> enAeBleyIgGackMNt;)annUvfamBlGIuy:ugkmµTIBIr TIbI nigx<s;bMputénFatuenaH cMeBaH cMNUleGLicRtugeyIgminGackMNt;)andUcKñaenaHeT. cUrBnül;. 120>smasFatuEtmYyrbs;ra:dug(Rn)KWra:dugPøúyGrIt(RnF). ehtuplmYyEdlvaBi)akkñúgkar sikSaFatura:dugKWRKb;FatuGIusUtUbénFatura:dugTaMgGs;CaFatuviTüúskmµ ehIyEdlvamaneRKaH fñak;. etImanmUlehtuepSgeToteT)anCasmasFatura:dugRtUveKsÁal;tictUc? ¬karbMEbkFatu viTüúskmµCadMeNIrkarbeB©aajkMedA¦.


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121> Gasþat (At) CaFatuKImImYyEdleKsÁal;tictUcNas; nigCaFatucugeRkayEdlsißtkñúgRkum 7A. cUrBN’nalkçN³rUbEdlGñkKitfaGaLÚEsnman4 cUrTsSn_TayplitplénRbtikmµrvag sUdüÚmGasþat (NaAt) nigGasIuts‘ulpYric (H2SO4). ¬GasIuts‘ulpYricCaPñak;garGuksIutkmµ¦. 122> dUcEdleyIg)anBiPakSarYcmkehIykñúgCMBUkenH ma:sGatUmrbs;GakugFMCagb:UtasüÚm. karsegátenH)anbegIátbBðaamYykñúgkarGPivDÆtaragxYbdMbUg BIeRBaHvamann½yfaGakugKYrEt sißtenAbnÞab;BIb:UtasüÚm.

a) etIRtUvedaHRsaykarlM)akenHya:gdUcemþc? b) BITinñn½yxageRkam cUrKNnama:sGatUmmFSménGakugnigb:UtasüÚm³ Ar-36 (35.9675

amu ; 0.337%). Ar-38 (37.9627 amu ; 0.063%). Ar-40 (39.9624 amu; 99.60%) ; K-39 (38.9637 amu; 93.258%). K-40 (39.9640 amu; 0.0117%). K-41 (40.9618 amu ; 6.730%) .

123> cUrKNnaCMhanrlkGtibrmaénBnWøCaNaNUEm:Rt EdlRtUvkarsMrab;eFVIGIuy:ugkmµmYy GatUmsUdüÚm(Na) . 124> cUrTsSn_TayelxGatUmnigr)ayeGLicRtugkñúgPaBRKwHénFatu EdlsißtenAbnÞab;BIRkum elah³Gal;kaLaMgbnÞab;Rbg;süÚm (Fr). 125> ehtuGIV)anCaFatuEdlmanfamBlGIuy:ugkmµx<s; mancMNUleGLicRtugviC©man? etIRkumNa énFatuEdlCakarelIkElgBIkrNITUeTAenH? 126> famBlGIuy:ugkmµbYndMbUgénFatumYyKW 738 kJ/mol. 1450 kJ/mol. 7.7 103 kJ/mol.

1.1104 kJ/mol . etIFatuenHKYrEtsißtenARkumNakñúgtaragxYb? ehtuGIV? 127> GñkKImImYycMnYnKitfaeGlüÚmKYrEtehAfaeGLúg (helon) . ehtuGIV?GIVeTACakarbB©ab; kñúgeGlüÚm (helium) eday (-ium)? 128> a)rUbmnþrbs;GIuRdUkabYKWCH4¬emtan¦. TsSn_TayrUbmnþénsmasFatugaybMputrvag GIuRdUEsnCamYyFatudUcteTA³ Si, Ge, Sn nig Pb. b) sUdüÚmGuIRdU (NaH) KWCasmasFatuGIuuy:ug. etIGñkKitfaetIruyb‘ÍdüÚmGIuRdU (RbH) manlkçN³ CasmasFatuGIuy:ugeRcInrWticCagsUdüÚmGIuRdU? c) cUrTsSn_TayRbtikmµrvagra:düÚm (Ra) nigTwik. d) enAeBleKdak;GaluymIj:ÚmeGayRtUvxül; va)anbegáItCaGuksIutKWGaluymIj:ÚmGuksIut (Al 2O3) EdlkarBarelah³BIkarkat;. etIelah³kñúgRkum 2A NaEdlGñkKitfamanlkçN³ RsedogKña? ehtuGIV?

CMBYkTI8

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129> cUrpÁÚpÁgFatuxageRkameGayRtUvCamYylkçN³rbs;vanImYy²³ a) GasUt (N2) Ca]sµ½nBN’elOg nigmanRbtikmµCamYyTwk. b) br (B) Caelah³Tn;EdlmanRbtikmµCamYyTwkedIm,IbegIátCaGIuRdUEsn. c) GaluymIj:Úm (Al) CaBBYkGMpUETEdlmanlkçN³rwg nigmancMnucrlayx<s;. d) PøúyGr (F2) Ca]sµ½nKµan BN’ Kµankiøn. e) sUdüÚm (Na) Caelah³EdlskmµCagEdk EtminrgRbtikmµricrilCamYyxül;. cMelIylMhatcMelIylMhatcMelIylMhatcMelIylMhat;;;;GnuvtþnGnuvtþnGnuvtþnGnuvtþn__ __³ ³ ³ ³ 1¦ a) 1s22s22p63s23p64s2 . b) vaCaFatutMNag . c) Cadüama:ejTic. 2¦ Li> Be>C . 3¦ a) Li+. b) Au+. c) N3- . 4¦ a) N. b) Mg . 5¦ eT. 6¦a) GMpUET .b)

GasIut .c) )as. cMelIylMhatcMelIylMhatcMelIylMhatcMelIylMhat;;;;³³³³ 20> a) 1s22s22p63s23p5 b) Ca):ara:ma:ejTic (paramagnetic) 22> a) nig d) ;

b) nig e) ;c) nig f) 24> a)Rkum 1A . b) Rkum 5A. c) Rkum 8A. d) Rkum 8B 26> Fe3+ 28> a)

[Ne]. b) [Ne]. c) [Ar]. d) [Ar]. e) [Ar]. f) [Ar]3d6. g) [Ar]3d9. h) e [Ar]3d10 30> a)

Cr3+. b) Sc3+.c) Rh3+. d) Ir3+. 32> Be2+ nig He; F- nig N3-; Fe2+ nig Co3+; S2- nig Ar 38> Na>MG>Al>P>Cl 40> F 42> plbnÞúkéNVy:UéneGLicRtug RsTab;eRkAekIneLIgkat;tamxYb 44> Mg2+<Na+<F-< O2-<N3- 46> Te2- 48> -199.4 ºC 52> eGLicRtugmYy elIRsTab;rg 3p

kñúgGaluymIj:Úm RtUv)ankarBarya:gl¥edayeGLicRtugRsTab;rg 1s. 2snig 3s 54> 1s22s22p6:

2080 kJ/mol 56> 8.43 106 kJ/mol 60> Cl 62> r)ayeGLicRtug ns1

GnuBØaatieGayBYkvaTTYlykenAeGLicRtugbEnßmeTot. 66> Rbg;süÚm (Fr) KYrEtmanRbtikmµ xøaMgbMputkñúgTwknigGuksIuEsn begIát)anCaTMrg; FrOH, Fr2O2, FrO2 68> FatuenARkum 1B man famBlGIuy:ugkmµx<s;edIm,IkarBareGLicRtugminTan;Eq¥telIRsTab;rgkñúg d 70> a) Li2O +

H2O → 2LiOH . b) CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2 c) SO3 + H2O→ H2SO4 72> BaO 74> a) RbUm .b) GasUt c) ruyb‘ÍdüÚm .d) ma:ejsüÚm 76> a) Mg2+ < Na+< F-< O2-; b) O2-< F-<

Na+< Mg2+ 78> MKWb:UtasüÚm (K). X KW RbUm (Br) 80> GasUt N nig GIuy:ugGuksIuEsnO+ ; enGug Ne nigGIuy::ugGasUt N3-; Gakug Ar nigGIuy:ugs<an;F½r S2-; sg½ásI Zn nigGIuy:ugGaesnic

As3+; GIuy:ugessüÚm Cs nigesnug Xe 82> a) nig b) 84> ]sµ½nBN’elOg-ébtg (yellow-

green) : F2; ]sµ½nBN’elOg Cl2 ; GgÁFaturavBN’Rkbam Br2 ; GgÁFaturwgBN’exµA I2 86>


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PøúyGr (F) 88> H- 90> Li 2O¬)as¦ ;BeO ¬GMpUET¦ ;B2O3 ¬GasIut¦ ;CO2 ¬GasIut¦ ;N2O5 ¬GasIut¦ 92> vamanTMrg;BIrKWCaGIuy:ug H+ nig H- : H+ CaRbtug 94> 0.65 96> 76.7% 98> 418

kJ/mol 100> 7.28 103 kJ/mol 102>X: Sn or Pb; Y: P; Z: elah³Gal;kaLaMg (alkali

metal) 104> 495.9 kJ/mol 106> 343 nm 108> 604.3 kJ 110> K2TiO4 112> 2K2MnF6 +

4SbF5 → 4KSbF6 + 2MnF3 + F2 114> N2O(+1), NO(+2), N2O3(+3), NO2 and

N2O4(+4), N2O5(+5) 116> plbnÞúkéNVy:U kan;EtFMenaH karRsUbTayeGLicRtugBIéNVy:Ukan; EtxøaMg. kaMGatUmnwgtUcnigfamBlGIuy:ugkmµnwgFM. 118> M.pt.:6.3ºC; b.pt.: 74.9 ºC 120> kMedAEdl)anBIkarbMEbkéNVy:UGacbMEbk smasFatu. 122> Ar: 39.95 amu; K: 39.10 amu 124> Z= 119;[Rn] 7s25f146d107p68s1 126> Rkum 2A 128> a) SiH4. GeH4. SnH4. PbH4. b)

RbHeRcInCag GIuy:ug ; c) Ra + 2H2O → Ra(OH)2 + H2 ; d) Be.

CMBYkTI8 TMn ak;T Mn génFatukñúg taragxYb...TMnakTMngénFatukúgtaragxYb 8-2 EKA-ALUMINUM (Ea)...

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Transcript of CMBYkTI8 TMn ak;T Mn génFatukñúg taragxYb...TMnakTMngénFatukúgtaragxYb 8-2 EKA-ALUMINUM (Ea)...