Class Readings Mammals of Bouverie Preserve from iNaturalist Mammals of ACR by Order Mammal Tracking Basics Scatology Mammal Skull & Jaw Identification Mule Deer & Bobcat Sign by Gwen Heistand Willows & Deer Rubbings Pocket Gophers Rat Chat, Dusky-footed Wood Rat How to read a skull like an open book by National Park

Service Mammal Tracking Quiz REVIEW: Art of the Question (adapted from Coyote’s

Guide to Connecting with Nature, 2nd edition, Jon Young et. al., 2016

CALNAT: California Naturalist Handbook Chapter 6 (172-175)

Key Concepts

Mammals

By the end of this class, we hope you will be able to:

List 3 features that make a mammal a mammal (mammal anatomy),

Identify the most frequently-encountered local scat and tracks and use some basic mammal tracking techniques,

Generate 3 levels of questions about mammals using Art of the Question techniques introduced during Working with Young Learners Class,

Get young learners excited about mammals, even if they can’t always see them, and help them discover mammals through evidence and clues (“signs”).

Demonstrate to a 3rd or 4th grader the importance of scent and smell to most mammals (how is coyote scat like a bird song?),

Feel familiar with some of our common mammals via their skulls, scat, and pelts, and

Help young learners investigate mammalian diets by looking at scat.

A Few More Key Concepts

By the end of this class, we hope you will understand:

How skull shape, dentition, and eye placement relate to the life histories* of different types of mammals,

Major orders of land mammals and what makes each unique, and

Several different mammalian life history strategies.

* An organism's life history is the sequence of events related to survival and reproduction that occur from birth through death.

Websites of interest

American Society of Mammalogists at http://www.mammalsociety.org/

Check out our iNaturalist online field guide to Mammals of Bouverie Preserve at: www.inaturalist.org/guides/2120

The University of Michigan’s Animal Diversity Web (ADW) lets users browse the Kingdom Animalia by phylum, order, class, etc. with photos and information about individual species. Check out the mammal section at http://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Mammalia

The Mammals page of the Animal Planet website has very good in-depth information about mammalian characteristics, social behaviors, tracking/sign, and habitats. Go to http://www.animalplanet.com/wild-animals/mammals

Resources Related to Mammals

Trail Tips

At the beginning of your hike, assign each student a “job,” such as Scatologist, Tracker, (as well as non-mammal jobs like Entomologist, Botanist, etc.). Then, on the trail, give each a chance to lead the group in looking for clues. With your help, students can become Animal Detectives, especially for the mammals that live on the Preserve but rarely show themselves to hikers. Look for tracks, get excited about scat, wonder about dirt mounds, touch bark rubbings, notice nibbled leaves. Wonder what might have been there and what were they doing. Practice mammal gaits … how would a raccoon waddle? A deer stot? A coyote run? Pretend you have to use your sense of smell to find food, a mate, sense a predator … And don’t forget to share the camera trap photos at Cougar Pond.

S E Q U O I A C L U B

Recommended Reading & Resources

A Field Guide to Mammal Tracking in North America by James Halfpenny (Johnson Publishing, 1986).

Animal Skulls: A Guide to North American Species by Mark Elbroch (Stackpole Books, 2006).

Animal Tracking Basics by Jon Young & Tiffany Morgan (Stackpole Books, 2007).

Field Guide to Animal Tracks and Scat of California by Mark Elbroch, Michael Kresky, and Jonah Evans (University of California Press, 2012).

Mammal Tracks & Sign: A guide to North American Species by Mark Elbroch (Stackpole Books, 2005).

Mammals of California by E.W. Jameson and Hans J. Peeters (University of California Press, 2004).

Tracking and the Art of Seeing by Paul Rezendes (Collins Reference, 1992).

When Mountain Lions are Neighbors: People and wildlife working it out in California by Beth Pratt-Bergstrom (Heyday Books, 2016).

Black-tailed DeerOdocoileus hemionuscolumbianus

Trowbridge's ShrewSorex trowbridgii

Broad-footed MoleScapanus latimanus

American Shrew-moleNeurotrichus gibbsii

California MyotisMyotis californicus

Little Brown BatMyotis lucifugus

Pallid BatAntrozous pallidus

Townsend's Big-eared BatCorynorhinus townsendii

RaccoonsProcyon

Long-tailed WeaselMustela frenata

Striped SkunkMephitis mephitis

BobcatLynx rufus

Mountain LionPuma concolor

CoyoteCanis latrans

Gray FoxUrocyon cinereoargenteus

Virginia OpossumDidelphis virginiana

Brush RabbitSylvilagus bachmani

Black-tailed JackrabbitLepus californicus

Common PorcupineErethizon dorsatum

Botta's Pocket GopherThomomys bottae

Mammals of Bouverie Preserve ofAudubon Canyon Ranch - SonomaCounty, CA

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13 14 15 16

17 18 19 3

Western Gray SquirrelSciurus griseus

Sonoma ChipmunkTamias sonomae

California VoleMicrotus californicus

Deer MousePeromyscus maniculatus

Dusky-footed WoodratNeotoma fuscipes

Photos: 1. (c) Sandy/Chuck Harris, some rights reserved (CC BY-NC), 2. (c) elkman22, some rights reserved (CC BY-NC), uploaded by elkman22, 3. (c) Ken-ichi Ueda, somerights reserved (CC BY-NC-SA), 4. (c) Sarah Caufield, some rights reserved (CC BY-NC-SA), 5. (c) MaryEllen and Paul, some rights reserved (CC BY-NC), 6. (c) SMBishop,some rights reserved (CC BY-SA), 7. (c) Keaton Wilson, some rights reserved (CC BY), 8. (c) J. N. Stuart, some rights reserved (CC BY-NC-ND), 9. (c) Lynette Schimming,some rights reserved (CC BY-NC), 10. (c) Bill Bouton, some rights reserved (CC BY-SA), 11. (c) Marius Strom, some rights reserved (CC BY-NC), 12. (c) matt knoth, somerights reserved (CC BY-NC-ND), 13. (c) Felidae Conservation Fund, all rights reserved, uploaded by Jeanne Wirka, 14. (c) Dan Hutcheson, some rights reserved (CC BY-NC),15. (c) James Marvin Phelps, some rights reserved (CC BY-NC), 16. (c) Jessie Hirsch, some rights reserved (CC BY), 17. (c) randomtruth, some rights reserved (CC BY-NC-SA), 18. (c) Mike Baird, some rights reserved (CC BY), 19. (c) Danny Barron, some rights reserved (CC BY-NC-ND), 20. (c) Larry McCombs, some rights reserved (CC BY-NC-SA), 21. (c) Flickr, some rights reserved (CC BY), 22. (c) Larry Miller, some rights reserved (CC BY-NC), 23. (c) Christian, some rights reserved (CC BY-NC-SA)

Compiled by Jeanne Wirka, some rights reserved (CC BY-SA)

Built with iNaturalist.org Guides

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Mammals Checklist of ACR

MARSUPIALIA Virginia Opossum. Nocturnal. Omnivore

INSECTIVORA Trowbridge’s Shrew. Common in forest letter and wooded canyons. Active day and night. Insectivore Shrew-mole. Common. Near streams and moist forest. Insectivore Broad-footed Mole. Fairly common in soils that are moist and porous like forest clearings. Insectivore.

CHIROPTERA (all MGP species are insectivores, nocturnal) Little Brown Myotis. Uncommon. Prefers to feed over water or open habitats. California Myotis. Common. Throughout California, 15 year lifespan captures insects on the wing Pallid Bat. Found in much of California below 3,000 feet, forages on ground Townsend’s Long-Eared Bat. Uncommon, found in caves & buildings

RODENTIA Valley Pocket Gopher. Abundant. Usually in meadows. Very common on watered lawns. Western Grey Squirrel. Common in oak woodlands. Diurnal. Eats and caches acorns. California Ground Squirrel. Common in meadows, rockpiles. Eats seeds, nuts, roots, insects. Caches extra food. Deer Mouse. Very common in all habitats. Nocturnal. Opportunistic omnivore. California Vole. Abundant in open areas. Active day and night. Herbivore Dusky-footed Woodrat. Common in forest, scrub, and riparian. Nocturnal. Herbivore Sonoma Chipmunk. Common. Tree/ shrub ecotones, chaparral, small brushy clearings in forests, and riparian

thickets. Diurnal. Herbivore. Porcupine. Uncommon. Signs found in knobcone pines at BP. Primarily nocturnal. Herbivore (twigs, bark,

and cambium of trees as well as aquatic and terrestrial herbs, shrubs, fruits, leaves, buds)

LAGOMORPHA Brush Rabbit. Abundant in scrub or thick brush. Adults nocturnal, young primarily crepuscular. Herbivore Black-tailed Jack Rabbit (hare). Open areas. Most active in later afternoon. Herbivore

ARTIODACTYLA (EVEN-TOED HOOFED MAMMALS) Columbian Black-tailed Deer (Mule Deer). Common. Prefers forest edge. Primarily crepuscular. Feeds on

forbs, shrubs, and grasses (browser).

CARNIVORA Canidae (Dogs) Grey Fox. Fairly common in wooded and scrub areas. Crepuscular. Omnivore. Coyote. Fairly common. Run with tail down. Active anytime. Omnivore, but eats mostly small mammals.

Mustelidae Long-tailed Weasel. Fairly common. Diurnal. Carnivore Striped Skunk. Very common in all habitats. Crepuscular. Omnivore, but eats mostly insects. Spotted Skunk. Uncommon in scrub areas. Nocturnal. Carnivore, east mostly small mammals.

Felidae (Cats) Bobcat. Abundant. Mostly nocturnal but can often be seen hunting by day. Carnivore Mountain Lion. Present. Mostly nocturnal but can occasionally be seen by day. Carnivore

Procyonidae Raccoon. Common. Nocturnal. Omnivore Ringtail. Uncommon. Rocky areas and sometimes forests. Strictly nocturnal and rarely seen. Omnivore but

eats mostly small rodents.

Ursidae (Bears) California Black Bear. Uncommon. Nocturnal. Omnivore.

Mammal Tracking Basics

Questions to ask …How many toes?

How to measure a print

Do the claws show?Shape of foot and toe pads?Size of front and back track?Walking on whole foot?Stride?Straddle?Substrate?Age of track?What else is around?Gait?What other questions does the track ask???

Method of measuring print sizes and claw length shown on coyote print (left). Method of measuring metacarpal or proximal pad is shown on bear print (right).

Track Formula: EXAMPLE:   f5(4) H5(4) coIs the track formula for the bear family:

pay attention 

F5(4): front print usually shows 5 toes (sometimes only 4 register), lowercase means the front print is smaller than the hind

H5(4): Hind print usually shows 5 toes (occasionally only 4); is larger than front foot comeans claws often show

to negative space!

comeans claws often show

C = claws usually showco = claws often showcr = claws rarely show

= claws don’t show

“C” bobcat front

“X” front coyote

“H” grey fox front

4 Toes front and hind:F4 h4 C: Dog FamilyF4 h4: Cat Family Gait & Trail Measurements:yf4 H4 cr: Rabbits, Hares

5 Toes front and hind:f5 H5 co: Raccoon Family f5(4) H5(4) co: Weasel Familyf5(4) H5(4) co: Bear Family

Stride:  distance from where one footprint appears in the trail to the next point that a footprint 

Straddle:  measured perpendicular to the line of travel at the widest line of

Stride, Straddle, Group, & Intergroup

Prepared by Gwen HeistandFor ACR Education

f4 H5; Rodent Order (very diverse) 

f2(4) and h2(4):  Deer Order

made by the same foot appears

widest line of a trail or group pattern

Group:  when mammals walk they leave a pattern consisting of two parallel lines.  When they speed up, 

References & diagrams:1. Mammal Tracking in Western 

America by James Halfpenny & Elizabeth Biesiot

2. Mammal Tracks & Sign by Mark Elbroch

3. Pacific Coast Mammals by Ron Russo & Pam Olhausen

they leave patterns characteristic of their gait.  These patterns are called groups, measured from the leading end of the pattern to the trailing end of same pattern (include all 4 feet).  Intergroup: measurement between leading point of one pattern to trailing point on next.

Group or Family

Toes Front

Toes Rear

Claws Showing?

Track ShapeTrack Size

(inches)Normal

GaitGait Pattern, etc.

Cat 4 4 no F: 2.0x2.5 H: 2.1x1.9

diagonal walkers

Dog 4 4 yes F: 2.5x2.35H: 2.25x1.9

diagonal walkers

Rabbit 4 4 some F: 1.5x1.0H: 2.0x1.0

gallopers/hoppers

Rodent 4 5 some H:1.3 - 1.45 gallopers/pacers

Weasel 5 5 some

F:0.5x0.6H: 0.6x0.7

heel of hind foot not incl in measurement

bounders/pacers

Raccoon Opposum

5 5 yes

Raccoon:F: 2.5x2.5H: 4.0x2.3Opossum pacers

Opposum pF:1.5x2.1H:2.2x1.9

Deer hoof hoof n/a F: 2x2.5 in H: 2.1x1.9 in

diagonal walkers

BearHumanRaccoon

Cat

How does animal place it’s foot on the ground?

Scatology“When describing the act of defecating and the substance of fecal matter itself, biologists prefer to use the scientific term“poop.” It’s both a noun and a verb. A popular field of biology called scatology is the study of scat, which is not to be confused with mere poop. Although technically they’re the same, we call it “scat” if we are studying it to learn something about the health and diet [and behavior] of an animal. When the animal has pooped on us or has ruined something with his pooping, we tend to use the term “s--t.” So if it’s on the ground, it’s poop. If it’s under your microscope, it’s scat. If it’s running down your neck, it’s s—t.” - Stacey O’Brien in Wesley the Owl

Pay attention to the three perspectives!1. Visual Characteristics?: Lying on your belly up close2. Immediate Context?: Standing up – where is it?3. Location & Ecological Context?: Bird’s eye view – whole environment – habitat?

Visual Characteristics (See other side)Twists (like a rope or DNA): Notice degree of twist. Both weasel and dog scats twist when they are composed of fur and bone. Cats, bears, and raccoons do not appear twisted (cats are very twisted inside, but appear smooth on the outside)

grey fox long-tailed weasel coyoteTapered Ends: The most tapered end is the last to leave the anus. Canine scats often have one or two tapered ends. Weasels usually have a very long tapered end. Scats with hair are more tapered than scats with fruit.

Blunt ends are more characteristic of cat family, raccoons, and bears.

mountain lion bobcat bobcat raccoonSegments: (either joined or separated): cats often leave segmented scats. Canine scats can be segmented. Raccoon scats break easily and can appear to be segmented.

Pellets: Rabbits leave pellets throughout the year. They are deposited one at a time, so a collection would speak to a period of time. Deer leave scat in pellet form, depositing a mass of pellets at one time.

Contextual CluesScrapes & Scratches: Cat scrapes may be deep and elaborate or a simple paw swipe. Canines

scratch near scats and scent posts, most often with back feetCovered Scat: Occasionally felines take great care in piling earth or available debris over their

scats, leaving scratch marks around the pile. Trails, Hiking Trails ,& Trail Junctions: Canines mark established runs and trail junctions; Cats

also occasionally mark hiking trails, especially bobcats (111 scats on Zumie-Griffin Loop).Raised Surfaces: Foxes (and other canines) choose to defecate on a high point like a rock, root,

or boulder. Weasels often deposit scat on logs and boulders as well. Raccoons and ringtails also leave scat in tree crotches and along tree limbs.

Bridges (fallen logs over water, land bridges): Funnel animal movement – so animals will often post a scent.

Nests & Dens : Woodrat scats are always plentiful near burrows and nests. Mice defecate near or in their nests.

Latrines (and scat accumulations): Intentionally deposited accumulation of scat by an individual species over time. Raccoons, bears, woodrats, voles, muskrats are among those that create latrines

woodrat latrineSpring Trail

Coyote scatTrail Junction, Zumie's Loop

Prepared by Gwen Heistand for ACR Education: References & illustrations from1. Mammal Tracks & Sign by Mark Elbroch2. A Field Guide to Mammal Tracking in Western America by James Halfpenny 3. Animal Tracks by Olaus J. Murie4. Pacific Coast Mammals by Ron Russo & Pam Olhausen

deer rabbit

Skull & Jaw Identification

↑Carnivore (Cat) vs Herbivore (Deer)↓Carnivore (Dog) vs Herbivore (Goat)

Some Questions to Ask …1. Do eyes (orbits) face forward (predator) or to the side (prey)?2. Is there a big gap (diastema) between the incisors/canines and

the rest of the teeth (if yes – herbivore)?3. Is the jaw joint at the same level as the teeth

(carnivore/omnivore) or is the jaw joint well above the level of the teeth (herbivore)?

4. Is it a long face with well-retracted nasals (some herbivores) or a short face (some carnivores)?

Dental Formula: 3, 1, 4, 23, 1, 4, 3

Upper Jaw: Incisors, Canines, Premolars, Molars Lower Jaw: Incisors, Canines, Premolars, Molars

Incisors - knife-edged for biting and cutting.Canines - pointed for puncturing and tearing.Premolars (bicuspids) - have two points for shearing and shredding.Molars - flattened for grinding and crushing.

Dental formula, lower jaw, and skull views of a coyote

Zygomatic Arch

Rostrum

Keying Skulls … before you start• Different books use different terms• Get a feel for how the animal made its living

by looking at placement of eyes, teeth, etc.• How big is the skull? Wide? Long?• What is the dental formula?• Often skulls or jaws are broken, with missing

teeth – remember that skulls are symmetrical.

• Smaller rodents are particularly hard to identify

• Look at range maps, know who is in your area.

• Remember that age plays a role in what you see (milk teeth versus permanent teeth, sutures on brain case, etc.)

Prepared by Gwen Heistand for ACR EducationSources/Diagrams: Pacific Coast Mammals by Russo & Olhausen; Animal Skulls by Richard S. White, Jr.; A Key-Guide to Mammal Skulls and Lower Jaws by Roest; Illustrated Key to Skulls of Genera of North American Land Mammals by Jones & Manning

grey fox

Dog family (Canidae)

Cat family (Felinidae)

Raccoon family (Procyonidae)

Order Carnivora

raccoonstriped skunk

Skunk family (Mephitidae)

mountain lion

long-tailed weasel

Weasel family (Mustelidae)

bobcat

Rodent Order (Rodentia)

Bat order (Chiroptera)

Order MarsupialiaMoles & Shrews order (Insectivora)

bat brush rabbit

Rabbit order (Lagomorph)

dusky-footed woodrat

Sonoma chipmunk

pocket gopher

Virginia opossumbroad-footed mole

Deer order (Artiodactyla)

mule deer

grey squirrel

If you find a small skull, without a diastema and with red-tipped teeth – you have the skull of a shrew. The shrew in our area is Trowbridge’s Shrew. (The enamel of the tips of their teeth is reddish due to iron pigment. The iron deposits serve to harden the enamel and are concentrated in those parts of the teeth most subject to wear.)

coyote

2,1,2,32,1,2,3

Human

Some skulls you may find (by order)(and a human skull)

Mule Deer Sign

Rabbit ↑ Deer ↓ (note torn edges)

Deer scat is characterized

Deer only have lower incisors, so there is no clean cut like with a rabbit or rodent. Deer scat can

be loose or clumped depending on the moisture of their diet

by pellets with “nipples” and “dimples”

of their diet

Horse is 2-directional, deer I can only scrape bark up (how to tell feeding scrape from antler

mule deer “pronk” or jump

feeding scrape from antler rub)

deer trailmule deer pronk or jump

tracks

Prepared by Gwen Heistand for ACR Education

Bobcat Sign

Truly the skull shape of a carnivore!Truly the skull shape of a carnivore!Review the dental formulas for mammals in our area

Track formula: F4 h4 (Front print shows 4 toes and is larger than hind foot, which also shows 4 toes, no claws show). I reality, bobcat tracks are usually more diagonal than dog tracks.

Bobcat scat is bobcat domestic dog

segmented broken cords (especially when dry); often with hair and bones in it; may be buried.

Example of bobcat scratches just past the trapdoor spiders on the Griffin Trail across the Sheerin Bridge.

We often find intact gastro-intestinal tracts of rodents and rabbits on the trails. This is, generally, a bobcat sign. Cats are pure carnivores and leave the digestive tracts of their herbivore pray untouched.

Willows and Deer Rubbings (Volunteer Canyon Background Information)

Willow and Deer Page 1

Most male species of deer (reindeer are the exception) grow and shed a pair of antlers each year. Antlers play an important function in attracting mates and fighting other males during the breeding season. Antlers begin to grow in March/April and are shed in December/January. Antlers are among the fastest growing tissue in the animal kingdom - up to one inch per day depending on the age, genetics and quality of nutrition that an individual receives. Antlers (racks) regrow bigger each year until

about the age of 7 years. As antlers grow they are covered with a tissue that, because of it’s texture and appearance, is called velvet. Velvet provides the growing antler tissue the blood (oxygen and nutrients) necessary to promote this rapid growth. (Photo from MGP Camera Trap at Griffin & Olive Hyde Trail junction)

Just before the mating season in late August/early September, the antlers complete their growth cycle and turn to solid bone. To assist in the removal of

this velvet that is no longer needed, deer are known to seek out and rub their antlers against tree trunks and branches. One of the most popular trees selected by deer for this antler rubbing is willow. Many species of willow contain salicin, a chemical similar to aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid). Salicin has pain relieving and anti-inflammatory properties that are believed to provide deer with some relief from the shedding process of the velvet on their antlers. (Photo from Willow Seep on Olive Hyde Trail)

Willows and Deer Rubbings (Volunteer Canyon Background Information)

Willow and Deer Page 2

Once the mating season is over, the antlers are shed and the entire process begins again the following spring. Antlers are often hard to find in nature because animals, mostly rodents, consume them to acquire calcium and other nutrients. The use of willow (by people) dates back thousands of years, to the time of Hippocrates (400 BC) when patients were advised to chew on the bark to reduce fever and inflammation. Willow back has been used throughout the centuries in China and Europe, and continues to be used today for treatment of pain. Native Americans chewed or boiled a tea from willow’s leaves or inner bark to relieve fever or other minor pain like toothaches, headaches, or arthritis. Some sources give the willow the nickname “toothache tree”. Aside from medicine, Native Americans developed many applications for willow. These include material to make arrow shafts, paint brushes, fish traps, granary baskets, cradleboards, dream catchers, stick figures and portions of homes. Salicin is a natural insect repellent making willow a good choice for granary baskets. On a side story/interesting fact : North American beavers have a gland (castor sacs) that release a substance called

castoreum which is used to mark territory. Salicin is one of the primary substances found in castoreum. Accumulation of salicin in beavers is credited to willow in their diet. Castoreum is an approved FDA substance that is used in perfumes (leathery notes) and as a “natural flavoring” (vanilla substitute) in some food products. How castoreum is harvested is

the next question …. ! (photo from article entitled, “Beaver butt used as 'natural flavoring' in your food”)

Pocket Gophers

Pocket Gophers page 1

Pocket Gophers … There are many Botta’s Pocket Gopher tunnels in the yards of both Picher and Volunteer Canyons. Remember that pocket gophers have fur-line cheek pouches. They fill these with food when they are foraging. You can actually watch a gopher (which several groups have been able to do already this season) rip vegetation and stuff it into its cheeks.

look at those rodent teeth

gathering fillearee and stuffing it into its cheek pouches

Look for piles of freshly turned earth and watch awhile. Our gopher is Botta's pocket gopher (Thomomys bottae), whose range extends from California east to Texas and from southern Utah and Colorado south to Mexico. Californians also call it the valley pocket gopher. At least 185 subspecies have been described, mostly on the basis of geographical distribution. Botta (or bottae) honors Italian Paolo Emilio Botta, a 19th century naturalist, who visited California in 1827 on a collecting expedition for the Museum of Natural History of Paris. He is also known to have discovered the Assyrian ruins of Ninevah. The generic epithet "Thomomys" comes from the Greek thomos, meaning heap, and mys or mouse. Gopher is derived from the French word gaufre, for honeycomb, a reference to the animal’s subterranean network. Their burrows may reach lengths of more than 500 feet. One study in Utah estimated that a single gopher moved as much as 1 ton of soil per year! A typical burrow will resemble a complicated subway system with numerous forks including side branches used for larders, garbage dumps and latrines, nesting and nurseries. Deepest parts of the tunnel system are between one and three yards underground. Gophers block tunnel entrances with dirt, to prevent predator entry.

Pocket Gophers

Pocket Gophers page 2

Strong claws, forelegs, and chisel teeth equip gophers for a life of burrowing. In hard soils they literally gnaw their way through the ground. Their incisors (those big front teeth) remain outside their mouths even when their lips are closed. What might be the benefit of this? (It keeps dirt out of their mouths while they are digging.) This is where fur-lined cheek pouches come in as well… gophers can store food in their pouches and still chew through the soil. After a gopher has loosened enough soil, it turns and pushes it back along the tunnel with its chin and chest, like a miniature bulldozer. Thn it turns around and shoves the dirt up to the surface and to the side of the opening (this is what we’ve been watching). Gophers have a sensitive tail that facilitates rapid reversal, when necessary. Pocket gophers are strictly herbivorous, and feed in three ways: 1) on roots they encounter when digging; 2) at the surface, venturing only a body length or so from their tunnel opening to feed on aboveground vegetation; and 3) by pulling vegetation into their tunnel from below. They usually consume food in the safety of their burrow, where they spend 90% of their life. Gophers are solitary, territorial and pugnacious except during breeding season in spring. Males, are thought to go in search of females, and are probably polygamous. After the male and female hook-up, one to seven hairless, blind young are born 19 days later. They disperse in late summer, hoping to avoid predation. Females can mate more than once per year. Main predators include badgers, coyotes, weasels, and snakes, but other predators include skunks, owls, bobcats, and hawks. Gophers are predated and caught at their burrow entrance by most predators, however weasels and snakes can enter gopher burrows to hunt. We know that herons can also make a dent in gopher populations. (Watch for the Great Blue Heron hunting in Volunteer Canyon!) Pocket gophers are considered pests in urban and agricultural areas due to their burrowing habit and their taste for alfalfa. They are also considered beneficial because their burrows are a key source of soil aeration. Folks have been asking what’s the difference between moles and gophers. Moles are in the Order Insectivora. They are pretty much strict “meat” eaters. Gophers are in the Order Rodentia and are vegetarians. Gophers have classic rodent incisors. You can tell the difference in the mounds as well …

Pocket Gophers

Pocket Gophers page 3

pocket gopher: notice the incisors with the large gap behind them. broad-footed mole: you can see how very different mole teeth are from gopher teeth

Check out the great pocket gopher skin that Anna-Marie has provided for us in the Rainy Day Room!! You can show the kids! (and look at the date it was collected.)

Rat Chat! Dusky-footed Woodrat (Neotoma fuscipes)

Rat Chat Page 1

The Dusky-footed Woodrat is a medium sized rodent native to North America. Because woodrats are nocturnal, they are seldom seen unless a special search is made for them, but their stick houses can’t be missed. The home of the woodrat is sometimes called a den, hut, or nest but ‘house’ is a more suitable name. Woodrat houses are made mostly of twigs and branches. They will also use whatever building material is most accessible, such as leaves, rocks, roots, scat, feathers, bark and grasses. Dusky-footed woodrats are known to line their nests with nibbled leaves of California bay laurels. These leaves have fumigating properties that clear nests of parasites such as ticks and mites. (Fun fact: some woodrat nests here at ACR have roofs made from shingles the rats stole from a project site!)

Woodrats can have several passageways and rooms used for different things. Can you guess what they might use the rooms for? (Storing food, nesting, sleeping, bathrooms, and storing shiny treasures!) Woodrats are sometimes called pack rats. Why do you suppose they call them that? Woodrats collect odds and ends, often incorporating them into their houses. Another nickname is trade rat because it has a tendency to drop or trade the items it

carries for a new treasure. Woodrats have a well-developed sense of ownership. Scent plays a prominent role in recognizing intruders. Other animals sometimes inhabit the woodrat house. Can you think of what other kinds of animals might share the woodrat home? (Lizards, frogs, mice, insects and other invertebrates.) These creatures living inside the rat’s home are called commensal organisms. Dusky-footed woodrats are generally solitary, but their home territories tend to overlap. After mating, males retreat to tree nests constructed in cavities or branches that aren’t nearly as elaborate as the larger, more detailed female nests on the ground. Females stay in their terrestrial homes to raise one to four offspring. Some studies suggest dusky-footed woodrats

Rat Chat! Dusky-footed Woodrat (Neotoma fuscipes)

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live in loosely-cooperative societies and have a matrilineal social structure (mothers, daughters, aunts, grandmothers). Unlike males, adjacent females are usually closely related Look at the size of the woodrat’s ear! Why do you suppose their ears are so big? What do you think eats woodrats? (owls, hawks, and coyotes … to name a few of their predators). Fun fact: Coyotes and other predators will attempt to prey on these rodents by laying waste to the dens, but the sheer volume of material makes the woodrats hard to find. What kinds of things do you think woodrats eat? (Acorns, flowers, leaves, berries, mushrooms, fruits, seeds, and bark) Woodrat sounds:

Thumping or rattling tail serves as a kind of language easily heard from one house to another

When alarmed, they chatter When enraged, they utter short, shrill squeals When distressed, they whine or squeal

How to Read a Skull Like an Open Book Rangers in the Classroom—Presentation 

Lesson Plan 

Presentation:

Introduction Every skull has a story to tell. It can tell us what the animal ate, which senses it relied on for hunting or finding food, whether it was the predator/the hunter or the prey/the hunted. Through scientific investigation, we can unravel the mysteries in a skull and learn what that animal was like when it was alive. In order to solve the mystery and read the story of the skull, you need to be able to identify and analyze the clues left behind. To understand the clues, however, you need to know the language of skulls. Today, we are going to learn the language of skulls so we can solve their mysteries.

A. Story of a skull1. Every story needs a setting and characters. Imagine you were walking through Bouverie Preserve and came upon a skull. How could you tell what animal it was?

a. First, you need to know what animals live at the Preserve. It helps to narrow down the options.b. Do you think you would find an elephant, crocodile or monkey skull at Bouverie?

B. Animals found at Bouverie Preserve1. Bobcat

a. Solitary hunter: hunts mostly at dusk and dawn.b. Carnivore (4th grade)/meat eater (3rd grade): eats rodents, rabbits and other small animals.c. Size: males twenty-eight to forty inches long from nose to tail. Females are slightly smaller. Both adult males and females stand around twenty inches at the shoulder. This is about twice the size of an average house cat.d. Weight: average around twenty-two pounds (some males get up to thirty pounds).e. Distinctive feature: short “bobbed” tail that gives the cat its name.f. Spotted coat and pointed ears with little black tufts or clumps of fur.

2. Mountain Lion (a.k.a. Cougar, Puma, Panther)a. Solitary hunter: hunts mostly at dusk and dawn.b. Carnivore (4th grade)/meat eater (3rd grade): eats primarily mule deer, but will eat other, smaller animals including foxes, raccoons, coyotes and even porcupines.c. Size: males six to eight feet long from nose to tail. Females are slightly shorter. Both adult males and females stand around two to two and a half feet at the shoulder.d. Weight: males one hundred and ten to two hundred or more pounds. Females weigh eighty to one hundred and thirty pounds.e. Distinctive feature: long tail tipped with black fur.f. Very shy and secretive. It is rare to see a Mountain Lion.

3. Columbian Black-tailed Deer (a.k.a. Mule Deer)a. Males: buck. Females: doe. Young (male or female): fawn.b. Foragers: young mule deer forage together; bucks forage alone or with other bucks.

How to Read a Skull Like an Open Book Rangers in the Classroom—Presentation 

Lesson Plan 

c. Herbivore (4th grade)/plant eater (3rd grade): have multi-part stomach. The firsttwo chambers act as storage bins; they eat and then hide from predators to chew thecud.d. Size: average—forty one inches at the shoulder and eighty inches nose to tail.e. Weight: males one hundred fifty to three hundred pounds. Females are one hun-

dred to one hundred seventy-five pounds. f. Distinctive feature: large, mule-like ears.g. Bucks have forked antlers. They are shed every year after the rut (mating) seasonand grow again in the spring.h. Antlers are not the same as horns. Horns are permanent. In some species, boththe males and females have horns (e.g. bison).i. Why do the males have antlers? To fight other bucks for opportunity to mate withthe females.

4. Coyotea. They travel in small packs, but usually hunt in pairs. A typical pack consists of six closely related adults, yearlings and young.b. Omnivore (4th grade)/plant and meat eater (3rd grade): prefers to eat meat (small animals and domestic pets) but will eat fruits, vegetables and even garbage.c. Opportunistic eater: it will eat what it finds.d. Size: forty-two to forty-eight inches nose to tail.e. Weight: average fifteen to fifty pounds.f. It has large ears. It can hear better than domestic dogs.g. Member of the canis/dog family.h. It can run up to forty-three miles per hour. Next time you are driving with your par-

ents, ask them to let you know when they are going this fast, so you get an idea of how this speed feels. How great would it be to be able to run so fast?

C. The Language of Skulls (pass out the Mystery Skull worksheets)1. Orbits/eye socket

a. Size in relation to skull size1. Large orbits are generally indicative of sharp eyesight and hunting in dimlight (dusk and dawn) or at night (nocturnal).2. Cats have large eyes in relation to the size of their skulls.

b. Placement in the skull1. Forward or side facing. This helps determine if the animal is predator orprey.2.. redator/Carnivore orbit placement is forward.

a. The overlapping field of view from both eyes gives the animalsbinocular vision, which provides excellent depth perception for huntingand killing prey.

3. Prey orbit placement is to the side.a. The side placement gives the animals a wider field of view to seepredators coming from all dire ctions.

c. .Quick demonstration of the difference between forward and side facing orbits1. How big is your field of view?

How to Read a Skull Like an Open Book Rangers in the Classroom—Presentation 

Lesson Plan 

Directions: 1. You need three volunteer students—two will be the prey and one will be the predator.2. Have the two prey volunteers stand back to back with each covering their right eye.3. Have the predator stand facing the prey (encourage them to act as a predator with a menacinglook, growls or stalking).4. Tell the predator and prey that they cannot turn their heads during the activity.5. Walk in a large circle around the predator and prey asking if they can still you at different pointsas you circle them.**The goal is to demonstrate how much larger the field of view is for prey/animals with orbits onthe side of their skull.

2. How important are forward facing eyes and depth perception for predators?Directions: 1. Have the two prey volunteers take their seats and have the predator face you.2. Take a crumpled piece of paper and have the predator try to catch it.3. Have the predator cover one eye and toss the crumpled paper again. It should be harder to catchthe paper with only one eye.**The goal is to demonstrate how predators/hunters need both forward facing eyes to judgedistance/depth perception.

3. How does it feel to be the predator or the prey?Directions: 1. Ask volunteers how they felt as the predator or the prey. Threatened? Safe? Powerful?2. Ask students which one they would prefer to be.

2. Nasal Passagesa. Size in relation to skull size

1. Large nasal passages are generally indicative of a keen sense of smell.2. Inside the nasal passages look for bony, web-like structures called nasalturbinates. These provide the framework for the membranes that sense odor.3. Dogs generally have long nasal passages with a complex turbinate bonestructure giving them a keen sense of smell compared to cats.4. Cats have shorter nasal passages and less complex turbinate bone structure,indicating that they rely more on other senses for hunting.3. Compare skulls with our short, human noses.

3. Teeth—Incisorsa. Close your eyes and imagine that I just handed you a big red apple, nowimagine biting into it. Which teeth did you use? Front teeth = incisors. b. Carnivore (4th grade)/meat eater (3rd grade): incisors are usually less developedand used for grooming.c. Herbivore (4th grade)/plant eater (3rd grade): incisors are well developed and usedfor cutting plant material.

1. Some herbivores (mule deer for example) do not have upper incisors.Instead, they have a hard palate on top that is used like a cutting board.

d. Omnivore (4th grade)/plant and meat eater (3rd grade): incisor development willdepend on whether the animal prefers meat or plants.

1. Incisors will be well developed in animal that prefers plants over meat.

How to Read a Skull Like an Open Book Rangers in the Classroom—Presentation 

Lesson Plan 

4. Teeth—Caninesa. Close your eyes and imagine that I just handed you a piece of beef jerky, nowimagine biting into it. Which teeth did you use? Canine (vampire or pointy) teeth.b. Carnivore (4th grade)/meat eater (3rd grade): canines are well developed. Longand pointed for piercing and holding prey.c. Herbivore (4th grade)/plant eater (3rd grade): canines are usually less developedand resemble incisors in form and function.d. Omnivore (4th grade)/plant and meat eater (3rd grade): canine developmentdepends on whether the animal prefers meat or plants.

1. Canines will be long and pointed in animals that do any hunting.5. Teeth—Molars

a. Close your eyes and imagine I just gave you an ice cube to chew on. Which teethdid you use to grind up the ice? Molars (back teeth or cheek teeth).b. Carnivore (4th grade)/meat eater (3rd grade): molars are pointed.

1. Usually top molars overlap lower molars creating a shearing action likescissors. The overlap prevents side to side movement of the lower jaw.2. Carnivores do not chew their food (no side to side movement of lower jaw);they tear meat to shreds and swallow it whole3. The bite-tear-gulp style of eating without chewing leaves their teeth cleanand unstained by food debris.

c. Herbivore (4th grade)/plant eater (3rd grade): molars are usually flat and are usedfor grinding and chewing up plant material.

1. Flat molars do not overlap. The lower jaw moves side to side for chewingaction.2. Result of chewing/grinding food on flat molars leaves teeth stained by fooddebris.

d. Omnivore (4th grade)/plant and meat eater (3rd grade): molar developmentdepends on whether the animal prefers meat or plants.

1. Some animals that eat both meat and plants have some molars that havehigh crowns with sharp edges for shearing meat AND some with wider crownsfor crushing bone and plant material.

6. Ear holes/Auditory Bullaea. These are the bony portions of the skull that hold the inner and middle ear.b. Generally, the larger this structure relative to skull size, the better the sense ofhearing.c. Cats have relatively large ear holes and very acute hearing.d. Mule deer have relatively small ear holes indicating more reliance on otherssenses to locate predators.c. Animals’ ears move to pick up sound.d. Give a quick demonstration on how ears help pick up sound.

How to Read a Skull Like an Open Book Rangers in the Classroom—Presentation 

Lesson Plan 

Directions: 1. Have students shape their hands into the letter “C”2. Have the students hold their hands in front of their ears with the “C” shape pointed backwards(essentially covering their ears) and ask them if they can hear better now or before they put theirhands up.3. Have the students switch the position of their hands with the “C” shape cupping their ears(essentially making their ears bigger) and ask them if they can hear better now or with their handsin front of their ears or without any hands involved at all.**The goal is to demonstrate how large ears can pick up sound

Solve the Skull Mystery Activity

Directions: 1. Divide the students into groups of about four to six students.2. Have them flip over their worksheet to the chart entitled “Mystery Skull Worksheet.”3. The first skull the students solve will be their own—the human skull.4. Have students write their answers for the human skull in line ten.5. Work through the questions with the entire class .6. Once you have worked through the questions using the students’ own skulls, pass out one ani-mal skull to each group.7. Each group of students will examine their animal skull and work through the questions just likethey did with their own skulls.8. Using the clues/answers to each of these questions, the students should be able to determinewhether their animal was predator, prey or both and figure out the kind of animal.9. Once every group has solved their skull mystery, go around to each group and in front of theentire class, review one or two of the questions they answered that helped them determine whatkind of skull they had.

Conclusion All of these features—orbits, nasal passages, teeth and ear holes—tell us about how the animal lived, hunted or obtained food, what senses it relied on and whether it was a predator, prey or both. Encourage the students to visit the park, explain the student fee waiver and leave the waivers and park maps for the teacher to hand out.

How to Read a Skull Like an Open Book Rangers in the Classroom—Presentation 

Lesson Plan 

Vocabulary

3rd and 4th Grade

Predator—noun—an animals that kills other animals for food

Prey—noun—an animal that is eaten by other animals

Predator and Prey—noun—an animal that eats other animals, but can also be eaten by other ani-mals (e.g. If a cat kills a mouse, it is the predator. If the cat is eaten by a coyote, the coyote is the predator and the cat is the prey)

Incisor—noun—teeth at the front of the jaw used for nipping

Canine—noun—located between the incisors and molars (cheek teeth); usually large and pointed in meat eating animals; used for holding and killing prey

Molar—noun— also known as cheek teeth; the rear teeth in the upper and lower jaw

Orbit—noun—the bony socket that holds and protects the eyeball

Nasal Passage—noun—nose; bones holding a web-like structure of smaller bones (nasal turbinates), which form the framework for the membranes in the nose that sense odor

Palate—noun—the roof of the mouth

Pelt—noun—the skin of an animal with the fur still on it

4th Grade only

Carnivore—noun—an animal that eats only meat; they do not have the ability to move their lower jaw from side to side in a chewing motion

Omnivore—noun—an animal that eats both plants and meat. They usually prefer one more than the other. For example, black bears are omnivores that prefer plants. Coyotes are omnivores that prefer meat.

Herbivore—noun—an animal that eats only plants

Auditory Bullae—noun—the bony structures in the skull that encase parts of the inner ear

Nocturnal—adjective—most active during darkness

ACR Natural History Notes

Mammal Tracking Quiz Prepared by Gwen Heistand

1. On the labeled diagram below, which is the straddle? ______ Which is the stride? ______

A:____________________________ What would you expect to happen to the straddle when an animal moves from a walk to a run? What about the stride?

B:___________________________

2. Which of these tracks is a Felid (cat) and which is a Canid (dog)? How can you tell? (List at

least two characteristics for each.)

A:_____________ B:____________

3. List the members of the cat family we might see at the Bolinas Lagoon Preserve. 4. List the members of the dog family we might see at the Bolinas Lagoon Preserve.

Mammal Tracking Quiz page 2

5. Name that scat! A:

B:

C:

D:

E:

F:

6. List three groups of mammals that display 5 toes in the tracks of their front and hind feet. 7. List three groups of mammals that show 4 toes in the tracks of their front and hind feet. 8. What is a mammal (or other animal) called that

a. Lives underground? b. Is out primarily at dawn and dusk? c. That lives in the trees? d. Gets around primarily by running? By jumping?

Mammal Tracking Quiz page 3

9. What type of mammal chewed the branches in picture A? in picture B? How can you tell?

A:_______________________ B:_______________________

10. Which of the following skulls is that of a predator? Of a Prey? What helps you tell the

difference?

Mammal Tracking Quiz page 4

11. Who made the following tracks? Looking at the track pattern how would you best describe the

way this animal moves? (If you’re unsure try walking this way yourself … a good thing to get the kids to do!)

12. Who made the following tracks? Looking at the track pattern how would you best describe the

way this animal moves? (If you’re unsure try walking this way yourself … a good thing to get the kids to do!)

Bouverie Preserve of ACR: Docent Manual (2017) 4

AUDUBON CANYON RANCH TEACHING PHILOSOPHY

Tell me and I forget,

teach me and I may remember, involve me and I learn.

Xun Kuang, 818 AD

This proverb is central to the way we, as docents, inspire a love and appreciation of nature to children. Both in the classroom and on the trail, it is our job to capture our learner’s natural passions and channel them into curiosity, discovery, sensory awareness, knowledge of place, and nature connection. When we start with curiosity, gently guiding the inquiry from one logical question to the next and offering tidbits of partial answers along the way, our learners will arrive at the answer they seek for themselves. The Art of Questioning builds fertile ground to grow self-sufficiently inquisitive leaners who trust in themselves to seek out and find answers.

The Art of the Question – Three Levels of Questioning To walk the edge of curiosity with your learners, we suggest you become intentional in the use of your questions – what kind of questions you ask, when, and in what order you ask them. These three levels of questions will help you develop your art: Level One – Confidence Builder Questions. Level One is where you start, meeting beginners in their comfort zone, building confidence, and awakening the questioning reflex. By answering easy questions, learners feel successful. Their heads lift, their shoulders square, they feel proud. Do not pop the bubble. If you start with a hard question they can’t answer, they get smaller, and their eyes drop down. You’ll spend up to seventy percent of your time with Level One Questions. You want to get learners feeling so good about what they already know, they will be motivated to stretch and grow and take risks. Level Two – Edge Questions. As soon as they’re feeling confident, look for their edge. The next question you want to ask is an “edge question.” This one they can find the answer to if they do some searching. For instance, they respond at the first level saying, “Hey, it’s a worm!” You hear confidence in their voice, so you ask, “Yes, where is it going?” They watch the worm and guess, “That way.” “You sure?” They hesitate and start thinking about it…. You’ve found their edge. Now show more curiosity than they do. Drop down on one knee, go closer. “Hey, what’s this little line in the mud that’s leading up to the worm?” They come down with you and their light-bulb goes on: “It’s a worm track! It’s going that way!” You have met them at their edge, and pushed them through. You will spend about twenty-five percent of your time and energy at Level Two, hovering on the edge of what they know. Level Three – Beyond the Edge Questions. Back to the worm situation – they are on their knees with an expanding curiosity. Next you say, “I wonder how this thing sees where it’s going?” This third level of question lands just beyond their edge. Their jaws drop a little, their bodies sag. The essence of this level of question is to steer them to ask things they didn’t know you could know. It keeps learners humble and reminds them to look for the not-so-obvious, the below-the-surface reality of things. Level Three Questions will be used only five percent of your time. They can be intimidating and sometimes, the answers never come – that’s completely fine. The feeling of being utterly alive and curious in a search is what we’re after. The long-term goal of the Art of Questioning is to turn over the reins to the learners, to light the fuse and then get out of the way.

Bouverie Preserve of ACR: Docent Manual (2017) 5

Discovery is at the Heart of Learning When we share in the discoveries we make together, the entire experience will have freshness which lecturing can never achieve. When we thrill over the sight of a harvester ant nest or a pair of antlers, our enthusiasm sets the tone for a rich sharing of adventures and discoveries throughout our time with our learners. Remember, children may never have met an oak or lichen or cicada or newt. Ask questions and listen carefully to the answers because often the most exciting discoveries are made by following a child’s lead. It often proves more rewarding to follow up on the discoveries of the students rather than adhere strictly to a teaching format. Regardless of the approach, watch for the spark of interest and build on that. Should your learners get excited over something in the classroom or on the trail, let their interest and curiosity drive the inquiry. Also, be sure to watch for signs of the children’s interest waning, and be willing to quickly move on.

The Place for Answers In the midst of all this questioning, is there a place for informing and instructing? Is there a way for people of learn without being talked at? Absolutely! Questions need answers, each tidbit serves as a platform to jump to the next question. Science needs good information, correct data. And learning journeys require judicious instruction and orientation. When you sense your learners need an educated answer from you, they deserve it. Do your research and make it an informative response. Go slowly and allow time for the information to sink in. Watch for signs of confusion – ask them to explain in their own words what you just covered, check to see if they absorbed it. If they begin to fade, you’re wasting your time. Keep track of what kind of bait will hook their interest, taking them deeper. Throw out a “fun factoid” and gauge their response. If their eyes light up and they begin interrupting to share what they know, they took the bait. Allowing learners to ask questions as they come up is essential. If they are holding onto a question, they won’t be able to absorb what you’re sharing. We encourage you to use the Bouverie Library and the children’s field guides in the Docent Roomlet to deepen your natural history knowledge when compelling questions crop up. Embracing “I Don’t Know” & “I’m Not Sure” Wonderful results can come from these simple responses. Use the Three Levels of Questioning with yourself and your learners. Get confident and comfortable with basic observations and knowledge (Level One). Then, get charged up about learning, taking risks, willing to make mistakes, eager to look closely (Level Two). Finally, empower yourself and your learners to ponder the mysteries and complexities of the wild world. The most beautiful emotion we can experience is the mysterious. It is the power of all true art and science. S/he to whom this emotion is a stranger, who can no longer wonder and stand rapt in awe, is as good as dead. –Albert Einstein This section is excerpted from Coyote’s Guide to Connecting with Nature, second edition, Jon Young, Ellen Haas, Evan McGown, (OWLink Media, 2016).