CHAPTER 15: Applying Psychology Essentials of Psychology, by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall...

CHAPTER 15:Applying Psychology

Essentials of Psychology, by Saul Kassin

©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Applying PsychologyApplying Psychology

Stress and Health

Psychology and the Law

Psychology in the Workplace

Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing


Stress and Health

The Stress Response

The Physiological Effects of Stress

Coping with Stress


Stress and HealthStress and Health

• Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI)– A new subfield of psychology that examines the

interactions among psychological factors, the nervous system, and the immune system

• Health Psychology– The study of the links between psychological factors and

physical health and illness


Stress and Health Stress and Health Leading Causes of Death, 1900-2000Leading Causes of Death, 1900-2000

• Since 1900, heart disease, cancer, and strokes have replaced infectious diseases as the major causes of death.

• Behavioral factors contribute to each of these leading causes of death.


Stress and Health Stress and Health

• Stress: An aversive state of arousal triggered by the perception that an event threatens the ability to cope effectively.

• Although stressful events have effects on the body, the way people cope can promote health or illness.

Stress and CopingStress and Coping


Stress and Health Stress and Health The StressThe Stress ResponseResponse

• Sources of stress fall into three major categories: catastrophes, major life events, and daily hassles. – Catastrophic stressors can lead to Posttraumatic

Stress Disorder (PTSD)• An anxiety disorder triggered by an extremely

stressful event, such as combat.

– However, the buildup of daily hassles contributes more to illness than does major life events.


Stress and Health Stress and Health The Physiological Effects of StressThe Physiological Effects of Stress

A three-stage process by which the body respondsto stress

General Adaptation SyndromeGeneral Adaptation Syndrome



• Type A Personality– Characterized by an impatient, hard-driving, and

hostile pattern of behavior

• Type B Personality– Characterized by an easygoing, relaxed pattern of

behavior

• People with Type A personality are more prone to coronary heart disease (CHD).

The Effects of Stress on the HeartThe Effects of Stress on the Heart



• Immune System– A biological surveillance system that detects

and destroys “nonself” substances that invade the body

• Lymphocytes– Specialized white blood cells that secrete

chemical antibodies and facilitate the immune response



Pathways From Stress to IllnessPathways From Stress to Illness

• Negative emotional states (stress) can lead to unhealthy behaviors and trigger the release of hormones that suppress immune system activity.



• Volunteers were interviewed about life stressors, then infected with a cold virus.

• As length of stress increased, so did the likelihood of catching the cold.

• Stress impairs immune system functioning and increases vulnerability to illness.

The Links Between Stress and IllnessThe Links Between Stress and Illness


Stress and HealthStress and HealthCoping with StressCoping with Stress

• Two general types of coping strategies– Problem-focused coping, which is designed to

reduce stress by dealing with the problem– Emotion-focused coping, in which one tries to

manage the negative emotions• Thought Suppression

– Can be maladaptive

– Distraction works better


Stress and HealthStress and HealthCoping with StressCoping with Stress

• A group of heart attack patients were taught to relax their pace.

• A control group received standard medical care.

• After three years, relaxation-trained patients suffered 50% fewer second heart attacks compared to the control group.

RelaxationRelaxation


Stress and HealthStress and Health Coping with StressCoping with Stress

• In Finland, middle-age men were rated for hopelessness.

• Six years later, higher ratings of hopelessness predicted risk of overall death, cancer, and heart attack.

Hopelessness and the Risk of DeathHopelessness and the Risk of Death


Stress and HealthStress and Health Coping with StressCoping with Stress

• Much evidence shows that social support has therapeutic effects.– Women with breast cancer who joined support

groups lived an average of eighteen months longer than women who did not join these groups.

– Across gender, age, income level, and ethnicity, social support lowers mortality rates.


Stress and HealthStress and Health

• Placebo Effect– A placebo is any medical intervention designed

to improved one’s condition merely via the power of suggestion.

– Placebos have been used to treat allergies, headaches, insomnia, constipation, skin rashes, upset stomachs, chronic pain, and other ailments.



Psychology In The Law

Jury Decision-Making

Eyewitness Testimony

Confession Evidence


Psychology in the Law Psychology in the Law Jury Decision-MakingJury Decision-Making

• Trials consist of three stages. – First, jurors are selected. – Next, lawyers present evidence. – Then, the jury deliberates until they reach a

verdict.

• Psychologists have examined many possible sources of bias in this process.


Psychology in the Law Psychology in the Law Jury Decision-MakingJury Decision-Making• Pretrial Publicity

– Pretrial publicity has a significant effect on a jury’s decisions.

• It is harmful because they are exposed to it before the evidence is presented to them.

– First impressions bias the decisions they make.

• Inadmissible Evidence– Despite a judge’s warning to disregard evidence

because it is inflammatory, unreliable, or illegally obtained, jurors will use evidence they find relevant.


Psychology in the Law Psychology in the Law Eyewitness TestimonyEyewitness Testimony

• Over one hundred convicted felons serving time in prison were proved innocent by DNA tests.

– More than 80% of these cases contained one or more mistaken eyewitness identifications.



• What factors can make eyewitness testimony unreliable?– Obviously poor vision and/or viewing

conditions, brief exposure, and obstruction can reduce the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.

– In addition, people have difficulty recognizing members of a race other than their own and the presence of a weapon attracts attention away from what the perpetrator looks like.



• How does the memory process interfere with accurate eyewitness testimony?– Memories can be reconstructed due to the influence

of post-event information.

• In a classic study, participants viewed the same accident but gave different speed estimates depending on if they were asked: “About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?” versus “About how fast were the cars going when they smashed each other?”



• What Influences Lineup Identification?– Recommendations to make eyewitness testimony

more accurate are:

• Police should use open-ended questions and avoid leading questions when interviewing witnesses.

• The suspect should not be distinctive from the others in the lineup.

• The witness should be informed that the perpetrator may or may not be in the lineup.



• Are Child Witnesses Competent to Testify?– Research indicates that repetition,

misinformation, leading questions, and outside sources of information can bias a child’s memory.

• Preschoolers are the most vulnerable to these effects.

• Psychologists offer interviewing guidelines to decrease bias and sometimes testify as expert witnesses regarding the reliability of child testimony.


Psychology in the Law Psychology in the Law Confession EvidenceConfession Evidence

• Police Interrogations – People can confess to a crime that they did not

commit. • The risk of this increases when a suspect lacks a

clear memory of the event and when false evidence is presented.



• Polygraph– Records multiple channels of autonomic

arousal and is often used as a lie-detector test.

– Arousal in response to crime-relevant questions is compared to arousal in response to control questions.



• In this depiction of the physiological responses of a crime suspect judged guilty, heart rate and perspiration increased more in response to a crime-relevant question than to a control question.

• However, scientific opinion is split regarding whether the polygraph works.– Truthful people do fail the test. – People can pass the test by faking.

Lie-Detector TestLie-Detector Test



Psychology In The Workplace

The Hawthorne Effect

Leadership

Motivation At Work


Psychology in the Workplace Psychology in the Workplace The Hawthorne EffectThe Hawthorne Effect

• The study of motivation in the workplace led to the discovery of the Hawthorne effect. – The finding that workers who were put in a

special experimental room became more productive regardless of what changes were made


Psychology in the Workplace Psychology in the Workplace LeadershipLeadership

• There are different ways to study leadership. – One approach examines traits associated with

strong leaders.

– Another perspective argues that leadership ability depends on time, place, and circumstances.

– Transformational leaders are characterized by charisma, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration of others.


Psychology in the Workplace Psychology in the Workplace Motivation at WorkMotivation at Work

• Intrinsic Motivation– An inner drive that motivates people in the

absence of external reward or punishment

• Extrinsic Motivation– The desire to engage in an activity for

money, recognition, or other tangible benefits


Psychology in the Workplace Psychology in the Workplace Motivation at WorkMotivation at Work• Research has found that when people are externally

rewarded for an activity that they already enjoy, they sometimes lose interest in it. – College students worked on fun puzzles during three one-

hour sessions.– During the second session, some participants were paid to

work on the puzzles and others were not. – Time spent on puzzles during breaks between the sessions

was recorded.– Those paid in the second session showed less interest in the

puzzles during the breaks, when no pay was available.



• Insurance workers were moved temporarily to new offices.

• Those sent to higher-status offices showed increased performance.

• Those sent to lower-status offices showed decreased performance.

Equity MotivationEquity Motivation



• Equity Theory– People want the ratio between input and

outcome to be roughly the same for themselves as for others


CHAPTER 15: Applying Psychology Essentials of Psychology, by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall...

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