CHAPTER 5 : Learning Essentials of Psychology, by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing.

CHAPTER 5:

Learning

Essentials of Psychology, by Saul Kassin

©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

LearningLearning

Classical Conditioning

Operant Conditioning

Observational Learning

Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Learning Learning EthologyEthology

– The study of the behavior of animals in their natural habitat.

• Fixed Action Pattern– A species-specific behavior that is built into

an animal’s nervous system and triggered by a specific stimulus.


LearningLearningEthologyEthology

• An example of a fixed action pattern can be seen in the stickleback fish. This fish attacks all forms that have a red belly, even those that do not look like a fish. The red belly is the stimulus that triggers this fixed action pattern.

Stickleback ModelsStickleback Models


LearningLearningDefining LearningDefining Learning

• A relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior that results from experience.– Adaptation by learning is flexible. – Humans adapt to life’s demands by learning

and not by instinct.– The key to learning is association.


LearningLearningHabituationHabituation

• The tendency of an organism to become familiar with a stimulus as a result of repeated exposure– It is the simplest form of

learning. – Note here that rats repeatedly

exposed to a cat’s odor, and no cat, hid less over time.

Habituation of FearHabituation of Fear


LearningLearningClassical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

– A type of learning in which an organism comes to associate one stimulus with another (also called Pavlovian conditioning).

• Classical Conditioning involves learning that one event predicts another.

• This type of learning involves• An unconditioned stimulus• An unconditioned response• A conditioned stimulus• A conditioned response


Classical ConditioningClassical ConditioningPavlov’s DiscoveryPavlov’s Discovery

• An unconditioned stimulus (US)– A stimulus (an event) that triggers an unconditioned

(involuntary) response.• Examples: food, loud noises, painful stimuli

• In Pavlov’s experiments, the US was the food.

• An unconditioned response (UR)– An unlearned response to an unconditioned

stimulus. • Examples: salivation to food, jumping when hearing a loud

noise, moving away from something painful

• In Pavlov’s experiments, salivation to the food was the UR.



• A conditioned stimulus (CS)– A neutral stimulus (an event) that comes to evoke a

classically conditioned (learned) response due to being presented shortly before the US.

• In Pavlov’s experiments, the CS was the bell.

• A conditioned response (CR)– A learned response to a classically conditioned

stimulus. • In Pavlov’s experiments, salivation to the bell was the CR.


Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s DiscoveryPavlov’s Discovery

• Pavlov classically conditioned dogs to salivate. Salivation was measured by a pen attached to a slowly rotating cylinder of paper.

Pavlov’s ApparatusPavlov’s Apparatus



• Before ConditioningBefore Conditioning– Unconditioned Stimulus (US) elicits

Unconditioned Response (UR)• Meat powder leads to salivation

– Neutral stimulus elicits no particular response• Bell leads to orienting response only, no salivation



• During and After ConditioningDuring and After Conditioning– Conditioning: Neutral Stimulus is Paired with the

Unconditioned Stimulus• Bell rings, then meat powder is delivered

• This procedure is repeated several times

– After Several Trials of pairing the bell with the food• When Bell rings, dog salivates

• The Bell is now a Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

• Salivation is a Conditioned Response (CR)


Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning Basic PrinciplesBasic Principles

• Acquisition– Formation of a learned response to a stimulus

through presentation of an unconditioned stimulus

• Extinction– Elimination of a learned response by removal of the

unconditioned stimulus

• Spontaneous Recovery– Re-emergence of an extinguished conditioned

response after a rest period


Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning Basic PrinciplesBasic PrinciplesThe Rise and Fall of a Conditioned ResponseThe Rise and Fall of a Conditioned Response



• In forward pairing, the CS precedes the US.– Easiest conditioning

• In simultaneous pairing, the CS and US occur together.

• In backward pairing, the CS follows the US.– Most difficult Time

Temporal Relations in Classical ConditioningTemporal Relations in Classical Conditioning



• Stimulus Generalization– The tendency to respond to a stimulus that is

similar to the conditioned stimulus

• Discrimination– In classical and operant conditioning, the

ability to distinguish between different stimuli


Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning Basic PrinciplesBasic Principles

• With repeated pairing, a neutral stimulus can be linked with a CS.– The bell (CS) is paired

with a black square.

• This neutral stimulus becomes a CS.– In the example, the black

square elicits salivation.

• One CS was used to create another CS.

Higher-Order ConditioningHigher-Order Conditioning


Classical ConditioningClassical ConditioningPavlov’s LegacyPavlov’s LegacyThe Conditioning of Little AlbertThe Conditioning of Little Albert

• An 11-month old boy – named “Albert” – was conditioned to fear a white laboratory rat.– Each time he reached for the rat,

Watson made a loud clanging noise right behind Albert.

• Albert’s fear generalized to anything white and furry.– Including rabbits and a Santa

Claus mask


LearningLearning Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

• Thorndike put cats into puzzle boxes and

the time it took for them to escape decreased over the number of attempts.

• Law of Effect– Responses followed by positive outcomes are

repeated, whereas those followed by negative outcomes are not.


Operant ConditioningOperant ConditioningThe Principles of ReinforcementThe Principles of Reinforcement

• Operant Conditioning

– The process by which organisms learn to behave in ways that produce reinforcement.

• Reinforcement

– Any stimulus that increases the likelihood of a prior response.


Operant ConditioningOperant ConditioningThe Principles of ReinforcementThe Principles of Reinforcement

• Punishment

– Any stimulus that decreases the likelihood of a prior response.

• Shaping

– Using reinforcements to guide an animal or person gradually toward a specific behavior.


Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

The Principles of ReinforcementThe Principles of Reinforcement

Increases Behavior

Decreases Behavior

Present Stimulus

Positive Reinforcement(give money)

Positive Punishment(give chores)

Remove Stimulus

Negative Reinforcement(take away chores)

Negative Punishment(take away money)

Types of Reinforcement & PunishmentTypes of Reinforcement & Punishment


Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning The Principles of ReinforcementThe Principles of Reinforcement

• Simple reinforcement schedules produce characteristic response patterns.

• Steeper lines mean higher response rates.

• Ratio schedules produce more responses than do interval schedules.

Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement


Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning Practical ApplicationsPractical Applications

• All salesclerks were observed for a 20-day baseline period.

• Then, half were given cash bonuses for good performance, half were not.

• The ones given cash bonuses improved job performance.

Using Reinforcement to Boost Job PerformanceUsing Reinforcement to Boost Job Performance


Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning Practical ApplicationsPractical Applications

• Condition Oneself to Break a Bad HabitCondition Oneself to Break a Bad Habit– Identify specific target behavior to change– Record baseline– Formulate a plan

• To increase a behavior, use reinforcement• To extinguish behavior, avoid situations where it

occurs or remove reinforcements

– Implement the plan, revise as needed– Maintain the change


Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning New DevelopmentsNew DevelopmentsRats in a Maze: Evidence for a Cognitive MapRats in a Maze: Evidence for a Cognitive Map• Tolman trained rats in this

maze, with all alleys open.

• If “Block A” in place, rats chose green (shorter) path.

• If “Block B” in place, rats chose blue path.

– Green path is also blocked.

• Rats take the shortest detours, navigating as if they have an internal map.


Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning New DevelopmentsNew Developments

Latent LearningLatent Learning• Latent Learning: Learning that occurs but is not exhibited in performance until there is an incentive to do so.

• Some rats found food every time (red line)

• Some rats never found food (blue line)

• Some rats found food on Day 11 (green line)


Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning New DevelopmentsNew DevelopmentsHidden Cost of RewardsHidden Cost of Rewards• Preschoolers played with felt-tipped markers and

were observed.• Divided into 3 groups:

– Given markers again and asked to draw– Promised a reward for playing with markers– Played with markers, then rewarded

• Children who drew with the markers to get the reward were now less interested in them.


Observational LearningObservational Learning

– Learning that takes place when one observes and models the behavior of others.

• Studies of Modeling– Children and others model both antisocial and

prosocial behavior.


Observational LearningObservational LearningThe Process of Modeling Involves:The Process of Modeling Involves:

• Attention– One must pay attention to a behavior and its consequences.

• Retention– One must recall what was observed.

• Reproduction– Observers must have the motor ability to reproduce the

modeled behavior.

• Motivation– Observer must expect reinforcement for modeled act.


CHAPTER 5 : Learning Essentials of Psychology, by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing.

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Transcript of CHAPTER 5 : Learning Essentials of Psychology, by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing.