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SEAPOWER AND MARITIME

AFFAIRS

Do not suffer your ship own ship

to be entered by, or you r men

taken out by any person o r powerwhatsoever.

SPRING 2005

LTCOL M.G. BROIHIER

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Beginnings of the U.S. Navy

Navy Act of 1794

Six frigates authorized for defense of shipping in Mediterranean.

Navy is part of the Department of War.

Secretary of War Henry Knox.

Large 44-gun frigates planned. More heavily armed than normal frigates.

Faster than Ships of the Line.

1797: United States, 44 and Constitution, 44 completed -- calledHumphreys frigates.

Marines deployed on Navy ships. Continue tradition of British Royal Marines.

Protect Captain and officers from the crew.

Provide musket fire from quarterdeck and fighting tops.

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Jays Treaty -- 1794

January 1794 Chief Justice John Jay - special envoy to

London. Issues: British-American relations.

Maritime disputes, western forts, northern boundary, Mississippinavigation, and reparations for slaves seized during Revolution.

British Concessions Open West Indies ports, leave western outposts, Canada boundary.

American Concessions Abandon French Alliance of 1778, U.S. ports not to be used by

foreign privateers, British trading rights increased.

Results American trade with Britain increases.

U.S. government able to collect large duties on trade.

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PresidentThomas Jefferson

1801-1809

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The Quasi-War

1798-1800MIDN 4/C Perry

MIDN 4/C TimmermanMIDN 4/C Kim

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Objectives of the U.S.

Rid American coastline of French Pirates

Seize or attack French warshipsthroughout the globe

Convoy and Protect American shipping

Persuade other powers to respect U.S.

rights to the ocean and right to free tradeand neutrality

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Battles During the War

Delaware vs. Croyable

Constellationvs. LInsurgente

Constellationvs. La VengeanceBoston vs. Le Berceau

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Constellationvs. LInsurgente

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Peace/Aftermath

Treaty of Mortefontaine signed in 1800

France respects American neutrality

Navy gains respect and survival as aninstitution

Peace Establishment Act

Navy is reduced in size

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Questions?

Thomas Truxton

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The Barbary Wars

Presented By:MIDN 4/C Eberhart and MIDN 4/C Scruggs

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BARBARY PIRATES

Barbary Pirates operated out of Barbary States

Tunis

Tripoli

Algiers

Morocco

Pirates preyed on ships in western Mediterranean from Crusades toearly 19thcentury

Ship of war was galley which was operated by slaves and prisoners

Raids by Barbary Pirates ended in 1816 when Royal Navy

destroyed port of Algiers and its fleet of Barbary ships

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BARBARY WARS PART 1: JULY 1801-

SEPTEMBER 1803

Morocco was independent, ruled by Moulay SuleimanCity states bound to Selim III and the Ottoman Empire

Algiers ruled by deyTunis ruled by beyTripoli ruled by a Pasha (Yusuf Karamanli)

For US, problems began following independence since they nolonger had protection from the Royal NavyTreaties of 1796 protected US from Barbary piratesIn 1800 Karamanli demanded annual payments of tributeThis coincided with inauguration of Jefferson who was opposed totribute paymentsJefferson decided to rotate new squadrons into Mediterranean oncea year, figuring it was cheaper to maintain naval presence than paytribute

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BARBARY WARS PART TWO (SEPTEMBER

1803-JULY 1805)

After arriving in September 1803, Preble sent the Philadelphiaandthe Vixento resume blockade of Tripoli while he went to MoroccoOn his return to Tripoli he received word that the Philadelphiahadrun aground on Kaliusa ReefThe Tripolitans took possession of the ship

Decatur set out on the Enterprise accompanied by the IntrepidPosing as a vessel in distress, the Intrepidboarded thePhiladelphia, which was subsequently set on fireKaramanli did not accept any sort of treaty causing Preble tocontinue the attacks

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PREBLES OFFENSIVE

Preble attacked the city, borrowing six gunboats and two bomb-ketches from Ferdinand IV, king of Spain, also at war with TripoliOn August 3, 1804 Decatur attacked Tripoli, capturing threegunboats and sinking three moreOver next four weeks Preble ordered four more attacksAfter each attack, Karamanli was offered payments in exchange for

prisoners of PhiladelphiaOn September 3, 1804 Preble watched as the Intrepid headed by LTRichard Somers exploded in the harborA week later COMMO Samuel Barron arrived with reinforcements torelieve PrebleBarron sanctioned plan to replace Karamali with his older brotherHametWhen confronted with plan, Karamanli took $60,000 for release ofprisoners, and also approved treaty not requiring payments

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Chesapeake-LeopardAffair - 1807

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Chesapeake-LeopardAffair - 1807

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U.S. Naval Policies Strategy

Rodgers: Proponent of squadron operations.

Decatur: Proponent of single-ship operations.

Commerce Raiders

Atlantic Ocean

English Channel

USSEssexin the Pacific Ocean -- Captain David Porter Raids on British whaling fleet.

Letters of marque issued to privateers.

Naval Administration

Small organization. Inadequate coastal defenses.

Limited resources available.

Funding increases significantly during the course of

the war.

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Peace and Aftermath

Great Britain agrees to peace.

American victories at Lakes Erie andChamplain.

American privateers capture Britishmerchants.

Treaty of Ghent -- 24 December 1814 British end impressment of American

seamen.

Status Quo Ante Bellum

Battle of New Orleans -- 1815

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Naval Contributions Victory on the lakes:

Lake Erie: Restores American control of Northwest Territory.

Lake Champlain: Prevented invasion of New York.

Created stalemate.

Commerce Raiding

Ultimately ineffective.

BUT - Plays a factor in British agreement to peace.

Single ship engagements: Superiority of American shipbuilding and command.

Boost to national morale.

BUT - Ineffective against British blockade.

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Period of Expansion

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Gulf Coast Piracy

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We have tr ied every effort

at reconciliation But

now, after reiterated

menaces, Mexico has

passed the boundary of the

United States (Rio

Grande), has invaded ourterr i tory and shed

American blood upon

American soil. The two

nations are at war.

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JohnDahlgren

Father

ofModern

Naval

Ordnance

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The Civil War, 1861-1865

The Dawn of the Age of Mahan

B l f N l P

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North South

Naval Yards

Ship Builders

Industrial Base

Number of Ships

Leadership

Balance of Naval Power

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A Navy Divided

David Glasgow Farragut

David Dixon Porter

John Ericcson John Dahlgren

Charles Wilkes

Samuel F. DuPont

Franklin Buchanan

Matthew Fontaine

Maury

Raphael Semmes

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Common Operational HeritageUnion and Confederate Navies

War of 1812Coastal defense and commerce raiding:

Fighting from an inferior position against an enemy that has

command of the sea.

1815-1846Global deployments:

Blockade and Amphibious operations

1846-1848Mexican-American War

Blockade operations

Appreciation for shallow draft, steam vessels

O t f Di l

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Outcome of Diplomacy

Ultimately a Failure for the south

Naval Agent James Bulloch gets aid

- Commerce raiders (Alabama, Florida,Shenandoah)

- Blockade Runners

- Laird rams (clearly warships; blockade breakers Battle of Antietam (September 1862) and Charles

F. Adams protests end aid.

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Union Secretary of the Navy

Gideon Welles

Reorganization of the

Bureaus.

Gets rid of entrenchedofficer structure

Begins rapid and

massive ship-buildingprogram

Only 42 ships at the

beginning of the war.

Adds 160-ships in oneyear

Over 600-ships at wars

end

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Union Naval Strategy

Part of General Winfield Scotts master Anaconda Plan

for victory.

Blockade the entire Confederate coast.

Capture Southern ports for coal, water, food: bombardment andamphibious assaults.

Control of Mississippi River.

Vital line of communication for Confederacy.

Cut off Texas, Arkansas and Louisiana.

Riverine operations in western areas.

Combined Army-Navy operations against Confederate forces.

Union Army -- Capture Confederate capital at Richmond.

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Confederacy issuesletters of marquee to

privateers.

Attempts to use newtechnology to gainadvantage.

Conversion of older ships

to armored ironclads. Re-emergence of the ram

as a naval weapon.

Coordinates construction

of warships in GreatBritain.

Confederate Secretary of the Navy

Stephen Mallory

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Confederate Naval Strategy Part of overall strategy of Attrition Warfare.

Army will defend territory and threaten Washington. Coastal defense:

Army forts and new naval weapons systems.

Blockade-running:

Attempt to continue commercial trade with Europe. Operations hurt by Southerners desires for luxury goods.

Union blockades increasing effectiveness increases profits.

Commerce raiding:

Successful cruises divert Union ships from blockade duty. Privateers (1861):

Declaration of Paris - 1856.

Unable to secure prize courts (sovereignty problems).

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Early Naval Operations

Norfolk Navy Yard

Largest naval base and arsenal in the United States.

Captured by Confederate forces on 21 April.

USSMerrimackscuttled by retreating Union forces.

Large number of guns captured by Confederates. Battalion of Marines fights at Bull Run under Army

command.

Union blockade of the Confederacy:

Paper Blockade needs to become real as soon as possible.

Forward bases required for an effective blockade.

Amphibious operations launched to seize bases in the South.

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Battle of Port Royal- 7 November 1861

Attempt to establish first Union base on CSA territory:

Hilton Head Island, South Carolina

Commodore Stephen F. DuPont

Commands Union fleet.

Superior naval gunfire: Directed against Confederate forts defending the Sound.

Confederates abandon forts.

Union soldiers and Marines land unopposed.

Other Union amphibious operations will resemble PortRoyal operation.

Unsuccessful assault on Charleston in 1863 under Dahlgren.

B ttl f H t R d

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Battle of Hampton Roads

USSMonitor moved to Norfolk areato engageVirginia. Designed by John Ericcson.

Highly armored with low freeboard.

Single turret mounting two Dahlgren

guns.

First engagement between ironclad ships.

CSS Virginia USSMerrimackraised at Norfolk.

Iron armor and ram added by Confederate Navy.

Renamed Virginiaand commanded by Franklin Buchanan.

Defeats conventional Union ships on 8 March 1862.

Monitor v Virginia (Merrimack)

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Monitor v. Virginia (Merrimack)

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Western RiverCampaigns

Combined Union Army - Navy offensives. Goal: Control of the Mississippi River.

Navy gunboats and transports used to support Army. Union forces advance down Tennessee and Cumberland

Rivers to the Mississippi.

Battle of New Orleans David Dixon Porter -- Uses mortar boats to neutralize forts.

David Glasgow Farragut commands Union assault.

Seige of Vicksburg General Ulysses S. Grant in command.

David Dixon Porter runs the Vicksburg batteries.

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Siege of Vicksburg

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CSSAlabama- Commerce Raiding Route

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Fort Fisher Expeditions Defends the only remaining supply line to General

Lees Army of Northern Virginia through Wilmington,North Carolina.

Highly-defended by Confederate guns.

Combined Union Army-Navy operation. Union fleet commanded by David Dixon Porter.

First assault fails - Christmas 1864.

Second Assault Sailors and Marines attack the fort with Army forces.

Only successful amphibious assault against a heavilydefended fort.

Heavy, constant, targeted naval gunfire necessary for success.

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Tactical Trends in the Civil War

Introduction of ironclads:

Strengths: Heavily armored for coastal assault.

Weaknesses: Low mobility on the open ocean.

Question of a fleet's ability to suppress coastal

fortifications unanswered.

Appreciation for combined (Army-Navy) operations.

Proper planning and coordination essential for success.

Technological Innovation

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Technological Innovation

NorthMonitor Class Combination of steam, screw, armor, and a gun turret.

Large numbers built.

Dahlgren Guns effective at close range.

Gives Union Navy the advantage on coastal and inlandwaterways.

South CSSVirginia-- Steam power and iron armor.

The Davids CSSHunley - submarine.

Torpedoes

Laird rams.

E l ti f W hi C t ti

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Evolution of Warship Construction

Construction materials: Steel hulls replace iron hulls.

Steel has higher strength and less weight than iron.

Compartmentation.

Protective decks.

Armor protection. Iron to steel-plated iron to steel.

Location of armor:

Vulnerable areas get more armor.

Unable to armor the entire ship due to weight of armor.

Rams

Evolution of Armaments

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Evolution of Armaments

Self-propelled torpedo: Invented by Englishman Robert

Whitehead in 1866.

Muzzle loaders to breech loaders. Safety and rate of fire increases.

Rifled guns. Increased accuracy and ranges.

Mounting of guns. Hydraulic recoil mechanisms.

Cartridge shells. Round and charge are combined.

Rate of fire increases.

Greater penetrating power and

range.

Conclusions

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Conclusions

Decline of U.S. Merchant Marines due in large to the

obsolescent sailing vessels used.

Northern success in application of British-like offensive

naval warfare PLUS

Failure of Southern commerce raiding to win the war at sea= QUESTION:

Will American naval officers still regard commerce

raiding as the proper strategy in time of war ??????? The AlabamaClaims cause a lasting diplomatic debate

with Great Britain.

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Conclusions

Union blockade sets a precedent that that Woodrow Wilson

finds inconvenient in 1914-1917.

Joint Navy-Army Operations reach an unprecedented level

of high efficiency on the Mississippi River.

Joint Ops reach high point in the second amphib landing atFort Fisher, North Carolina, closing down the confederacys

last open port supporting R. E. Lees Army.

The Navy as an Instrument of Foreign Policy

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The Navy as an Instrument of Foreign Policy

Commercial Defense Water transportation was cheap

Navy became an economic tool, used to protect trade ships and routes, andto raid enemy ships and routes

The nation with a better Navy has a broader foreign influence with ameans to defend it

Power Projection

Battle of Actium (31 B.C.): Octavius wins civil war against Marc AntonySecures empire for himself

Spanish Armada (1588): Battle establishes Britain as a European power

With a powerful Navy, Britain becomes a major player in Europeanaffairs

The Navy as an Instrument of

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The Navy as an Instrument ofForeign Policy

Expansion/Enforcement Navy expanded Britain into a global empire, reaching

North America and West Indies

Spread English culture and trade

Navy supported overseas conflicts, defending foreignassets

Provided arms and supplies for the suppression ofAmerican rebellion

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The Navy and Congress

John Paul Jones

Excellent officer

After the end of

the Revolutionarywar, he never heldanother AmericanSea command

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Interservice Relations

Oliver Hazard Perry

William HenryHarrison

Lake ErieBattle of theThames River

Defeat of the

combined forcesand the death ofTecumseh

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Rank Structure

Greek

Trierarchs(sea-captains) 1

epibatai and toxotai(hoplites and

archers) 10 ,4

hyperesia(auxiliaries) ~20

kubernetes(helmsman)

prorates(bow officer)

keleustes(boatswain)

penteknotarchos(purser)

naupegos(shipwright)

auletes(pipeman)nautai, pleroma trierarchema

(oarsmen)~170

By the time Athens was the center

of an empire, the oarsmen became

commodities.

They were either Athenians or

foreigners.

Athenian citizens, by the 5thcentury, were trained to be

oarsmen.

The auxilliaries were in essence

mercenaries attracted to the

boat that paid them the best.

Romans(by around 39 bc)

The army was the primary military

force.

praefect(2)navarchi(squadron commander)

highest possible promotion from a

non equestrian soldier

The highest ranking navarchi advised

the praefect

trierarch

command of individual ships

gubernator(steersmen)

directed the steering oars

proreta

Assistant to the gubernator

celeusta= Maintained a beat

nauphlax-shipwright

The organization aboard a ship

mirrored the army's organization

The crew formed one centuria.

The distinction between rower and

soldier was blurred.

Roman adapted their military unit of

the centuria to the navy.

The Royal Navy

Commissioned OfficersAdmiral (Administration of Ships)

Commodore(Squadrons)

Captain ( Warships 1-6)

Commander( Small Ship)

Lieutenant

Sub-lieutenant

Officer Apprentice

MidshipmenMasters Mate

Warrant Officers

Master

Boatswain

Surgeon

Purser

Carpenter

Gunner

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The Elephant and the Whale

The idea of the elephant and the whale is useful to compare the

overall leadership of the ancient Greek navy and the Royal Navy

Both empires had opponents with superior land forces

Athens-SpartaEngland- Spain, France

The leaders of both realized the importance of sea power

Themistocles

Henry VIII

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Technology

Earliest naval vessels were galleys

Galleys were propelled by seamen ),and sometimes a sail, the 3 banked

galley, or Trireme represented the 3different levels of rowers.

Galleys acted as a defense for

merchant shipping

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Tech. Cont.

Spain and Portugal, around the sametime, introduced the galleon, Roman navyadapted missile tactics (e.g. use ofcatapults to launch stones, javelins, and

combustible projectiles) from the Romanarmy

The 16th through 19th centuries saw therise of sails and galleons

18th century brought advancements innavigation, including compasses,chronometers, and sextants

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Even more Tech.

18th century also markedtechnological enhancement of shipsthrough the removal of forcastles

and aftercastles ), multiple decksfull-rigging, and more man-power

Larger ships were used during battle,while smaller ships (cruisers) were

the choice for patrol, reconnaissance,and commerce raiding.

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Evolution of Naval Doctrine

Ages of galleys hadan understoodmethod of attack

Well thought outplans

Rams, line abreast

Boarding

MARINES!

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Evolution of Naval Doctrine

Doctrine has notchanged much

Different tactics

Different weaponsSame principals

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British Sea Power

Royal Navy brings formal battleprocedures

Great Brittan provides the world with

the first concise and solid navalwarfare doctrine.

The formidable navy power

Unchallenged for many years

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British Sea Power

Formalized cannontactics

Wrote down and

developed navalfighting

None of thepredecessors

formalized doctrine

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Tactics

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Tactics(3000 BC to 16thCentury)

Persian Wars Second Persian War the

Persians used their fleet inthe first war to land troopsat Marathon.

Third war the Persianswere able to use theirfleet to cover their armysadvance over land.

At the Battle of Salamisthe Greeks used the

terrain to take thePersians advantage ofnumbers.

Punic Wars The Romans had a strong

army and developed thecorvus to attack theiropponents.

Battle of Actium Octavius drew out

Cleopatra's fleet duringthe battle, and allow herfleet to sail right past his.Due to the direction of thewind Cleopatra wasnt ableto get back into the fight.

Tactics

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(1500 AD to 19thCentury)Battle of Lepanto Guns were primary

weapon deployed by theChristians to attack theTurks.

Age of Sail Line ahead

Melee Tactics

Weather Gage

Lee Gage

Seven Years war British blockaded the

French

Used Formal Tactics

French raided British

commerce. Attempted tohold French Colonies

Attempted to invadeEngland.

Battle of Trafalgar