Climate-9th Geography

02-03-2015 R. Ezhilraman, PGT-Social Science 1

R. Ezhilraman

PGT-Social Science

JNV Lepakshi

Subject: Geography

For Class: IX

What is Climate?

Climate is the characteristic condition of theatmosphere near the earth's surface at a certainplace on earth.

It refers to the sum total of weather conditions andvariation over a large area for a long period of time.

It is the long-term weather of that area whichremains at least 30 years.


Weather refers to the state ofatmosphere over an area atany point of time. Theelements of both weatherand climate are same. It is thecombination of temperature,humidity, precipitation, wind,cloudiness and otheratmospheric conditions at aspecific time.

What is Weather?


Monsoon

The word monsoon is derived from the Arabic word ‘mausim’which literally means season.

‘Monsoon’ refers to the seasonal reversal in the winddirection during a year.

The World is divided into a number of Climatic Regions. TheClimate of India is described as the ‘monsoon’ type. This typeof climate is found in South and Southeast Asia. But, there areperceptible regional variations in climatic conditions withinthe country.

Two important elements viz., temperature and precipitation,often vary from place to place and season to season.


Difference in Temperature

In summer, the temperature in parts of Rajasthan Desert

is 50°C, and it is around 20°C in Pahalgam in J & K. On

a winter night, temperature at Drass in J & K may less

than -45°C, and at Tiruvananthapuram it may be of

22°C.

In some places temperature between day and

night temperature differs. In the Thar Desert, it rise to

50°C, in day and drop down to near 15°C in night. But

in the Andaman and Nicobar islands or in Kerala, there

is no much difference in day and night temperatures.


Precipitation

Precipitation varies in its form, types and amount and

seasonal distribution. It is in the form of snowfall in the

upper parts of Himalayas, it rains over the rest of the

country. The annual precipitation varies from 400 cm in

Meghalaya to less than 10 cm in Ladakh and western

Rajasthan. Most parts of the country receive rainfall from

June to September. But Tamil Nadu coast gets rain during

October and November.

Rainfall generally decrease from east to west in the

Northern Plains. These variations have given rise to

variety in lives of people, their food, clothes and houses.


Vegetation


Vegetation can affect both temperature and

the precipitation patterns in an area.

FACTORS AFFECTING CLIMATE

RELATED TO LOCATION RELATED TO AIR

PRESSURE & WIND

•Latitude

•The Himalayan Mt.

•Distribution of Land & water

•Altitude

•Distance from Sea

Surface pressure & wind

Upper air circulation

Western cyclones•Relief Features


Latitude

Latitude is thedistance a placelies north orsouth of theequator and ismeasured by animaginary linecalled lines oflatitude.


EQUATORIAL REGION

LATITUDE

High Temp

Low range

High range

of Temp


Latitude

As latitude increases, the intensity of solar energy

decreases. Due to curvature of the Earth, the

amount of solar energy varies according to latitude.

In India, the Tropic of Cancer passes through the middleof the country from the Rann of Kuchchh in the west toMizoram in the east.

Almost half of the country, lying south of the Tropic ofCancer, belongs to the tropical area. All the remainingarea, north of the Tropic, lies in the sub-tropics.Therefore, India’s climate has characteristics of tropicalas well as subtropical climates.


Tropical, Temperate and Polar Zones

• The tropical zone is between 23.5o north (the tropic of

Cancer) and 23.5o south (the tropic of Capricorn) of the

Equator. The Sun’s rays are most intense and the

temperatures are always warm.

• The temperate zones are between 23.5o and 66.5o

north and between 23.5o and 66.5o south of the

Equator. The Sun’s rays strike Earth at a smaller angle

than near the Equator.

• Polar zones are between 66.5o north and south

latitudes and the poles. The sun’s rays strike Earth at a

very small angle in the polar zones.


Highland Climates


In general, highland climates are cooler and wetter than

nearby areas at lower elevations.

Earth’s Major Climate Zones


North Frigid Zone

Temperate Zone

Temperate Zone

South Frigid Zone

Torrid Zone


AGRA

160C in Jan

DARJILING40C in January

ALTITUDE

HIGH ALTITUDE

LOW ALTITUDE

Temperature decreased from low to high altitude


Air Temperature decreases with altitude.

As elevation increases, the air gets cooler because ofthe energy drawn from the surroundings.


Factors That Affect Climate

Water Bodies

Large bodies of water such as lakes and oceans have an

important effect on the temperature of an area because

the temperature of the water body influences the

temperature of the air above it.

Atmospheric Circulation

Global winds are another factor that influences climate

because they distribute heat and moisture around Earth.


Solar Activity

When the Sun is most active, it contains dark blemishes

called sunspots. The formation of sunspots appears to

correspond with warm periods in Europe and North

America.

Earth Motions

Geographic changes in Earth’s land and water bodies

cause changes in climate. Changes in the shape of

Earth’s orbit and the tilt of Earth on its axis are other

Earth motions that affect global climates.

Natural Processes That Change Climates


Human Impact on Climate Changes

The Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect is a natural warming of both

Earth’s lower atmosphere and Earth’s surface from solar

radiation being absorbed and emitted by the

atmosphere.

Global Warming

As a result of increased levels of carbon dioxide and

other greenhouse gases, global temperatures have

increased. This increase is called global warming.


The Pressure and Surface Winds

The pressure and wind system of any area depend on the latitudeand altitude of the place. It influences the temperature and rainfallpattern.

The climate and weather conditions in India are governed by theatmospheric conditions like:

• Pressure and surface winds;

• Upper air circulation; and

• Western cyclonic disturbances and tropical cyclones.

India lies in the north easterly winds region. These winds originatefrom the subtropical high-pressure belt of the northernhemisphere. They blow south, get deflected to the right due to theCoriolis force and move towards equatorial low-pressure area.


NORTH-EAST

TRADE WIND

SOUTH-EAST

TRADE WIND

INTER TROPICAL CONVERGENCE ZONE

SUB TROPICAL HIGH PRESSURE

SUB TROPICAL HIGH PRESSURE

SUB TROPICAL LOW PRESSURE

SUB TROPICAL LOW PRESSURE

POLAR HIGH

POLAR HIGH

SURFACE WIND


AIR MASSES CIRCULATE GLOBALLY


• At the Equator, temperatures are relativelyhigh. Land and water masses heat up and as aresult these warm the air over them.

• Air heated at the equatorial region rises tothe top of the atmosphere.

• More air rising beneath it forces the air massto spread north and south toward the poles.

Coriolis Effect

• The rotation of the Earth causes all movingobjects in the Northern Hemisphere,including air mass, to deflect to the right andthose in the Southern Hemisphere to move tothe left.

• This Coriolis effect is absent at the Equator.

• Coriolis Force- prevents a direct simple flowfrom the Equator to the Poles.

• This is also known as ‘Ferrel’s Law’.


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The Pressure and Surface Winds in India

The pressure and wind conditions in India is unique. During winter,there is a high-pressure in the north of the Himalayas. Cold drywinds blow from this region to the low-pressure areas over theoceans to the south. In summer, a low-pressure area develops overinterior Asia and in north-western India. This causes a completereversal of the direction of winds during summer. Air moves fromthe high-pressure area over the southern Indian Ocean, in a south-easterly direction, crosses the equator, and turns right towards thelow-pressure areas over the Indian subcontinent. These are knownas the Southwest Monsoon winds. These winds blow over thewarm oceans, gather moisture and bring widespread rainfall overthe mainland of India.


ARABIAN

SEA

BAY OF

BENGAL

INDIAN OCEAN

LOW AND HIGH PRESSURE

HIGH PRESSURE

IN WINTER


MUMBAI

CHENNAI

KOLKOTA

DELHI

SIMLA

DISTANCE FROM SEA

Coastal areas have equable climate where

as Interior parts have extreme climate.


Relief

• Relief too plays a major role in determiningthe climate of a place. High mountains actas barriers for cold or hot winds; they mayalso cause precipitation if they are highenough and lie in the path of rain-bearingwinds. The leeward side of mountainsremains relatively dry.


Receives high

rainfall

Receives low

rainfall

RELIEF


RELIEF

The Rain Shadow Effect


Jet Stream

• The upper air circulation in India is dominatedby a westerly flow, known as the jet stream.

• These are a narrow belt of high altitude (above12,000 m) westerly winds in the troposphere.Their speed varies from about 110 km/h insummer to about 184 km/h in winter.

• Many jet streams have been identified. Themost constant are the mid-latitude and the subtropical jet stream.


TIBET

JET STREAM IN WINTER


Jet Stream

Jet streams are located at 27°-30° north latitude, areknown as subtropical westerly jet streams. Over India,these jet streams blow south of the Himalayas, allthrough the year except in summer. The western cyclonicdisturbances experienced in the north and north-westernparts of the country are brought in by this westerly flow.In summer, the subtropical westerly jet stream movesnorth of the Himalayas with the apparent movement ofthe Sun. An easterly jet stream, called the tropicaleasterly jet stream blows over peninsular India,approximately over 14°N during the summer.


JET STREAM IN SUMMER


Western Disturbances

• The western cyclonic disturbances are weatherphenomena of the winter months brought in by thewesterly flow from the Mediterranean region. Theyusually influence the weather of the north and north-western regions of India. Tropical cyclones occur duringthe monsoon as well as in October - November, and arepart of the easterly flow. These disturbances affect thecoastal regions of the country.

• Thus very often the coast of Orissa and Andhra Pradeshare affected by those disasters.


WESTERN DISTURBANCE


OCEAN CURRENTS

Solar energy, wind, and Earth’s rotation creates Ocean currents

Current- the systematic patters of water movement.

Gyres- two great circular water motion.

Northern Hemisphere- the ocean current moves clockwise.

Southern Hemisphere- the ocean current move anti-clockwise.

Trade winds push warm surface waters westward at the equator.

As the waters encounter the continents, they split into north-and south-flowing currents along the eastern coast, formingnorth and south gyres.


Surface Water blown by the winds at point A will weirs to theright of its initial path and continue eastward. Water at pointB weirs to the right and continues westward.


Winds driven by uneven solar heating and Earth’s spin, drive themovement of the ocean’s surface currents. The prime movers are thepowerful westerlies and the persistent trade winds (easterlies)


The Köppen climate classification system uses

mean monthly and annual values of temperature and

precipitation to classify climates. According to the Köppen classification, the earth can be

divided into several major climatic zones and bands:

The Köppen Climate Classification System

Tropical climate

Subtropical climate

Arid climate

Equatorial climate

Semiarid climate

Mediterranean climate

Temperate climate

Oceanic climate

Continental climate

Subarctic climate

Polar climate

Climate of Antarctica02-03-2015 R. Ezhilraman, PGT-Social Science 45

Tropical Climate


Subtropical Climate


Arid Climate


Equatorial Climate


Semiarid Climate


Mediterranean Climate


Temperate Climate


Oceanic Climate


Continental Climate


Subarctic Climate


Polar Climate


Polar Climate02-03-2015 R. Ezhilraman, PGT-Social Science 57

Polar climates are those in which the mean temperature

of the warmest month is below 10oC.

Climate of Antarctica


The Indian Monsoon

The climate of India is strongly influenced bymonsoon winds. The sailors who came to India inhistoric times were one of the first to have noticedthe phenomenon of the monsoon. They benefitedfrom the reversal of the wind system as they cameby sailing ships at the mercy of winds. The Arabs,who had also come to India as traders named thisseasonal reversal of the wind system ‘monsoon’.


Atmospheric Conditions over the Indian Subcontinent

in the Month of January


Atmospheric Conditions over the Indian Subcontinent

in the Month of June


Facts of Mechanism of the Monsoons


In India, the monsoons are experienced in the tropical area

roughly between 20°N and 20°S. The Following facts are the

Mechanism of the Monsoons.

(a) The differential heating and cooling of land and water

creates low pressure on the landmass of India while the

seas around experience comparatively high pressure.

(b) The shift of the position of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone

(ITCZ) in summer, over the Ganga plain (this is the equatorial

trough normally positioned about 5°N of the equator. It is also

known as the monsoon-trough during the monsoon season).

Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)


The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone

(ITCZ) is a broad trough of low pressure

in equatorial latitudes. This is where the

northeast and the southeast trade winds

converge. This convergence zone lies

more or less parallel to the equator but

moves north or south with the apparent

movement of the sun.

Facts of Mechanism of the Monsoons


(c) The presence of the high-pressure area, east of

Madagascar, nearly at 20°S over the Indian Ocean. The

intensity of this high-pressure area affects the Indian

Monsoon.

(d) The Tibetan plateau gets intensely heated during

summer, results in strong vertical air currents and the

formation of low pressure over the plateau at about 9 km

above sea level.

(e) The movement of the westerly jet stream to the

north of the Himalayas and the presence of the tropical

easterly jet stream over the Indian peninsula during

summer.

Southern Oscillation


The changes in the pressure conditions over the southern

oceans also affect the monsoons. When the tropical eastern south

Pacific Ocean experiences high pressure, the tropical eastern Indian

Ocean experiences low pressure. But sometimes, there is a reversal in

the pressure conditions and the eastern Pacific has lower pressure in

comparison to the eastern Indian Ocean. This periodic change in

pressure conditions is known as the Southern Oscillation or SO.

The difference in pressure over Tahiti in Pacific Ocean and Darwin in

northern Australia of Indian Ocean is predicted the intensity of the monsoons.

If the pressure differences were negative, it would mean below average and

late monsoons. A feature connected with the SO is the El Nino, a warm ocean

current that flows past the Peruvian Coast, in place of the cold Peruvian

current, every 2 to 5 years. The changes in pressure conditions are connected

to the El Nino. Hence, the phenomenon is referred to as ENSO (El Nino

Southern Oscillations).

DarwinTahiti

SOUTHERN OSCILLATION


Effect of El Niño


El Nino is a name given to the

periodic development of a warm

ocean current along the coast of

Peru as a temporary replacement of

the cold Peruvian current. ‘El Nino’

is a Spanish word meaning ‘the

child’, and refers to the baby Christ,

as this current starts flowing during

Christmas. The presence of the El

Nino leads to an increase in sea-

surface temperatures and

weakening of the trade winds in the

region.

Homboldt Cold

Current

EL-NINO EFFECTS

1990

Delay in

Monsoon

Equatorial Warm

Current

El-Nino


Beginning of the Monsoon


The duration of the monsoon is between 100-120 days from

early June to mid-September.

During its arrival, the normal rainfall increases suddenly and

continues constantly for several days. This is known as the

‘burst’ of the monsoon, and can be distinguished from the

pre-monsoon showers.

The monsoon arrives at the southern tip of the Indian

peninsula generally by the first week of June.

Subsequently, it proceeds into two –

(i) the Arabian Sea branch and

(ii) the Bay of Bengal branch.

Beginning of the Monsoon


The Arabian Sea branch reaches Mumbai about ten days later on

approximately the 10th of June. This is a fairly rapid advance.

The Bay of Bengal branch also advances rapidly and arrives in Assam

in the first week of June. The lofty mountains causes the monsoon

winds to deflect towards the west over the Ganga plains.

By mid-June the Arabian Sea branch of the monsoon arrives over

Saurashtra-Kuchchh and the central part of the country. The Arabian

Sea and the Bay of Bengal branches of the monsoon merge over the

north-western part of the Ganga plains.

Delhi generally receives the monsoon showers from the Bay of Bengal

branch by the end of June (tentative date is 29th of June). By the July

first week, western Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and eastern

Rajasthan experience the monsoon. By mid-July, the monsoon reaches

Himachal Pradesh and the rest of the country.

End of the Monsoon


Withdrawal or the retreat of the monsoon is a more gradual

process. The withdrawal of the monsoon begins in north-western

states of India by early September. By mid-October, it withdraws

completely from the northern half of the peninsula. Then it

quickly withdraw from the southern half of the peninsula. By

early December, the monsoon has totally withdrawn from the

country.

The islands receive the very first monsoon showers, from south to

north, between the last week of April and the first week of May.

Then it withdraw from north to south during the first week of

December to the first week of January. By this time, the other

parts of the country is already influencing the winter monsoon.

RHYTHM OF SEASONS

COLD WEATHER

RETREATING MONSOONHOT WEATHER

SOUTH WEST MONSOON

Let us discuss each of them individually

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The monsoon type of climate is characterised by a distinct

seasonal pattern. The weather conditions greatly change from one

season to the other. These changes are particularly noticeable in

the interior parts of the country. But, the coastal areas do not

experience much variation in temperature though there is variation

in rainfall pattern.

In India, Four main seasons can be identified:

(i) the cold weather season,

(ii) the hot weather season,

(iii)the advancing monsoon and(iv) the retreating monsoon with some regional variations.

COLD WEATHER SEASON

► It extends from

December to February.

►Vertical sun rays shift

towards southern

hemisphere.

►North India experiences

intense cold where as

this season is not well

defined in south India.

►Light wind blow makes

this season pleasant in

south India.

►Occasional tropical

cyclone visit eastern

coast in this season.

Tropical Cyclone


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The cold weather season begins from mid- November in northern India and

stays till February. December and January are the coldest months. The

temperature decreases from south to the north. The average temperature of

Chennai, on the eastern coast is between 24°-25° Celsius, while in the northern

plains, it ranges between 10°-15° Celsius. Days are warm and nights are cold.

Frost is common in the north and the higher slopes of the Himalayas experience

snowfall.

During winter, the northeast trade winds blow from land to sea. So, most part of

the country faces a dry season. Some amount of rainfall occurs on the Tamil

Nadu coast from these winds as, trade winds blow from sea to land.

In the northern part of the country, a feeble high-pressure region develops, with

light winds moving outwards from this area. Influenced by the relief, these

winds blow through the Ganga valley from the west and the northwest. The

weather is normally marked by clear sky, low temperatures and low humidity

and feeble, variable winds.

250

C

250

C 200

C

200

C

200

C

150

C200

C

100

C`

TEMPERATURE- JANUARY


PRESSURE- JANUARY

101

4

HIGH

PRESSURE


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In the northern plains, there is the inflow of cyclonic

disturbances from the west and the northwest. These low-

pressure systems, from the Mediterranean Sea and western

Asia and move into India, along with the westerly flow. They

cause the winter rains (locally known as ‘mahawat’) over the

plains and snowfall in the mountains. Although the amount of

rainfall is small, it is more importance for cultivating the ‘rabi’

crops.

But, the peninsular region does not have a well-defined cold

season. There is rare seasonal change in temperature

pattern during winters due to the moderating influence of the

sea.

WIND DIRECTION- WINTER

Bay of Bengal


WINTER RAINFALL

RAINFALL DUE

TO WESTERN

DISTURBANCES

RAINFALL DUE

TO NORTH EAST

WIND


Winter is cold.

Children dress warmly to play in the snow.

Animals head to their winter homes.


HOT WEATHER SEASON

► It extends from March to

May.

► Vertical sun rays shift

towards Northern

hemisphere.

► Temperature rises

gradually from south to

north.

► Highest Temperature

experiences in Karnataka

in March, Madhya

Pradesh in April and

Rajasthan in May.

March 300C

April 380C

May 480C


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Due to the apparent northward movement of the Sun, the global

heat belt shifts northward. So, from March to May, it is hot weather

season in India. In March, the highest temperature is about 38°C, in

Deccan plateau. In April, temperatures in Gujarat and Madhya

Pradesh are around 42°C. In May, 45°C temperature is common in

the north-western parts of the country. In peninsular India,

temperatures remain lower due to the moderating influence of the

oceans.

The summer months experience rising temperature and falling air

pressure in the northern part of the country. By the end of May, an

elongated low-pressure area develops in the region extending from

the Thar Desert in the northwest to Patna and Chotanagpur plateau

in the east and southeast. Circulation of air begins to set in around

this trough.

TEMPERATURE- JULY

250

C

300

C


PRESSURE- JULY


LOO

KALBAISAKHI

BARDOLI

CHHEERHA

MANGO

SHOWER

BLOSSOM

SHOWER

STORMS IN HOT WEATHER SEASON


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An important feature of the summer season is the ‘loo’. These are

strong, gusty, hot, dry winds blowing during the day, sometimes till

late evening over the north and North-western India. Direct

exposure to these winds may be harmful. Dust storms are very

common during May in northern India. These storms bring

temporary relief as they lower the temperature and may bring light

rain and cool breeze. This is also the season for localised

thunderstorms, associated with violent winds. In West Bengal,

these storms are known as the ‘Kaal Baisakhi’.

By close of the summer season, pre-monsoon showers are common

especially, in Kerala and Karnataka. They help in the early ripening

of mangoes, and are often referred to as ‘mango showers’.

Long, hot days.

Summer fruit and vegetables are ready to be picked.

You see many bees and butterflies fly flower to flower.


Advancing Monsoon (The Rainy Season)

SOUTH WEST MONSOON SEASON

► It extends from June to

September.

► Intense heating in north

west India creates low

pressure region.

► Low pressure attract the

wind from the surrounding

region.

► After having rains for a

few days sometime

monsoon fails to occur for

one or more weeks is

known as break in the

monsoon.

HIGH TEMPERATURELOW PRESSURE


INTER TROPICAL CONVERGENCE ZONEEQUATOR

MONSOON WIND

Arabian sea

BranchBay of Bengal

Branch


ONSET OF SW MONSOON



By early June, the low-pressure condition over the northern plains

attracts the trade winds of the southern hemisphere. These south-

east trade winds originate over the warm subtropical areas of the

southern oceans. These winds are strong and blow at an average

velocity of 30 kmph. With the exception of the extreme north-west,

the monsoon winds cover the country in about a month.

The south-west monsoon entirely changes the weather in India. The

Western Ghats receives heavy rainfall, more than 250 cm. The rain

shadow areas like Deccan Plateau and parts of Madhya Pradesh

also receives rain. The north-eastern part of the country receives

the maximum rainfall. Mawsynram in the southern ranges of the

Khasi Hills receives the highest average rainfall in the world.

Rainfall in the Ganga valley decreases from the east to the west.

Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat get scanty rainfall.


The monsoon rains take place only for a few days at a time. They

are interspersed with rainless intervals. These breaks in monsoon

are related to the movement of the monsoon trough. The trough and

its axis keep on moving northward or southward, which determines

the spatial distribution of rainfall. Whenever the axis shifts closer

to the Himalayas, widespread rain occur in the mountainous

catchment areas of the Himalayan rivers, which also cause floods.

The frequency and intensity of tropical depressions determine the

amount and duration of monsoon rains. These depressions form at

the Bay of Bengal and cross over to the mainland. The depressions

follow the axis of the “monsoon trough of low pressure”. It causes

heavy floods in one part, and droughts in the other. Sometimes it

disturbs the farming schedule of millions of farmers all over the

country.

► It extends from October

to November

►Vertical sun rays start

shifting towards Northern

hemisphere.

►Low pressure region shift

from northern parts of

India towards south.

►Owing to the conditions

of high temperature and

humidity, the weather

becomes rather

oppressive. This is

commonly known as the

‘October heat’

RETREATING MONSOON SEASON

LOW PRESSURE


WITHDRAWAL OF MONSOON



Parts of western coast and north-eastern India receive over about

400 cm of rainfall annually. But, in western Rajasthan and

adjoining parts of Gujarat, Haryana and Punjab it is less than 60

cm. Rainfall is equally low in the interior of the Deccan plateau,

and east of the Sahyadris. Because of low precipitation found

around Leh in Jammu and Kashmir. The rest of the country

receives moderate rainfall. Snowfall is restricted to the Himalayan

region.

Based on the nature of monsoons, the annual rainfall is highly

variable from year to year. Variability is high in the regions of low

rainfall such as parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat and the leeward side of

the Western Ghats. Similarly, the areas of high rainfall are often

affected by floods, areas of low rainfall are drought-prone.

DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL

> 200cm

100-200cm

50-100 cm

< 50cm


The sun shines more and the days begin to get warmer.

Spring is a time when baby animals are born.

Spring is a time when plants and trees wake up after a long winters nap.

Spring showers help to warm the earth, moisten the soil, helping new plants to grow.


Leaves change to yellow, orange, and red.

Picking fruit and vegetables.

Animals get ready for winter.



The Himalayas protect the subcontinent from extremely cold winds

from central Asia. This enables northern India to have uniformly

higher temperatures when compared to other areas on the same

latitudes.

Similarly, the peninsular plateau, under the influence of the sea

from three sides, has moderate temperatures.

The unifying influence of the monsoon on the Indian subcontinent

is quite perceptible. The seasonal alteration of the wind systems

and the associated weather conditions provide a rhythmic cycle of

seasons.

The Indian landscape, its animal and plant life, its entire

agricultural calendar and the life of the people, including their

festivities, revolve around this phenomenon.

Climate-9th Geography

Environment

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