Chapter TwoChapter Two

Speech Speech SoundsSounds

As human beings we are capable As human beings we are capable of making all kinds of sounds, of making all kinds of sounds, but only some of these sounds but only some of these sounds have become units in the have become units in the language system. language system.

We can analyze speech sounds We can analyze speech sounds from various perspectives and from various perspectives and the two major areas of study are the two major areas of study are phoneticsphonetics and and phonologyphonology. .

PhoneticsPhonetics studies how speech sounds are studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. produced, transmitted, and perceived.

Articulatory PhoneticsArticulatory Phonetics is the is the study of the production of speech study of the production of speech sounds.sounds.

Acoustic PhoneticsAcoustic Phonetics is the study is the study of the physical properties of of the physical properties of speech sounds.speech sounds.

PerceptualPerceptual or or Auditory PhoneticsAuditory Phonetics is concerned with the perception is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.of speech sounds.

PhonologyPhonology is the study of the sound is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to ‘discover the principles that govern It aims to ‘discover the principles that govern

the way sounds are organized in languages, the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur’.and to explain the variations that occur’.

In phonology we normally begin by analyzing In phonology we normally begin by analyzing an individual language, say English, in order an individual language, say English, in order to determine its to determine its phonological structurephonological structure, i.e. , i.e. which sound units are used and how they are which sound units are used and how they are put together. put together.

Then we compare the properties of sound Then we compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses about the rules that make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of sounds in them, and underlie the use of sounds in them, and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.underlie the sound patterns of all languages.

1. How 1. How speech speech sounds sounds are madeare made

1.1 Speech 1.1 Speech organsorgans

Position of the vocal Position of the vocal folds: voicelessfolds: voiceless

Position of the vocal folds: Position of the vocal folds: voicing (initial & the voicing (initial & the

widest aperture)widest aperture)

Position of the vocal folds: Position of the vocal folds:

glottal stopglottal stop

1.2 The IPA1.2 The IPA In 1886, the Phonetic Teachers’ In 1886, the Phonetic Teachers’

Association was inaugurated by a Association was inaugurated by a small group of language teachers small group of language teachers in France who had found the in France who had found the practice of phonetics useful in practice of phonetics useful in their teaching and wished to their teaching and wished to popularize their methods. popularize their methods. It was changed to its present title of It was changed to its present title of

the the International Phonetic International Phonetic AssociationAssociation (IPA) in 1897. (IPA) in 1897.

One of the first activities of the AssOne of the first activities of the Association was to produce a journal iociation was to produce a journal in which the contents were printed n which the contents were printed entirely in entirely in phonetic transcriptionphonetic transcription. . The idea of establishing a The idea of establishing a phonetic alphonetic al

phabetphabet was first proposed by the Dan was first proposed by the Danish grammarian and phonetician Ottish grammarian and phonetician Otto Jespersen (1860-1943) in 1886, and o Jespersen (1860-1943) in 1886, and

the first version of the the first version of the International International Phonetic AlphabetPhonetic Alphabet (the (the IPA chartIPA chart) wa) was published in August 1888. s published in August 1888.

Its main principles were that Its main principles were that there should be a separate letter for there should be a separate letter for

each distinctive sound, and each distinctive sound, and that the same symbol should be used that the same symbol should be used

for that sound in any language in for that sound in any language in which it appears. which it appears.

The alphabet was to consist of as many The alphabet was to consist of as many Roman alphabet letters as possible, Roman alphabet letters as possible, using new letters and diacritics only using new letters and diacritics only when absolutely necessary. when absolutely necessary.

These principles continue to be These principles continue to be followed today. followed today.

The The InternationalInternationalPhonetic Phonetic Alphabet Alphabet (Revised to (Revised to 2005)2005)

2. Consonants and vowels2. Consonants and vowels

ConsonantsConsonants are produced ‘by a are produced ‘by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without air cannot escape without producing audible friction’. producing audible friction’.

By contrast, a By contrast, a vowelvowel is produced is produced without such ‘without such ‘stricturestricture’ so that ’ so that ‘air escapes in a relatively ‘air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the unimpeded way through the mouth or nose’. mouth or nose’.

The distinction between vowels The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstreamobstruction of airstream..

As there is no obstruction of air As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels, the in the production of vowels, the description of the consonants description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.the same lines.

2.1 Consonants2.1 Consonants In the production of consonants at In the production of consonants at

least two least two articulatorsarticulators are involved. are involved. For example, the initial sound in For example, the initial sound in badbad

involves both lips and its final segment involves both lips and its final segment involves the blade (or the tip) of the involves the blade (or the tip) of the tongue and the alveolar ridge. tongue and the alveolar ridge.

The categories of consonant, The categories of consonant, therefore, are established on the therefore, are established on the basis of several factors. basis of several factors.

The The manner of articulationmanner of articulation refers refers to ways in which articulation can to ways in which articulation can be accomplished: be accomplished: the articulators may close off the the articulators may close off the

oral tract for an instant or a oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; relatively long period;

they may narrow the space they may narrow the space considerably; or considerably; or

they may simply modify the shape of they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.the tract by approaching each other.

Stop (or Plosive) Oral & Nasal

Fricative (Median)

Approximant Lateral

(Approximant) Trill Tap or Flap Affricate

The The place of articulationplace of articulation refers to refers to the point where a consonant is the point where a consonant is made. made. Practically consonants may be Practically consonants may be

produced at any place between the produced at any place between the lips and the vocal folds. lips and the vocal folds.

Eleven places of articulation are Eleven places of articulation are distinguished on the IPA chart:distinguished on the IPA chart:

BilabialBilabial LabiodentalLabiodental DentalDental AlveolarAlveolar PostalveolarPostalveolar RetroflexRetroflex PalatalPalatal VelarVelar UvularUvular PharyngealPharyngeal GlottalGlottal

2.2 Vowels2.2 Vowels

Cardinal VowelsCardinal Vowels, as exhibited by , as exhibited by the vowel diagram in the IPA the vowel diagram in the IPA chart, are a set of vowel qualities chart, are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels description of the actual vowels of existing languages. of existing languages.

Jones: An Outline of English Phonetics (1918)

Black: IPA

Red: English

The problematic area is that the The problematic area is that the initial sound in initial sound in hothot gives little gives little turbulence, depending on how turbulence, depending on how forcefully it is said, and in forcefully it is said, and in yetyet and and wetwet the initial segments are the initial segments are obviously vowels. obviously vowels. To get out of this problem, the usual To get out of this problem, the usual

solution is to say that these solution is to say that these segments are neither vowels nor segments are neither vowels nor consonants but midway between the consonants but midway between the two categories. For this purpose, the two categories. For this purpose, the term ‘term ‘semi-vowelsemi-vowel’ is often used.’ is often used.

Languages also frequently make use of a Languages also frequently make use of a distinction between vowels where the qdistinction between vowels where the quality remains constant throughout the uality remains constant throughout the articulation and those where there is an articulation and those where there is an audible change of quality. audible change of quality. The former are known as The former are known as purepure or or monophtmonopht

hong vowelshong vowels and the latter, and the latter, vowel glidesvowel glides. . If a single movement of the tongue is invIf a single movement of the tongue is inv

olved, the glides are called olved, the glides are called diphthongsdiphthongs..

A double movement produces a A double movement produces a triphtriphthongthong, which is ‘a glide from one vo, which is ‘a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third, all wel to another and then to a third, all produced rapidly and without interrproduced rapidly and without interruption’. uption’. They are really diphthongs followed by tThey are really diphthongs followed by t

he he schwaschwa [ ], found in English words likə [ ], found in English words likəe e wirewire [wa ] and ɪə [wa ] and ɪə tower tower [ta ]. ʊə[ta ]. ʊə

2.3 The sounds of English2.3 The sounds of English

Received Pronunciation (RP)Received Pronunciation (RP) General American (GA)General American (GA)

English consonantsEnglish consonants

The consonants of English can be The consonants of English can be described in the following described in the following manner:manner: [p] voiceless bilabial stop[p] voiceless bilabial stop [b] voiced bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop [s] voiceless alveolar fricative[s] voiceless alveolar fricative [z] voiced alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative

English vowels

The description of English vowels The description of English vowels needs to fulfill four basic needs to fulfill four basic requirements: requirements: the height of tongue raising (the height of tongue raising (highhigh, ,

midmid, , lowlow);); the position of the highest part of the position of the highest part of

the tongue (the tongue (frontfront, , centralcentral, , backback);); the length or the length or tensenesstenseness of the vowel of the vowel

((tensetense vs. vs. laxlax or or longlong vs. vs. shortshort), and ), and lip-roundinglip-rounding ( (roundedrounded vs. vs.

unroundedunrounded). ).

We can now describe the English We can now describe the English vowels in this way:vowels in this way: [[] high front tense unrounded ] high front tense unrounded

vowelvowel [[] high back lax rounded vowel] high back lax rounded vowel [[] mid central lax unrounded vowel] mid central lax unrounded vowel [[] low back lax rounded vowel] low back lax rounded vowel

3. From phonetics to 3. From phonetics to phonologyphonology Speech is a continuous process, Speech is a continuous process,

so the vocal organs do not move so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps. next in a series of separate steps. Rather, sounds continually show Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors. the influence of their neighbors. For example, For example, mapmap, , lamblamb..

3.1 Coarticulation3.1 Coarticulation When such simultaneous or When such simultaneous or

overlapping articulations are overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process involved, we call the process coarticulationcoarticulation. . If the sound becomes more like the If the sound becomes more like the

following sound, as in the case of following sound, as in the case of lamblamb, , it is known as it is known as anticipatory anticipatory coarticulationcoarticulation. .

If the sound shows the influence of the If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is preceding sound, it is perseverative perseverative coarticulationcoarticulation, as is the case of , as is the case of mapmap..

The fact that the vowel [The fact that the vowel [] in ] in lamblamb has some quality of the has some quality of the following nasal is a phenomenon following nasal is a phenomenon we call we call nasalizationnasalization. . To indicate that a vowel has been To indicate that a vowel has been

nasalized, we add a diacritic to the nasalized, we add a diacritic to the top of the symbol [top of the symbol [], as [], as [].].

[p] is [p] is aspiratedaspirated in in peakpeak and and unaspiratedunaspirated in in speakspeak. . This aspirated voiceless bilabial This aspirated voiceless bilabial

stop is thus indicated by the stop is thus indicated by the diacriticdiacritic hh, as [p, as [phh], whereas the ], whereas the unaspirated counterpart is unaspirated counterpart is transcribed as [p]. transcribed as [p].

When we use a simple set of When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is symbols in our transcription, it is called a called a broad transcriptionbroad transcription. .

The use of more specific symbols The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a referred to as a narrow narrow transcriptiontranscription. .

Both are Both are phonetic transcriptionsphonetic transcriptions so we put both forms in square so we put both forms in square brackets [ ].brackets [ ].

3.2 Phonemes3.2 Phonemes

PhonologyPhonology is not specifically is not specifically concerned with the physical concerned with the physical properties of the speech properties of the speech production system. production system. Phoneticians are concerned with Phoneticians are concerned with

how sounds differ in the way they how sounds differ in the way they are pronounced while phonologists are pronounced while phonologists are interested in the patterning of are interested in the patterning of such sounds and the rules that such sounds and the rules that underlie such variations. underlie such variations.

Crystal: ‘Phonological analysis Crystal: ‘Phonological analysis relies on the principle that relies on the principle that certain sounds cause changes in certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phrase, the meaning of a word or phrase, whereas other sounds do not’. whereas other sounds do not’. Minimal pairs testMinimal pairs test PhonemesPhonemes

The word ‘The word ‘phonemephoneme’ simply ’ simply refers to a ‘unit of explicit sound refers to a ‘unit of explicit sound contrast’: the existence of a contrast’: the existence of a minimal pair automatically minimal pair automatically grants phonemic status to the grants phonemic status to the sounds responsible for the sounds responsible for the contrasts.contrasts. By selecting one type of sound By selecting one type of sound

instead of another we can instead of another we can distinguish one word from another.distinguish one word from another.

Languages differ in the selection Languages differ in the selection of contrastive sounds. of contrastive sounds. In English, the distinction between In English, the distinction between

aspirated [paspirated [phh] and unaspirated [p] is ] and unaspirated [p] is not not phonemicphonemic. .

In Chinese, however, the distinction In Chinese, however, the distinction between /p/ and /pbetween /p/ and /phh/ is phonemic./ is phonemic.

By convention, By convention, phonemic phonemic transcriptionstranscriptions are placed are placed between slant lines (/ /) while between slant lines (/ /) while phonetic transcriptionsphonetic transcriptions are are placed between square brackets placed between square brackets ([ ]). ([ ]). In phonetic terms, phonemic In phonetic terms, phonemic

transcriptions represent the ‘broad’ transcriptions represent the ‘broad’ transcriptions. transcriptions.

3.3 Allophones3.3 Allophones [p, p[p, phh] are two different ] are two different phonesphones and and

are variants of the are variants of the phonemephoneme /p/. Such /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called variants of a phoneme are called allophonesallophones of the same phoneme. of the same phoneme.

In this case the allophones are said to In this case the allophones are said to be in be in complementary distributioncomplementary distribution because they never occur in the same because they never occur in the same context: context: [p] occurs after [s] while [p[p] occurs after [s] while [phh] occurs in ] occurs in

other places. other places.

/p/ /p/ [p] / [s] _____ [p] / [s] _____

[p[phh] elsewhere] elsewhere

This phenomenon of variation in This phenomenon of variation in the pronunciation of phonemes the pronunciation of phonemes in different positions is called in different positions is called allophonyallophony or or allophonic allophonic variationvariation..

VelarizationVelarization: : clear clear ll and and dark dark ll

/// / [[] / _____ V] / _____ V

[[] / V _____] / V _____

Think about Think about telltell and and tellingtelling!!

Phonetic similarityPhonetic similarity: the : the allophones of a phoneme must allophones of a phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance. bear some phonetic resemblance.

Free variantsFree variants and and free variationfree variation

4. Phonological processes, 4. Phonological processes, phonological rules and phonological rules and distinctive featuresdistinctive features

4.1 Assimilation4.1 Assimilation

NasalizationNasalization, , dentalizationdentalization, and , and velarizationvelarization are all instances of are all instances of assimilationassimilation, a process by which one , a process by which one sound takes on some or all the sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring characteristics of a neighboring sound. sound. If a following sound is influencing a If a following sound is influencing a

preceding sound, we call it preceding sound, we call it regressive regressive assimilationassimilation. .

The converse process, in which a The converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as following sound, is known as progressive assimilationprogressive assimilation. .

English Fricative Devoicing

/v/ /v/ [f] /z/ [f] /z/ [s] etc. [s] etc. voiced fricative voiced fricative voiceless / ____ voiceless / ____

voicelessvoiceless

Nasalization rule:Nasalization rule:

[-nasal] [-nasal] [+nasal] / ____ [+nasal] [+nasal] / ____ [+nasal] Dentalization rule:Dentalization rule:

[-dental] [-dental] [dental] / ____ [dental] / ____ [dental][dental]

Velarization rule:Velarization rule:

[-velar] [-velar] [+velar] / ____ [+velar] [+velar] / ____ [+velar]

4.2 Epenthesis, rule 4.2 Epenthesis, rule ordering and ordering and the Elsewhere Conditionthe Elsewhere Condition

a hotel, a boy, a use, a wagon, a a hotel, a boy, a use, a wagon, a big man, a yellow rug, a white big man, a yellow rug, a white househouse

an apple, an honor, an orange an apple, an honor, an orange curtain, an old ladycurtain, an old lady

EpenthesisEpenthesis (Insertion) Rule: (Insertion) Rule:

Plurals in English

a. The [a. The [] appears after voiceless ] appears after voiceless sounds.sounds.

b. The [b. The [] appears after voiced ] appears after voiced sounds. sounds.

c. The [c. The [] appears after sibilants.] appears after sibilants.

/// / [ [] / [–voice, C] _____ ] / [–voice, C] _____ (Devoicing)(Devoicing)

[[] / [+sibilant] _____ [] / [+sibilant] _____ [] ] (Epenthesis)(Epenthesis)

Rule orderingRule ordering

The Elsewhere ConditionThe Elsewhere ConditionThe more specific rule applies first.The more specific rule applies first.

4.3 Distinctive features4.3 Distinctive features

The idea of The idea of Distinctive FeaturesDistinctive Features was first developed by Roman was first developed by Roman Jacobson (1896-1982) in the Jacobson (1896-1982) in the 1940s as a means of working out 1940s as a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds. aspects of language sounds. Since then several versions have Since then several versions have

been suggestedbeen suggested..

Some of the major distinctions include [cSome of the major distinctions include [consonantal], [sonorant], [nasal] and [voiconsonantal], [sonorant], [nasal] and [voiced]. ed]. The feature [consonantal] can distinguish betThe feature [consonantal] can distinguish bet

ween consonants and vowels, so all consonanween consonants and vowels, so all consonants are [+consonantal] and all vowels [–consonts are [+consonantal] and all vowels [–consonantal]. antal].

[sonorant] distinguishes between what we cal[sonorant] distinguishes between what we call l obstruentsobstruents (stops, fricatives and affricates) a (stops, fricatives and affricates) and nd sonorantssonorants (all other consonants and vowel (all other consonants and vowels), with obstruents being [–sonorant] and oths), with obstruents being [–sonorant] and others [+sonorant]. ers [+sonorant].

[nasal] and [voiced] of course distinguish nas[nasal] and [voiced] of course distinguish nasal (including nasalized) sounds and voiced soal (including nasalized) sounds and voiced sounds respectively.unds respectively.

These are known as These are known as binarybinary featuresfeatures because we can group because we can group them into two categories: one them into two categories: one with this feature and the other with this feature and the other without. without. Binary features have two values or Binary features have two values or

specifications denoted by ‘ + ’ and specifications denoted by ‘ + ’ and ‘ – ’ so voiced obstruents are marked ‘ – ’ so voiced obstruents are marked [+voiced] and voiceless obstruents [+voiced] and voiceless obstruents are marked [–voiced].are marked [–voiced].

The place features are not binary featurThe place features are not binary features – they are divided up into four values: es – they are divided up into four values: [PLACE: Labial][PLACE: Labial] [PLACE: Coronal][PLACE: Coronal] [PLACE: Dorsal] [PLACE: Dorsal] [PLACE: Radical][PLACE: Radical]

They are often written in shorthand forThey are often written in shorthand forms as ms as [Labial]p[Labial]p [Coronal]p[Coronal]p [Dorsal]p[Dorsal]p [Radical]p[Radical]p

A useful feature for consonants not A useful feature for consonants not found here is [±spread] (for ‘spread found here is [±spread] (for ‘spread glottis’), which distinguishes glottis’), which distinguishes between ‘aspirated’ and between ‘aspirated’ and ‘unaspirated’ voiceless obstruents. ‘unaspirated’ voiceless obstruents. Aspirated sounds are [+spread] and Aspirated sounds are [+spread] and

unaspirated sounds are [–spread]. unaspirated sounds are [–spread]. Now we can represent the rule that Now we can represent the rule that

governs the unaspiration of /p/ after governs the unaspiration of /p/ after [s] in terms of features:[s] in terms of features:

-cont-cont

--voicevoice

[–spread] / [s]_____ [–spread] / [s]_____

[+spread] in other places [+spread] in other places This is a more general rule, This is a more general rule,

which also applies to /t/ and /k/. which also applies to /t/ and /k/. It means that /p, t, k/ ([–voiced, –It means that /p, t, k/ ([–voiced, –cont]) are all unaspirated ([–cont]) are all unaspirated ([–spread]) after [s] and aspirated spread]) after [s] and aspirated ([+spread]) in all other positions.([+spread]) in all other positions.

Past tense forms in EnglishPast tense forms in English

stopped, walked, coughed, stopped, walked, coughed, kissed, leashed, reachedkissed, leashed, reached

stabbed, wagged, achieved, stabbed, wagged, achieved, buzzed, soothed, bridgedbuzzed, soothed, bridged

steamed, stunned, pulledsteamed, stunned, pulled played, flowed, studiedplayed, flowed, studied wanted, located, decided, guidedwanted, located, decided, guided

The regular past tense form in EnglisThe regular past tense form in English is pronounced as [t] when the word h is pronounced as [t] when the word ends with a voiceless consonant, [d] ends with a voiceless consonant, [d] when it ends with a voiced sound, anwhen it ends with a voiced sound, and [d [ɪɪd] when it ends with [t] or [d]. d] when it ends with [t] or [d].

5. Suprasegmentals5. Suprasegmentals

Suprasegmental featuresSuprasegmental features are those are those aspects of speech that involve more aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. than single sound segments.

The principal suprasegmentals are: The principal suprasegmentals are:

5.1 The syllable structure5.1 The syllable structure

σσ

Onset RimeOnset Rime

Nucleus CodaNucleus Coda

k r æ k tk r æ k t

Open syllable:Open syllable: bar, tiebar, tie Closed syllable:Closed syllable: bard, tiedbard, tied

English Syllable:English Syllable: (((C)C)C)V((((C)C)C)C)(((C)C)C)V((((C)C)C)C)

Chinese syllable:Chinese syllable: (C)V(C) (C)V(C)

Maximal Onset Principle (MOP)Maximal Onset Principle (MOP) When there is a choice as to where When there is a choice as to where

to place a consonant, it is put into to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. the onset rather than the coda.

5.2 Stress5.2 Stress

StressStress refers to the degree of force refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line transcription, a raised vertical line [[││] is often used just before the ] is often used just before the syllable it relates to. syllable it relates to. A basic distinction is made between A basic distinction is made between

stressedstressed and and unstressedunstressed syllables, the syllables, the former being more prominent than former being more prominent than the latter, which means that stress is the latter, which means that stress is a relative notion. a relative notion.

At the word level, it only applies At the word level, it only applies to words with at least two to words with at least two syllables. syllables.

At the sentence level, a At the sentence level, a monosyllabic word may be said to monosyllabic word may be said to be stressed relative to other be stressed relative to other words in the sentence.words in the sentence.

Changing English Stress Changing English Stress PatternPattern

Becoming normBecoming norm inTEGralinTEGral coMMUNalcoMMUNal forMIDableforMIDable conTROVersyconTROVersy

Considered conservatConsidered conservativeive

INtegralINtegral COMMunalCOMMunal FORmidableFORmidable CONtroversyCONtroversy

RPRP laBORatorylaBORatory DEBrisDEBris GARageGARage

GAGA LABoratoryLABoratory deBRISdeBRIS gaRAGEgaRAGE

RP vs. GA

VerbVerb conVICTconVICT inSULTinSULT proDUCEproDUCE reBELreBEL

NounNoun CONvictCONvict INsultINsult PROducePROduce REbelREbel

V vs. N

BLACKboardBLACKboard

BLACKbirdBLACKbird

black BOARDblack BOARD

black BIRDblack BIRD

Compound Phrase

Compound vs. Phrase

Primary vs. Secondary Primary vs. Secondary StressStress

epiphenomenalepiphenomenal unsatisfactoryunsatisfactory discriminationdiscrimination standardizationstandardization communicationcommunication industrializationindustrialization

Sentence StressSentence Stress John bought a red car.John bought a red car. JOHNJOHN bought a red car. bought a red car. John John BOUGHTBOUGHT a red a red

car.car. John bought a John bought a REDRED car. car. John bought a red John bought a red CARCAR..

5.3 Intonation5.3 Intonation

IntonationIntonation involves the occurrence involves the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on either on single words or on groups of words of varying length. groups of words of varying length. For example, the fall-rise tone in For example, the fall-rise tone in

English typically involves the meaning English typically involves the meaning of a contrast within a limited set of of a contrast within a limited set of items stated explicitly or implicitly.items stated explicitly or implicitly.

(Isn’t her name Mary?) No (Isn’t her name Mary?) No / / JennyJenny

The old man didn’t come The old man didn’t come // whereas the whereas the young man young man // did did come and actually enjoyed come and actually enjoyed himselfhimself

I didn’t do itI didn’t do it

5.4 Tone5.4 Tone

Putonghua [pa]Putonghua [pa]Chinese Chinese charactcharact

erer

PinyiPinyinn

Tone Tone symbolsymbol

Tone Tone numbnumb

erer

Tone Tone descriptiodescriptio

nnGlossGloss

八八 bābā 5555 High levelHigh level ‘‘eight’eight’

拔拔 bábá 3535 High High risingrising

‘‘pull pull out’out’

靶靶 băbă 214214 Low falling Low falling risingrising

‘‘targettarget’’

坝坝 bàbà 5151 High High fallingfalling ‘‘dam’dam’