CLASSIFICATION OF SKILLS• We can CLASSIFY these skills on CONTINUUM. These are

imaginary scales of 2 extremes. EG: Black White. There are 6 Continuum

• PERCEPTUAL LOAD is the degree of decision making. If high lots of decisions made

• SUB ROUTINES are the different parts of a skill EG: Stance, Grip

1) MUSCULAR INVOLVEMENT: From GROSS skills (large muscle movements) to FINE. Skills (involve small muscle movements)

2) ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCER: From OPEN skills (affected by the environment) to CLOSED skills (not affected by the environment)

3) CONTINUITY CONTINUUM: From DISCRETE skills (a clear beginning and end) through SERIAL skills (numerous discrete skills put together) to CONTINUOUS skills (skills with no beginning or end)

4) PACING CONTINUUM: From SELF PACED skills (the performer determines when to start the skill) to EXTERNALLY PACED skills (the control of the movement is determined by the environment)

5) DIFFICULTY CONTINUUM: From SIMPLE skills (low levels of decision making, sub routines, power and accuracy needed, use of feedback, low perceptual load) to COMPLEX skills (high levels of the previous)

6) ORGANISATIONAL CONTINUUM: From LOW (sub routines are easily separated) to HIGH (sub routines are closely linked)

GROSS MOTOR ABILITY and PSYCHOMOTOR ABILITY • SKILL has GOALS, is LEARNED and is TECHNICAL and it

relies on ability• ABILITY is INNATE is GENETICALLY DETERMINED, is STABLE

and lasts a long time. They SUPPORT and UNDERLIE skills. They are BUILDING BLOCKS which help us to perform skills. As they are determined by genes, whichever ones you have will depend on how successful that you are in sport

• FLEISHMAN identified 2 types of Ability. 1) GROSS MOTOR ABILITY (9) – These are Physical Proficiency abilities. There are 9 related to physical fitness: Dynamic Strength, Static Strength, Explosive Strength, Trunk Strength, Stamina, Extent Flexibility, Dynamic Flexibility, Gross Body Coordination, Gross Body Equilibrium2) PSYCHOMOTOR ABILITY (8)– involves processing information and putting them into action. These include: Multi Limb Coordination, Response Orientation, Reaction Time, Speed of Movement, Finger Dexterity, Manual Dexterity, Rate Control, Aiming

• Skills rely on several abilities to support or underpin them. • NATURAL GAMES PLAYERS – some coaches suggest that

some athletes are this. Current research states that this is not the case. Some sports require the similar abilities and the athlete simply TRANSFERS them

• Ability can be developed particularly well in childhood if they have opportunity to PRACTICE, access to FACILITIES and EXPERT COACHING

There are 3 Stages or Phases of Learning. 1) COGNITIVE STAGE: The learner attempts to create a

MENTAL PICTURE of how the skill should be performed. VERBAL EXPLANATIONS and DEMONSTRATIONS are important. It will take longer if the skill is COMPLEX. Learners are given specific CUES to focus on, of the most important parts of the skill. This is called SELECTIVE ATTENTION. Learners use TRIAL AND ERROR. POSITIVE FEEDBACK is important for REINFORCEMENT. Performances will be INCONSISTENT, full of ERRORS.

2) ASSOCIATIVE STAGE: This is the PRACTICE phase of learning. Some learners stay in this stage for a long time and never progress beyond it. Mistakes begin to be eliminated and errors are less gross. Learners are more CONSISTENT, and the FUNDAMENTALS are mastered. SUB ROUTINES are coordinated and the skill is SMOOTHER. The learner attends to SPECIFIC CUES and they concentrate on REFINING skills in many conditions. The learner develops their use of KINAESTHESIS to eliminate errors.

3) AUTONOMOUS STAGE: The skill can be executed with MINIMUM CONSCIOUS THOUGHT. They can concentrate on other factors such as tactics. The MOTOR PROGRAMME is established and stored in the LONG TERM MEMORY. Performance is CONSISTENT and HABITUAL. Performers can detect their OWN ERRORS. EXTERNAL FEEDBACK is less important.

There are 4 Types of GUIDANCE used by coaches to help the learning process

1) VISUAL GUIDANCE: This is used at all stages of learning. It is important because VISION is the dominant sense. We tend to learn through IMITATION. DEMONSTRATIONS are good for this but they must be ACCURATE. They can also include pictures, diagrams and video. A MENTAL PICTURE can be developed but there are disadvantages with complex skills because there is so much information. Some methods may not keep attention

2) VERBAL GUIDANCE: Often used with Visual to direct the learner to SPECIFIC CUES. It must be CLEAR AND CONSCISE to be understood and remembered. Useful when working with AUTONOMOUS learners. Disadvantages are that ability of the coach to relay the message, information must to be limited and some complex skills are difficult to describe.

3) MANUAL GUIDANCE: This is when the coach HOLDS or PHYSICALLY MANIPULATES the body of the learner throughout the correct movement.

4) MECHANICAL GUIDANCE: This is the use of an EQUIPMENT to help the learner. Arm bands are an example. This allows the learner to develop SPATIAL AWARENESS and TIMING. Both Manual and Mechanical are good in the Cognitive stage and develop KINAESTHESIS. They give CONFIDENCE but it must not be relied upon. Good for dangerous skills. However the equipment might not REPLICATE the actual movement.

THE 4 METHODS OF MANIPULATING PRACTICE• TASK ANALYSIS uses the skills classification system to

understand how a skill needs to be taught. You use the ORGANISATIONAL and DIFFICULTY continua .....

• ORGANISATIONAL - Can the skill be broken down into parts or not?

• DIFFICULTY – How many decisions have to be made to perform the skill?

• KINAESTHESIS is the awareness of your body in the movement space1) PART PRACTICE: used when the skill is LOW ORGANISATION and can be broken into SUB ROUTINES. These are then practiced in ISOLATION before putting them all together. EG: Tennis Serve2) WHOLE PRACTICE: Skills taught as a whole. Usually when HIGH ORGANISATION and LOW COMPLEXITY. EG: Golf Swing. It allows performers to gain KINAESTHESIS3) PROGRESSIVE – PART PRACTICE: Complex skills are practiced in isolation, then linked together to form large parts before combining into the whole skill. EG: The Triple Jump / Trampoline Routines4) WHOLE - PART - WHOLE METHOD: The learner tries the whole skill first, gets a feel for it, then break it into SUB ROUTINES to practice in isolation, then put back together again. EG: The Tennis Serve

• We can CLASSIFY SKILLS on CONTINUUM. These are imaginary scales of 2 extremes. EG: Black White.

• PERCEPTUAL LOAD is the degree of decision making. If high lots of decisions made . SUB ROUTINES are the different parts of a skill

1) MUSCULAR INVOLVEMENT: From GROSS skills (large muscle movements) to FINE. Skills (involve small muscle movements)

2) ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCER: From OPEN skills (affected by the environment) to CLOSED skills (not affected by the environment)

3) CONTINUITY CONTINUUM: From DISCRETE skills (a clear beginning and end) through SERIAL skills (numerous discrete skills put together) to CONTINUOUS skills (skills with no beginning or end)

4) PACING CONTINUUM: From SELF PACED skills (the performer determines when to start the skill) to EXTERNALLY PACED skills (the control of the movement is determined by the environment)

5) DIFFICULTY CONTINUUM: From SIMPLE skills (low levels of decision making, sub routines, power and accuracy needed, use of feedback, low perceptual load) to COMPLEX skills (high levels of the previous)

6) ORGANISATIONAL CONTINUUM: From LOW (sub routines are easily separated) to HIGH (sub routines are closely linked)

• SKILL has GOALS, is LEARNED and is TECHNICAL and it relies on ability

• ABILITY is INNATE is GENETICALLY DETERMINED, is STABLE and lasts a long time. They SUPPORT and UNDERLIE skills. They are BUILDING BLOCKS which help us to perform skills. As they are determined by genes, whichever ones you have will depend on how successful that you are in sport

• FLEISHMAN identified 2 types of Ability. 1) GROSS MOTOR ABILITY (9) – These are Physical Proficiency abilities. There are 9 related to physical fitness: Dynamic Strength, Static Strength, Explosive Strength, Trunk Strength, Stamina, Extent Flexibility, Dynamic Flexibility, Gross Body Coordination, Gross Body Equilibrium2) PSYCHOMOTOR ABILITY (8)– involves processing information and putting them into action. These include: Multi Limb Coordination, Response Orientation, Reaction Time, Speed of Movement, Finger Dexterity, Manual Dexterity, Rate Control, Aiming

• Skills rely on several abilities to support or underpin them.

• NATURAL GAMES PLAYERS – some coaches suggest that some athletes are this. Current research states that this is not the case. Some sports require the similar abilities and the athlete simply TRANSFERS them

• Ability can be developed particularly well in childhood if they have opportunity to PRACTICE, access to FACILITIES and EXPERT COACHING

THE 4 METHODS OF MANIPULATING PRACTICE• TASK ANALYSIS uses the skills classification system to

understand how a skill needs to be taught. You use the ORGANISATIONAL and DIFFICULTY continua .....

• ORGANISATIONAL - Can the skill be broken down into parts or not?

• DIFFICULTY – How many decisions have to be made to perform the skill?

• KINAESTHESIS is the awareness of your body in the movement space1) PART PRACTICE: used when the skill is LOW ORGANISATION and can be broken into SUB ROUTINES. These are then practiced in ISOLATION before putting them all together. EG: Tennis Serve2) WHOLE PRACTICE: Skills taught as a whole. Usually when HIGH ORGANISATION and LOW COMPLEXITY. EG: Golf Swing. It allows performers to gain KINAESTHESIS3) PROGRESSIVE – PART PRACTICE: Complex skills are practiced in isolation, then linked together to form large parts before combining into the whole skill. EG: The Triple Jump / Trampoline Routines4) WHOLE - PART - WHOLE METHOD: The learner tries the whole skill first, gets a feel for it, then break it into SUB ROUTINES to practice in isolation, then put back together again. EG: The Tennis Serve

PART PRACTICE: Advantages: Reduces the amount of Information you need to learn / Good for learning Dangerous Skills / Good for gaining confidence bit by bit / Good for serial skillsDisadvantages: Takes time / Putting parts together can be difficult

WHOLE PRACTICE Advantages: Allows athlete to FEEL the movement and appreciate relationship of body parts / Good for Ballistic skills / Quick to learnDisadvantages: Not suitable for complex or dangerous skills

PROGRESSIVE – PART PRACTICEAdvantages: Good for complex Serial Skills as it reduces information load and can help the transfer into the whole skill – called CHAININGDisadvantages:

WHOLE - PART - WHOLE METHODAdvantages: The learner gets a KINAESTHETIC feel for the skill first / Can be quicker to learn / can identify weak parts of the skill earlierDisadvantages: Not suitable for Highly Organised Skills

There are 3 STAGES or PHASES OF LEARNING1) COGNITIVE STAGE: The learner attempts to create a

MENTAL PICTURE of how the skill should be performed. VERBAL EXPLANATIONS and DEMONSTRATIONS are important. It will take longer if the skill is COMPLEX. Learners are given specific CUES to focus on, of the most important parts of the skill. This is called SELECTIVE ATTENTION. Learners use TRIAL AND ERROR. POSITIVE FEEDBACK is important for REINFORCEMENT. Performances will be INCONSISTENT, full of ERRORS.

2) ASSOCIATIVE STAGE: This is the PRACTICE phase of learning. Some learners stay in this stage for a long time and never progress beyond it. Mistakes begin to be eliminated and errors are less gross. Learners are more CONSISTENT, and the FUNDAMENTALS are mastered. SUB ROUTINES are coordinated and the skill is SMOOTHER. The learner attends to SPECIFIC CUES and they concentrate on REFINING skills in many conditions. The learner develops their use of KINAESTHESIS to eliminate errors.

3) AUTONOMOUS STAGE: The skill can be executed with MINIMUM CONSCIOUS THOUGHT. They can concentrate on other factors such as tactics. The MOTOR PROGRAMME is established and stored in the LONG TERM MEMORY. Performance is CONSISTENT and HABITUAL. Performers can detect their OWN ERRORS. EXTERNAL FEEDBACK is less important.

4 TYPES OF GUIDANCE1) VISUAL GUIDANCE: This is used at all stages of learning.

It is important because VISION is the dominant sense. We tend to learn through IMITATION. DEMONSTRATIONS are good for this but they must be ACCURATE. They can also include pictures, diagrams and video. A MENTAL PICTURE can be developed but there are disadvantages with complex skills because there is so much information. Some methods may not keep attention

2) VERBAL GUIDANCE: Often used with Visual to direct the learner to SPECIFIC CUES. It must be CLEAR AND CONSCISE to be understood and remembered. Useful when working with AUTONOMOUS learners. Disadvantages are that ability of the coach to relay the message, information must to be limited and some complex skills are difficult to describe.

3) MANUAL GUIDANCE: This is when the coach HOLDS or PHYSICALLY MANIPULATES the body of the learner throughout the correct movement.

4) MECHANICAL GUIDANCE: This is the use of an EQUIPMENT to help the learner. Arm bands are an example. This allows the learner to develop SPATIAL AWARENESS and TIMING. Both Manual and Mechanical are good in the Cognitive stage and develop KINAESTHESIS. They give CONFIDENCE but it must not be relied upon. Good for dangerous skills. However the equipment might not REPLICATE the actual movement.

PRACTICE METHODS• MASSED PRACTICE is when the learner practices

CONTINUOUSLY with NO REST. Sessions are usually LONG. It is good for GROOVING SKILLS and making them HABITUAL. It is good for ELITE, EXPERIENCED athletes with good FITNESS. They are good for SIMPLE and DISCRETE skills. Disadvantages are that it can cause BOREDOM and FATIGUE

• DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE does have REST. It is good for BEGINNERS and learners with LOW MOTIVATION and FITNESS. It is good for CONTINUOUS and COMPLEX skills. Rest uses EXTRINSIC FEEDBACK and MENTAL REHEARSAL. The MOST EFFECTIVE method and promotes MOTIVATION

• FIXED PRACTICE is when a specific movement pattern is practiced repeatedly in the same ENVIRONMENT. It is also called a SKILL DRILL. It is good for CLOSED skills and allows them to be OVERLEARNED so attention can be directed to the environment.

• VARIED PRACTICE is when the skill is practiced in many environments. It allows SCHEMA to develop so the performer can ADAPT to the environment. Practice must be REALISTIC. It develops PERCEPTION and DECISION MAKING. It is good for OPEN skills. A skill needs to be OVERLEARNED before using this as they need to adapt to the environment

• MENTAL REHEARSAL or IMAGERY is when the athlete goes through the skill in the mind. Good for COGNITIVE learners but the elite use to FOCUS

• INFORMATION PROCESSING MODELS compare our brains to computers and how information enters our system, how we interpret it and how we put these decisions into action. There are 3 key processes :1) INPUTTING information through SENSORY INPUT (touch, sight etc) 2) PROCESSING information through our CENTRAL MECHANISM (brains) 3) OUTPUTTING information through EFFECTOR MECHANISMS (muscles)

• STIMULUS IDENTIFICATION is when our senses receive information about the situation. A stimulus is any information which stands out. This stage involves PERCEPTION. EG: The speed and direction of the shot

• RESPONSE SELECTION is when we decide what movement to make EG: The ball is high and left so I must dive in that direction to save it

• RESPONSE PROGRAMMING organises our MOTOR system (nerves and muscles) to carry out the movement. EG: You dive in that direction

• There are 2 Models of Information Processing that we will apply to Sport

1) WHELFORD’S MODEL2) WHITING’S MODEL

Use the handouts and the following terminology to APPLY both models

• PROPRIOCEPTION is a sense that allows us to know what position our body is in. It relies on information from PROPRIOCEPTORS in our joints

• PERCEPTION is how we view or interpret the information• PERCEPTUAL MECHANISM is the use of detecting,

comparing and recognising information• MEMORY has 3 parts. 1) SHORT TERM SENSORY STORE

2) SHORT TERM MEMORY 3) LONG TERM MEMORY• MOTOR PROGRAMME is a series of movements stored in

the long term memory. It remembers the sequence they are performed in

• DISPLAY is the surrounding environment• KINAESTHESIS is the feel of the movement. Used by

advanced athletes• TRANSLATORY MECHANISMS is the decision making

aspect once the information has been interpreted• EFFECTOR MECHANISM is when the motor programme is

put into action by sending nerve IMPULSES to the muscles

• EFFECTOR is the muscles which put the movement into action

• FEEDBACK can be INTRINSIC (from internal proprioceptors) or EXTRINSIC (coach, team mates)

SERIAL AND PARALLEL PROCESSING• Most information that we process is done

SEQUENTIALLY or in STAGES. Each stage is different and they have an effect on each other. These are known as SERIAL PROCESSES. EG: In a trampoline routine the performer processes information relating to each movement and stage by stage.

• PARALLEL PROCESSING is when processes occur SIMULTANEOUSLY. They do not have an effect on each other. EG: In a game you process information about the speed, direction and height of the ball but also the team mates and opposition.

Use Whiting’s and Whelford’s Model to explain:1) A skill which requires SERIAL PROCESSES and 2) A Skill which uses PARALLEL PROCESSING

• MEMORY is important for INTERPRETING information and deciding the MOTOR PROGRAMME to use. We rely on our PREVIOUS EXPERIENCES. The MULTI STORE MODEL OF INFORMATION PROCESSING identifies 3 STORES.

1) SENSORY MEMORY (SM) The use of SHORT TERM SENSORY STORES holds all stimuli for only 0.25 second to 1 second. Their capacity is LARGE and there is a separate store for each sense. Our PERCEPTION recognises which is the most important information. It is FILTERED through SELECTIVE ATTENTION. Only the important info is used. Focusing on irrelevant information is ATTENTIONAL WASTAGE

2) SHORT TERM MEMORY(STM) This is the WORKPLACE where incoming information is COMPARED to what you have already stored in the LTM. It has LIMITED CAPACITY in terms of QUANTITY (5 to 9 pieces of info) and LENGTH of time stored (up to 30 seconds) ENCODING is information in coded form. To do this the info must be passed into the LTM through REHEARSAL.

3) LONG TERM MEMORY(LTM) holds the info that has been REHEARSED. Its capacity is LIMITLESS and can be held PERMANENTLY. Motor Programmes are stored in the LTM

Use the Multi Store Model to explain how we use information and transfer it from on

stage to another..Use Practical Examples

Draw the model and apply your answers

SHORT TERM SENSORY

STORE

SHORT TERM MEMORY

LONG TERM MEMORY

STIMULI / INPUT

SELECTIVEATTENTION

ENCODING

ENCODING

RETRIEVAL

PERCEPTION AND DECISION

MAKING

• REACTION TIME is the time between the onset of the stimulus and the start of the movement in response to it. It has 4 parts and is the time for:

1) The stimulus to activate the particular sensory system

2) The stimulus to travel from the sensory system to the brain

3) The brain (CENTRAL MECHANISM) to process the stimulus

4) The relevant commands to be sent from the central mechanism to the muscles

• MOVEMENT TIME is the time taken from starting the movement to finishing it

• RESPONSE TIME is the time taken from the onset of the stimulus to the completion of the movement = REACTION TIME + MOVEMENT TIME

Imagine you are Usain Bolt’s Psychologist. You want to explain REACTION TIME for the benefit of him and for his coach. Write an article which explains Reaction Time for their benefit. Ensure you apply of the key concepts and use practical examples to make it easy to understand

Reaction Time is affected by many factors. • AGE – reaction time gets quicker until you are 20,

then declines• GENDER – males generally have quicker reaction

times• LIMB USED – the further the nerve impulse has to

travel the slower the reaction time will be. Feet Reaction will be slower than hands

• PERSONALITY – Extroverts have quicker reaction time than INTROVERTS

• ALERTNESS: Optimum levels are needed to react quickest

• BODY TEMP – if we are cold, we react slower• SENSES: Different senses have different reaction

times in the following order: PAIN / SIGHT / SOUND / TOUCH / KINAESTHESIA

• IF A WARNING IS GIVEN and you are expecting it you will react quicker

• STIMULUS INTENSITY: loud sounds or sights stimulate quick reactions

• THE LIKELIHOOD OF THE STIMULUS OCCURRING: If it has a good chance of occurring reactions are quicker. This is STIMULUS – RESPONSE COMPATABILITY. EG: A punch being thrown in BoxingUse practical examples to highlight how Reaction times in the England Rugby and Football Teams will compare.

REACTION TIME• SINGLE CHANNEL HYPOTHESIS states that when we

receive information the brain can only deal with one stimulus at a time. It is thought of as a SINGLE CHANNEL. One piece has to be processed before the next one can be dealt with. This is called a BOTTLENECK

• CHOICE REACTION TIME is when performers are having to deal with more than one stimulus and one response at a time. The greater the amount of choices will increase the information to be processed and slow reaction time

• HICK’s LAW states that CHOICE REACTION TIME increases as the number of stimulus / alternatives increases. This relationship is LINEAR.

Coaches can Improve a Performers Response Time by:

• PRACTICE and REHEARSAL / MENTAL REHEARSAL / EXPERIENCE / STIMULUS RESPONSE COMPATABILITY / CUE DETECTION EG: recognising an opponents body position / PHYSICAL FITNESS/ LEVEL OF MOTIVATION / WARM UP/ SPATIAL ANTICIPATION is predicting what will happen/ TEMPORAL ANTICIPATION is predicting when it will happen.

• ANTICIPATION has many benefits BUT we must be aware of its draw backs. If we anticipate incorrectly our reaction time will slow down. If we detect a stimulus and are processing it but are then presented with a second stimulus, we are unable to deal with the second stimulus until we have finished dealing with the firstEG: A defender in football when dealing with Christiano Ronaldo. If Ronaldo performs a step over (1st STIMULUS) the defender attempts to deal with this (1st RESPONSE) by moving his body in that direction. However, Ronaldo then moves the ball in the opposite direction (2nd STIMULUS). The defender cannot deal with the 2nd STIMULUS and perform a 2nd RESPONSE until he has completed the 1st RESPONSE. This delay in attending to the 2nd STIMULUS is called THE PSYCHOLOGICAL REFRACTORY PERIOD (PRP). It is the delay caused by only being able to process one piece of information at a time

STIMULUS 1 REACTION 1

STIMULUS 2 REACTION 2

PRP (TIME)

A MOTOR PROGRAMME (MP) is a GENERALISED series or pattern of movements stored in the LONG TERM MEMORY. It is the PLAN for a skill. It can also be called an EXECUTIVE MOTOR PROGRAMME (EMP). Every skill in sport has a MP or EMP

An MP for a Tennis Serve would include the following sub routines: Ball Toss, Backswing, Forward Swing, Contact, and Follow Through. These SUB ROUTINES are HIERARCHICAL (they have an order of importance) and SEQUENTIAL (they are performed in an order)

• When a performer reaches the AUTONOMOUS STAGE they will have OVERLEARNED or GROOVED the Motor Programme into the LTM

• Motor Programmes can be one of 3 Types or LEVELS depending on the amount of feedback available when performing the skillLEVEL 1 CONTROL: OPEN LOOP CONTROL: When RAPID movements are performed. It is a very QUICK action with NO TIME for FEEDBACK. Therefore the movement CANNOT BE CHANGED. The EMP is stored in the LTM and sent to the MOVEMENT EFFECTORS because there is a MEMORY TRACE as it has been so well REHEARSED. Control is SUBCONSCIOUS. It is associated with BALLISTIC skills such as wicket keeping in cricketLEVEL 2 CONTROL: CLOSED LOOP CONTROL: This control involves FEEDBACK and this is called PERCEPTUAL TRACE. FEEDBACK is SHORT and is gathered by KINAESTHESIS and PROPRIOCEPTORS. Quick subconscious CORRECTIONS can take place. EG: Slalom SkiingLEVEL 3 CONTROL: CLOSED LOOP CONTROL: FEEDBACK about the performance has TIME to get to the brain. You can change the movement by sending IMPULSES back to the muscles. It uses CONSCIOUS thought. EXTERNAL FEEDBACK can be used to REINFORCE especially if they are beginners. The PERCEPTUAL TRACE compares the performance with the MEMORY TRACE. If it matches its reinforced, if not the skill is adjusted

Draw Adam’s 3 theories of Loop Control and explain how they apply in sport. Apply all characteristics of each level and explain how they work

Do you believe in Loop Control Theory? What are the drawbacks? Think about: Open Skills. Will this work for Open Skills? Why?

THE EMP in the LTM

The Action of the Muscles

Memory Trace

LEVEL ONE CONTROL LEVEL TWO CONTROL

THE EMP in the LTM

The Action of the Muscles

FeedbackVia Muscles

Memory Trace

LEVEL THREE CONTROL

THE EMP in the LTM

The Action of the Muscles

Memory TracePerceptual

Trace

SCHEMA THEORY• This theory disagrees with Loop Control and states that

MPs are not stored in the LTM as separate items but they are held as RELATIONSHIPS which are GENERALISED MOVEMENTS which can be ADAPTED to respond to NEW SITUATIONS. Schema is a store of information and experiences

• The EXPERIENCE is gathered from 4 areas called MEMORY ITEMS. Items 1 and 2 make up RECALL SCHEMA and items 3 and 4 make up RECOGNITION SCHEMA. Both allow the performer to ADAPT

RECALL SCHEMAMEMORY ITEM 1: KNOWLEDGE OF INITIAL CONDITIONS: Has the athlete experienced a similar situation before ?MEMORY ITEM 2: KNOWLEDGE OF RESPONSE SPECIFICATIONS: Does the athlete know what can be done in these situations?

RECOGNITION SCHEMAMEMORY ITEM 3: KNOWLEDGE OF SENSORY CONSEQUENCES: Relates to Kinaesthesis. Does the athlete know how it feels to perform the correct skillMEMORY ITEM 4: KNOWLEDGE OF MOVEMENT OUTCOME: Does the athlete know what the outcome of performing the skill will be?

Sporting Scenario: 2 attackers v 1 defender in Rugby

RECALL SCHEMAMEMORY ITEM 1: KNOWLEDGE OF INITIAL CONDITIONS: Has he experienced a 2 v 1 situation before?MEMORY ITEM 2: KNOWLEDGE OF RESPONSE SPECIFICATIONS: Does the performer know that he can pass, dummy, sidestep or kick?

RECOGNITION SCHEMAMEMORY ITEM 3: KNOWLEDGE OF SENSORY CONSEQUENCES: Does the performer know what it feels like to successfully execute a pass etc ?MEMORY ITEM 4: KNOWLEDGE OF MOVEMENT OUTCOME: Does the athlete know that if he did side step then the defender would be sent the wrong way? ......The performer then executes the skill based on these experiencesApply Schema Theory to a sporting situation of your

choice. Which do you believe in? Loop Control or Schema?

FEEDBACK• FEEDBACK is information received by the athlete both

during and after the skill has been performed. It must be ACCURATE, CONSTRUCTIVE and COMPREHESIBLE and it can improve CONFIDENCE, MOTIVATION, REDUCE ERRORS, and REINFORCE good actions. There are 8 Types:

1. POSITIVE : given externally by a coach when PRAISING their success

2. NEGATIVE: is given when the movement is INCORRECT. It can be INTRINSIC or EXTRINSIC. This is NOT criticism

3. EXTRINSIC: is from external sources such as the coach. Can be called AUGMENTED feedback

4. INTRINSIC: is SENSORY feedback about the physical feel of the movement. It relies on PROPRIOCEPTORS and KINAESTHESIS

5. TERMINAL: is given AFTER the movement is completed and is EXTRINSIC

6. CONCURRENT: is received DURING the skill performance. It can be INTRINSIC or EXTRINSIC

7. KNOWLEDGE OF PERFORMANCE (KP): is feedback that is given about the QUALITY of the movement. It can be INTERNAL and KINAESTHETIC

8. KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS (KR): is about the result or OUTCOME of the movement and is EXTRINSIC. EG: Times

MOTIVATION AND AROUSAL• MOTIVATION is the DRIVE to learn and perform well. It

is the DIRECTION of behaviour (the amount of emotional energy) and INTENSITY of behaviour (the course of action related to the emotion). It is linked to AMBITION and also whether someone PARTICIPATES.

• Intensity of Behaviour is also called AROUSAL. There are 2 aspects:

1) SOMATIC or PHYSIOLOGICAL AROUSAL: the state of the body- heart rate

2) COGNITIVE or PSYCHOLOGICAL AROUSAL relates to the mind – worry

• MOTIVATION can be INTRINSIC (when a performer participates for their own reasons – GOALS) and EXTRINSIC (when they perform for REWARDS)

A) The DRIVE THEORY of Arousal. There relationship is LINEAR between AROUSAL and PERFORMANCE. The quality of the performance depends on how well the skill has been LEARNED as the more learned they are the more the DOMINANT RESPONSES is most likely to be given

B) The INVERTED U THEORY of Arousal. Performance increases as arousal does but reaches a point called the OPTIMUM POINT or THRESHOLD OF AROUSAL. It is mid way to maximum arousal and can vary. It depends on PERSONALITY, TYPE OF TASK, STAGE OF LEARNING, EXPERIENCE The best performance levels occur at MODERATE levels of arousal. If the performer goes past this point then they become OVER AROUSED and their performance DETERIORATES.

C) The CATASTROPHE THEORY of Arousal. This is when performance is influenced by the relationship between SOMATIC and COGNITIVE arousal. As Somatic arousal increases so does the performance BUT performance reaches OPTIMUM level ONLY if the cognitive arousal is kept LOW at the same time. If it is high the athlete goes OVER THE EDGE and performance drops CATASTROPHICALLY.

D) The DRIVE REDUCTION theory describes the LOSS of MOTIVATION when learning a skill. At first there is DRIVE and the S-R BOND is strong but this leads to low motivation. New GOALS must be introduced to rectify

• Draw the A, B and C theories in the form of a graph. Use the X Axis to represent the Units of LEVEL OF AROUSAL. Use the Y Axis to represent units QUALITY OF PERFORMANCE. Both axis from LOW to HIGH

• Show the OPTIMUM POINT. You may need 2 lines for Catastrophe Theory

• Use arrows to draw a flow diagram for the Drive Reduction Theory re ordering these 5 terms: The skill is mastered – Desire to learn a new skill – The drive reduces – Drive to satisfy the need to learn is applied – new goals. Explain how INHIBITION (boredom) reduces drive

• For the DRIVE theory explain with practical example why high arousal would benefit elite performers rather than novices. Explain how the optimum level would change in this theory for the novice. EG: What level of arousal would they best need? Explain why.

• For the INVERTED U theory UNDER and OVER AROUSAL can seriously affect learning of skills. Describe how the concentration on environmental CUES and SELECTIVE ATTENTION would affect learning when they are under aroused:. Now...When over aroused how might HIGH ANXIETY, ATTENTIONAL FIELD (the area of which the performer is aware) HYPERVIGILANCE (panic) CONCENTRATION affect performance

• Suggest ways that psychologists can reduce anxiety levels in graph 3. Explain when you have experienced Catastrophe. Why did it happen?

MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGIES• We need to consider different STRATEGIES to encourage

children to participate. Especially those who are DISAFFECTED. Motivation can be EXTERNAL and can be TANGIBLE (you can touch it such as Trophies) or INTANGIBLE (cannot be touched such as Praise)

• However EXTERNAL Motivation is a SHORT TERM strategy compared to INTERNAL motivation. It is the key to LIFELONG SPORT and is established through POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT and setting GOALS

• MOTIVATIONAL strategies are essential to learning and performance. Critically evaluate the following strategies by explaining how each will affect lifelong participation and a healthy balanced lifestyle

1) Providing FUN ACTIVITIES2) Ensuring SOCIAL EXPERIENCES3) Use of ATTAINABLE TARGETS4) Increasing SKILL AND FITNESS LEVELS5) Using ROLE MODELS 6) Use of POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT7) Ensuring PERSONAL BENEFIT8) TRANSFER OF PREVIOUSLY LEARNED SKILLS

The 3 THEORIES OF LEARNING MOVEMENT SKILLS1) OPERANT CONDITIONING: Behaviour can be MODIFIED

or CONDITIONED if directed towards a STIMULUS in a STRUCTURED ENVIRONMENT. It strengthens the S-R BOND. This link is called an ASSOCIATION or CONNECTION. The learner uses TRIAL and ERROR. When the correct response is given the learner is REWARDED through POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT

2) COGNITIVE THEORY: Learning is best achieved by presenting the WHOLE skill to the learner. It depends on PERCEPTION. The learner will use CURRENT KNOWLEDGE and PREVIOUS EXPERIENCE. They use MENTAL PROCESSES called INTERVENING VARIABLES. Solving the whole problem is known as INSIGHT or INTUITIVE LEARNING. It is a GESTALTIST theory (German word for whole pattern)The whole is greater than the sum of its parts. They believe that PART learning is ineffective because the learner does not have all the information

3) OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING: SOCIAL learning involves IMITATING others. Most learning takes place this way. It is most likely to be copied if the DEMONSTRATOR is a SIGNIFICANT OTHER to the observer. ROLE MODELS have huge influence and is most likely to occur in the same GENDER. It requires VISUAL GUIDANCE creating a MENTAL PICTURE.

Critically Evaluate the 3 Theories of Learning using the following information

• OPERANT CONDITIONING: Skinner’s Rat experiment allowed a rat in a cage to experiment with levers. Eventually it pressed the correct lever and it gave a food pellet. Task – Design a practice session which uses Operant Conditioning. Use the terms Connection, Association, Trail and Error, S-R Bond, Reinforcement, Conditioning, Modified and Reward in your answer

• COGNITIVE THEORY: Design a session using this theory to develop skills in passing a receiving a basketball. How could Gestaltist theorists use this theory in unsafe or complex skills? EG: Rugby

• Describe the differences between Connectionist and Gelstaltist Theorists. Which do you agree with?

• BANDURA (a psychologist) suggested that Observational Learning can only take place if 4 elements are present. Design a practice session which applies the 4 elements.

1) ATTENTION: The learner must focus on the demonstration

2) RETENTION: The learner must store the image if they are to replicate it

3) MOTOR PRODUCTION: The learner must have the physical ability to copy it

4) MOTIVATION: The learner must be driven to copy

REINFORCEMENT• Reinforcement is the process that causes the STIMULUS

RESPONSE (S-R) BOND to STRENGTHEN. This ensures the response REOCCURS. There are 2

1) POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT: is when the coach or teacher gives APPROVAL when the DESIRED behaviour is demonstrated. Approval may be TANGIBLE (certificate, trophy) or INTANGIBLE (praise)

2) NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT: is when the NEGATIVE or AVVERSIVE STIMULUS (this is Disapproval) is taken away when the desired response is performed. It strengthens the S-R bond because it WEAKENS the INCORRECT LEARNING BOND. EG: When learning to dive a swimmer experiences pain on contact. When the pain is withdrawn if performed correctly the negative reinforcement is removed. It is NOT punishment

3) PUNISHMENT: is when a NOXIOUS (unpleasant) STIMULUS is given and this prevents that behaviour reoccurring. EG: Being sent off for a high tackle. The red card is the noxious stimulus

4) THORNDIKE (a psychologist) believed that 3 rules are applied to strengthen the S-R Bond. A) The LAW OF EFFECT: behaviour is reinforced with Positive Reinforcement it will strengthen the S-R Bond B) The LAW OF EXERCISE: The S-R Bond is strengthened with PRACTICE C) The LAW OF READINESS: the performer must ready both mentally and physically

TRANSFER OF LEARNING – 5 Types• TRANSFER is the influence that one skill has on the

learning and performance of another skill. Schmidt said “No learning takes place without transfer”. It has huge LINKS with VARIABLE PRACTICE and SCHEMA theory. In childhood we learn FUNDAMENTAL MOVEMENT SKILLS (such as hopping) which then become the BASIS of advanced skills (side stepping). Children develop a POOL OF EXPERIENCE or MOVEMENT SCHEMAS. These transfer into difficult Motor Programmes1) POSITIVE: when one skill helps the learning of another. EG: Learning to throw positively transfers to the arm action of the tennis serve2) NEGATIVE: when one skill HINDERS or prevents the learning of another. EG: Badminton requires loose wrists. Tennis requires firm wrists3) PROACTIVE: A previously learned skill influences a skill you are currently learning EG: Throwing will help you learn the volleyball serve4) RETROACTIVE: when a newly learned skill helps you perform a skill you already know EG: Learning the tennis serve may help you to better over arm throw in cricket5) BI LATERAL: when a performance of one side of the body influences the other side EG: A right footed player learns to play left footed

1) Good coaches and teachers ensure that during the session POSITIVE TRANSFER takes place and that its effects are OPTIMISED (the effects are maximised) How can coaches ensure OPTIMISED TRANSFER. Use the following points to answer this question. Give practical examples:

• VARIABLE PRACTICE• DEMONSTRATIONS• INFORMATION PROCESSING• THORNDIKES 3 LAWS• STAGE OF LEARNING of a previously learned skill• Developing a POOL OF EXPERIENCE• REINFORCEMENT and strengthening the S-R BOND

2) NEGATIVE TRANSFER can be avoided by ensuring the practice ENVIRONMENT is close to the real situation, and by avoiding CONFLICTING skills. Apply these concepts to your sport 3) Describe and explain the STRONG RELATIONSHIP between Transfer and SCHEMA and VARIABLE PRACTICE. Why do GESTALTISTS like this theory?