Chapter 2 Biological Chapter 2 Biological PerspectivePerspective

Overview of the Nervous SystemOverview of the Nervous System Nervous System: A network of cells that Nervous System: A network of cells that

carries information to and from all parts carries information to and from all parts of the body. of the body.

Neurons and NervesNeurons and Nerves Neuroscience: Deals with the structure and Neuroscience: Deals with the structure and

function of neurons, nerves, and nervous function of neurons, nerves, and nervous tissue, especially focusing on their tissue, especially focusing on their relationship to behavior and learningrelationship to behavior and learning

Structure of the NeuronStructure of the Neuron Each cell in the body has a special Each cell in the body has a special

functionfunction Most cells have three things in commonMost cells have three things in common

A nucleus, a cell body, and a cell A nucleus, a cell body, and a cell membranemembrane

Neuron: The basic cell that makes up the Neuron: The basic cell that makes up the nervous system and that receives and nervous system and that receives and sends messages within that systemsends messages within that system

Dendrites: Branchlike structures that Dendrites: Branchlike structures that receive messages from other neuronsreceive messages from other neurons

Neurons and NervesNeurons and Nerves Dendrites are attached to the cell Dendrites are attached to the cell

body (Soma): Maintains the life of the body (Soma): Maintains the life of the cellcell

Axon: Tubelike structure that carries Axon: Tubelike structure that carries the neural message to other cellsthe neural message to other cells

People use every cell in the brain for People use every cell in the brain for somethingsomething Neurons make up 10% of the brainNeurons make up 10% of the brain The rest are glial cells that provide The rest are glial cells that provide

support for the neurons and allow them support for the neurons and allow them to grow and thriveto grow and thrive

Nerves and NeuronsNerves and Neurons Different types of glial cells that provide different Different types of glial cells that provide different

functions for the neuronsfunctions for the neurons Neurons send messages through electrical Neurons send messages through electrical

means. If they touch in the wrong area they will means. If they touch in the wrong area they will short out. Glial cells provide protection from this.short out. Glial cells provide protection from this.

Neurons are found throughout the entire bodyNeurons are found throughout the entire body Glial CellsGlial Cells

Type one-Oligodendrocytes-Produce myelin for Type one-Oligodendrocytes-Produce myelin for brain and spinal cordbrain and spinal cord

Type two-Schwann Cells-Produce myelin for the Type two-Schwann Cells-Produce myelin for the rest of the bodyrest of the body

Myelin covers the axons so they are protected Myelin covers the axons so they are protected from touching each otherfrom touching each other

The bundled axons are called nervesThe bundled axons are called nerves

Neurons and NervesNeurons and Nerves Myelin-Not only protects the nerves, Myelin-Not only protects the nerves,

but allows the messages to travel but allows the messages to travel fasterfaster

Node: Small space that separates the Node: Small space that separates the axonsaxons The message “jumps” the node and The message “jumps” the node and

moves faster because of the myelin moves faster because of the myelin sheathsheath

Multiple Sclerosis is a disease that Multiple Sclerosis is a disease that damages the myelin sheath so the cells damages the myelin sheath so the cells do not function or function welldo not function or function well

Neurons and NervesNeurons and Nerves Axons of neurons in the body are Axons of neurons in the body are

coated with a thin membrane called coated with a thin membrane called the neurilemma or Schwann’s the neurilemma or Schwann’s membranemembrane

This is a tunnel that allows damaged This is a tunnel that allows damaged nerves to repair themselvesnerves to repair themselves This allows severed toes/fingers to repair This allows severed toes/fingers to repair

themselves when reattachedthemselves when reattached The brain and spinal cord do not have The brain and spinal cord do not have

this membrane and therefore cannot this membrane and therefore cannot repair itselfrepair itself

Neurons and NervesNeurons and Nerves A neuron that is not firing is electrically chargedA neuron that is not firing is electrically charged The outside of the cell has positively charged The outside of the cell has positively charged

ions and the inside has negatively charged ionsions and the inside has negatively charged ions The cell membrane is semipermeableThe cell membrane is semipermeable

Substances can easily get into and out of the cellSubstances can easily get into and out of the cell Negatively charged ions cannot get out easily so the Negatively charged ions cannot get out easily so the

cell stays negatively charged when at restcell stays negatively charged when at rest When at rest the positively charged ions cannot get When at rest the positively charged ions cannot get

inin These opposite charges attract each other and These opposite charges attract each other and

cluster around the membranecluster around the membrane

NNeurons and Nerveseurons and Nerves Cell is like a baseball stadium (Sodium Ions)Cell is like a baseball stadium (Sodium Ions)

When the cell is at rest (closed) the positive When the cell is at rest (closed) the positive neurons (fans) cannot get in. When the cell is neurons (fans) cannot get in. When the cell is stimulated by dendrites the cell membrane stimulated by dendrites the cell membrane opens up the (gates) one by one and allows the opens up the (gates) one by one and allows the fans in. The electrical charge moves down the fans in. The electrical charge moves down the axon causing the positive ions to rush inside axon causing the positive ions to rush inside reversing the charges on the inside and outside reversing the charges on the inside and outside of the cellsof the cells

Resting Potential- When the neuron is not firing Resting Potential- When the neuron is not firing (resting)(resting)

Action Potential- When the neuron fires causing a Action Potential- When the neuron fires causing a reversal of the electrical chargereversal of the electrical charge

Nerves and NeuronsNerves and Neurons When the charge reaches the end of the When the charge reaches the end of the

axon the charge is transmitted to another axon the charge is transmitted to another cell.cell.

To return the cell to a resting stateTo return the cell to a resting state The gates close when the action potential has The gates close when the action potential has

passedpassed The positive ions (fans) get kicked outThe positive ions (fans) get kicked out Positive potassium ions also leave the cell Positive potassium ions also leave the cell

making it negative fastermaking it negative faster The inside is negative and the outside positive The inside is negative and the outside positive

so another message can be fired and start the so another message can be fired and start the process allover againprocess allover again

Doors in a hallway (one opens, next opens, first Doors in a hallway (one opens, next opens, first closes)closes)

Nerves and NeuronsNerves and Neurons Some signals cause a neuron to fire, Some signals cause a neuron to fire,

others tell it not to fireothers tell it not to fire All or none- neuron either fires All or none- neuron either fires

completely or does not fire at allcompletely or does not fire at all Palm of hand examplePalm of hand example

Nerves and Neurons: The Nerves and Neurons: The SynapseSynapse

Axon Terminals- Branches at the end of Axon Terminals- Branches at the end of the axonthe axon

Synoptic Knob- Rounded areas on the end Synoptic Knob- Rounded areas on the end of the axon terminalsof the axon terminals

Synoptic Vesicles-Saclike structure found Synoptic Vesicles-Saclike structure found inside the synaptic knob containing inside the synaptic knob containing chemicalschemicals

Neurotransmitters- Chemical found in the Neurotransmitters- Chemical found in the synaptic vesicles that , when released, has synaptic vesicles that , when released, has an effect on the next cellan effect on the next cell Inside a neuron and will transmit a messageInside a neuron and will transmit a message

Nerves and Neurons: The Nerves and Neurons: The SynapseSynapse

Next to the synoptic knob is another Next to the synoptic knob is another dendrite.dendrite.

Synapse/Synaptic Gap- fluid-filled Synapse/Synaptic Gap- fluid-filled space between the synoptic knob space between the synoptic knob and dendrites or surface of the next and dendrites or surface of the next cellcell The vesicles at the end of axons contain The vesicles at the end of axons contain

the molecules of neurotransmittersthe molecules of neurotransmittersReceptor Sites- Locks on the surface of Receptor Sites- Locks on the surface of

dendritesdendritesOnly allow particular neurotransmitters Only allow particular neurotransmitters or molecules in ( Like a lock and key)or molecules in ( Like a lock and key)

Nerves and Neurons: The Nerves and Neurons: The SynapseSynapse

When the action potential reaches the When the action potential reaches the synaptic vesicles they release synaptic vesicles they release neurotransmitters into the synaptic gapneurotransmitters into the synaptic gap

The molecules float across the synapse The molecules float across the synapse into the receptor sites which activates the into the receptor sites which activates the next cell, the process continuesnext cell, the process continues

Cells can be turned on and offCells can be turned on and off Excitatory Synapse- neurotransmitter Excitatory Synapse- neurotransmitter

causes the receiving cell to firecauses the receiving cell to fire Inhibitory Synapse- neurotransmitter Inhibitory Synapse- neurotransmitter

causes the receiving cell to stop firingcauses the receiving cell to stop firing

Nerves and NeuronsNerves and Neurons How drugs affect usHow drugs affect us

Agonists- mimic or enhance the effects Agonists- mimic or enhance the effects of a neurotransmitter on the receptor of a neurotransmitter on the receptor sites increasing/decreasing activitysites increasing/decreasing activity

Antagonists- block or reduce a cell’s Antagonists- block or reduce a cell’s response to the action of other response to the action of other chemicals or neurtransmitterschemicals or neurtransmitters

Nerves and NeuronsNerves and Neurons NeurotransmittersNeurotransmitters

Glutamate- Excitatory neurotransmitter Glutamate- Excitatory neurotransmitter that plays a role in learning and that plays a role in learning and developmentdevelopment

GABA (y-aminobatyric acid)- Inhibitory GABA (y-aminobatyric acid)- Inhibitory neurotransmitter that calms, alcohol neurotransmitter that calms, alcohol enhances GABAenhances GABA

Serotonin- Can have excitatory or Serotonin- Can have excitatory or inhibitory effect associated with sleep, inhibitory effect associated with sleep, mood and appetitemood and appetite

Low serotonin=depressionLow serotonin=depression

Nerves and Nerves and Neurotransmitters- Neurotransmitters-

Dopamine- Either excitatory or inhibitory Dopamine- Either excitatory or inhibitory depending on where in the brain it is releaseddepending on where in the brain it is released Too much=SchizophreniaToo much=Schizophrenia Too little=Parkinson’s DiseaseToo little=Parkinson’s Disease

Neural Regulators/Neural Peptides- Control the Neural Regulators/Neural Peptides- Control the release of neurotransmittersrelease of neurotransmitters

Endorphins- When a person is in pain the brain Endorphins- When a person is in pain the brain releases endorphins to bind with receptors and releases endorphins to bind with receptors and block the painblock the pain

Athletes do not feel pain until after game is over Athletes do not feel pain until after game is over because of the high levels of endorphins during because of the high levels of endorphins during the gamethe game

Nerves and NeuronsNerves and Neurons Endorphins and HeroineEndorphins and Heroine

Heroine is addictive because this drug Heroine is addictive because this drug causes the body to stop producing causes the body to stop producing endorphins. When the person is off endorphins. When the person is off heroine there are not any endorphins to heroine there are not any endorphins to block the pain and everything hurts so block the pain and everything hurts so they go back onto the heroine. This they go back onto the heroine. This pain is withdrawl.pain is withdrawl.

Reuptake and EnzymesReuptake and Enzymes Neurotransmitters must leave receptor Neurotransmitters must leave receptor

sites so the next stimulation may sites so the next stimulation may occuroccur

Reuptake-neurotransmitters are taken Reuptake-neurotransmitters are taken back into the synaptic vesiclesback into the synaptic vesicles Cocaine blocks the reuptakeCocaine blocks the reuptake

Acetylcholine is not taken back into vesicles Acetylcholine is not taken back into vesicles because it is necessary for muscle because it is necessary for muscle function which happens continuouslyfunction which happens continuously

An enzyme is released to clear the An enzyme is released to clear the synapse of acetylcholinesynapse of acetylcholine

Reuptake and EnzymesReuptake and Enzymes Serotonin- regulates and adjusts Serotonin- regulates and adjusts

moodmood Some people’s serotonin is not released Some people’s serotonin is not released

or produced causing depressionor produced causing depression Treated with SSRI’s (Selective Serotonin Treated with SSRI’s (Selective Serotonin

Reuptake Inhibitors) Blocks the reuptake Reuptake Inhibitors) Blocks the reuptake of serotonin so more is in the synapse to of serotonin so more is in the synapse to bond with receptor sites and decrease bond with receptor sites and decrease depressiondepression

Quiz 1Quiz 1

Central Nervous SystemCentral Nervous System Central nervous system (CNS)- Central nervous system (CNS)-

Consists of the brain and spinal cordConsists of the brain and spinal cord Composed of neurons and glial cells that Composed of neurons and glial cells that

control life-sustaining functions, control life-sustaining functions, thought, emotion and behaviorthought, emotion and behavior

The BrainThe BrainCore of the nervous systemCore of the nervous systemMakes sense of the information received Makes sense of the information received from the sensesfrom the sensesmakes decisions, sends commands to makes decisions, sends commands to muscles and the rest of the bodymuscles and the rest of the body

Central Nervous SystemCentral Nervous System The Spinal CordThe Spinal Cord

A long bundle of neurons that carries A long bundle of neurons that carries messages between the body and the messages between the body and the brain and is responsible for very fast, brain and is responsible for very fast, lifesaving reflexeslifesaving reflexes

Is divided into two areasIs divided into two areas The outer is made of axons and nervesThe outer is made of axons and nerves

Carries messages from the body up to the brain Carries messages from the body up to the brain and from the brain to the bodyand from the brain to the body

It is a message pipelineIt is a message pipeline The inner is made of cell bodies of neuronsThe inner is made of cell bodies of neurons

Central Nervous SystemCentral Nervous System The Reflex ARC in the Spinal CordThe Reflex ARC in the Spinal Cord

Inside section made of glial cellsInside section made of glial cells A primitive “brain”A primitive “brain” Responsible for very fast life-saving Responsible for very fast life-saving

reflexesreflexes

Three types of neuronsThree types of neurons Afferent (Sensory) Neurons- Carry messages Afferent (Sensory) Neurons- Carry messages

from the senses to the spinal cordfrom the senses to the spinal cord Efferent (Motor) Neurons- Carry messages Efferent (Motor) Neurons- Carry messages

from the spinal cord to the muscles and glandsfrom the spinal cord to the muscles and glands Interneurons- Connect afferent neurons to Interneurons- Connect afferent neurons to

efferent neuronsefferent neurons Make up the inside of the brain and spinal cordMake up the inside of the brain and spinal cord

The Central Nervous SystemThe Central Nervous System ExampleExample

Touch a hot stoveTouch a hot stove Afferent neuron will send the pain message up Afferent neuron will send the pain message up

to the spinal column where it enters into the to the spinal column where it enters into the central area of the spinal cord. The central area of the spinal cord. The interneuron in that central area will then interneuron in that central area will then receive the message and send out a response receive the message and send out a response along an efferent neuron, causing your finger along an efferent neuron, causing your finger to pull back. If the pain message had to go to to pull back. If the pain message had to go to the brain more damage would be done.the brain more damage would be done.

Reflex Arc- the connection of the afferent Reflex Arc- the connection of the afferent neurons to the interneurons to the efferent neurons to the interneurons to the efferent neurons resulting in a reflex actionneurons resulting in a reflex action

The Central Nervous SystemThe Central Nervous System AAfferent neurons fferent neurons aaccess the spinal ccess the spinal

cordcord EEfferent neurons fferent neurons eexit the spinal cordxit the spinal cord When pain message reaches the When pain message reaches the

brain other reflexes are activatedbrain other reflexes are activated Yelling “Ouch!”Yelling “Ouch!” Some damage to the central nervous Some damage to the central nervous

system can be repairedsystem can be repaired Neuroplasticity- The ability to constantly Neuroplasticity- The ability to constantly

change both the structure and function change both the structure and function of many cells in the brain response to of many cells in the brain response to experience and trauma experience and trauma

The Central Nervous SystemThe Central Nervous System Nerve implants can be made for the Nerve implants can be made for the

spinal cord making the area spinal cord making the area functionalfunctional

Neurons in the brain can adapt to Neurons in the brain can adapt to perform new functions to replace perform new functions to replace damaged onesdamaged ones

Dendrites grow and new synapses Dendrites grow and new synapses are formed as new information is are formed as new information is learned learned

Stem CellsStem Cells Can create other cells such as blood, Can create other cells such as blood,

nerve and brain cellsnerve and brain cells Stem cells are retrieved from Stem cells are retrieved from

embryos from fertilization clinics and embryos from fertilization clinics and terminated pregnanciesterminated pregnancies

Stem cells are found in many organs Stem cells are found in many organs and bone marrowand bone marrow Nonembryonic stem cells want to Nonembryonic stem cells want to

become cells from the areas they were become cells from the areas they were retrievedretrieved

The Peripheral Nervous System The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)(PNS)

Made up of all of the nerves and Made up of all of the nerves and neurons that are not in the brain and neurons that are not in the brain and spinal cordspinal cord

Allows the spinal cord and brain to Allows the spinal cord and brain to communicate with the rest of the bodycommunicate with the rest of the body

Two major SystemsTwo major Systems Somatic Nervous SystemSomatic Nervous System

Consists of nerves that carry information from Consists of nerves that carry information from the senses to the CNS and from the CNS to the the senses to the CNS and from the CNS to the voluntary muscles of the bodyvoluntary muscles of the body

Peripheral Nervous SystemPeripheral Nervous System Somatic Nervous SystemSomatic Nervous System

Somatic Pathway- Nerves coming from the Somatic Pathway- Nerves coming from the sensory organs to the CNS consisting of sensory organs to the CNS consisting of afferent neuronsafferent neurons

Motor Pathway- Nerves coming from the CNS Motor Pathway- Nerves coming from the CNS to the voluntary (Skeletal) muscles, consisting to the voluntary (Skeletal) muscles, consisting of efferent neuronsof efferent neurons

These are the muscles that allow people to move These are the muscles that allow people to move their bodiestheir bodies

These are called voluntary muscles, but can be These are called voluntary muscles, but can be moved involuntarily as a reflexmoved involuntarily as a reflex

Involuntary muscles (Heart, stomach and intestines, Involuntary muscles (Heart, stomach and intestines, ect)ect)

Controlled by clumps of neurons located on or near Controlled by clumps of neurons located on or near the spinal columnthe spinal column

Autonomic Nervous SystemAutonomic Nervous System The functions of this system are The functions of this system are

basically automaticbasically automatic Controls the organs, glands, and Controls the organs, glands, and

involuntary musclesinvoluntary muscles Divided into two systemsDivided into two systems

The sympathetic DivisionThe sympathetic Division Located in the middle of the spinal columnLocated in the middle of the spinal column Sympathy with emotionsSympathy with emotions Fight or flight responseFight or flight response Gets the body ready for stressGets the body ready for stress

Pupils dilate to see in the dark, heart pumps Pupils dilate to see in the dark, heart pumps faster to draw blood away from nonessential faster to draw blood away from nonessential organs, ectorgans, ect

The Sympathetic DivisionThe Sympathetic Division Adrenal glands told to release stress-Adrenal glands told to release stress-

related hormonesrelated hormones These only impact certain organs just like These only impact certain organs just like

neurotransmitters fit only particular neurotransmitters fit only particular receptor sites for particular jobsreceptor sites for particular jobs

Not all organs are stimulated by the stress Not all organs are stimulated by the stress hormoneshormones Digestion and excretion systems are shut down Digestion and excretion systems are shut down

because they are not needed in times of stressbecause they are not needed in times of stress When the stress ends the parasympathetic When the stress ends the parasympathetic

division takes overdivision takes over If stress goes on for too long the person may If stress goes on for too long the person may

collapsecollapse

The Parasympathetic The Parasympathetic DivisionDivision

The eat, drink and rest systemThe eat, drink and rest system Located on top and bottom of spinal Located on top and bottom of spinal

columncolumn Para means beyond or next toPara means beyond or next to Job is to restore the body to it’s Job is to restore the body to it’s

normal function after a stressful normal function after a stressful eventevent

Responsible for most of the body’s Responsible for most of the body’s regular functioningregular functioning

QuizQuiz

Inside the BrainInside the Brain Clinical StudiesClinical Studies

Animal studiesAnimal studies Electrically stimulate areas of the brain and Electrically stimulate areas of the brain and

see the resultssee the results Deep Lesioning- A thin wire is inserted into Deep Lesioning- A thin wire is inserted into

the brain and an electrical current is sent to the brain and an electrical current is sent to destroy the neurons that are at the tip of the destroy the neurons that are at the tip of the wire.wire.

Shallow Lesioning- Lesioning done at the Shallow Lesioning- Lesioning done at the surfacesurface

Electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB)- Electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB)- weak electric current sent to cause weak electric current sent to cause stimulation and a reactionstimulation and a reaction

Inside the BrainInside the Brain Human studiesHuman studies

Cannot damage the brain on purpose for Cannot damage the brain on purpose for study so they study those that are study so they study those that are already damagedalready damaged

However, no two damaged brains are at the However, no two damaged brains are at the same extentsame extent

EEGEEG Electrocephalograph- Electrodes are Electrocephalograph- Electrodes are

placed on the skin of the skullplaced on the skin of the skull The wires are connected to a computerThe wires are connected to a computer Can indicate stages of sleep, seizures and Can indicate stages of sleep, seizures and

tumors as well as activity during reading, tumors as well as activity during reading, writing and speakingwriting and speaking

BETA waves- indicate waking activity-fast BETA waves- indicate waking activity-fast irregular wavesirregular waves

ALPHA waves- indicate relaxation-slow ALPHA waves- indicate relaxation-slow regular wavesregular waves

THETA waves- Indicate drowsiness and THETA waves- Indicate drowsiness and sleepsleep

DELTA waves- Indicate a deep stage of DELTA waves- Indicate a deep stage of sleep-slow large wavessleep-slow large waves

EEGEEG Independent Component Analysis Independent Component Analysis

(ICA)- Detailed interpretation of the (ICA)- Detailed interpretation of the signals coming from the different signals coming from the different areas of the brainareas of the brain

Event-related potential (ERP)- The Event-related potential (ERP)- The results of multiple readings and results of multiple readings and average the results average the results

CT ScansCT Scans

CT (Computed Tomography) means CT (Computed Tomography) means mapping slicesmapping slices

X-rays used to look at the inside of X-rays used to look at the inside of the brainthe brain

Shows stroke damage, tumors, Shows stroke damage, tumors, injuries and abnormal brain structureinjuries and abnormal brain structure

Shows the structure of the brainShows the structure of the brain

MRI ScansMRI Scans

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) shows much more detail inside the shows much more detail inside the brainbrain

Magnetic field is used to show a 3 Magnetic field is used to show a 3 dimensional pix of the brain and dimensional pix of the brain and even displays “slices” of iteven displays “slices” of it

Shows the structure of the brainShows the structure of the brain

PET ScansPET Scans

PET (Positron emission tomography)-PET (Positron emission tomography)-Shows the brain workingShows the brain working

Injected with a radioactive glucose (Sugar)Injected with a radioactive glucose (Sugar) The cells that take up the glucose are The cells that take up the glucose are

activeactive Colors show levels of activityColors show levels of activity Can have a person perform tasks to see Can have a person perform tasks to see

which parts of the brain are activewhich parts of the brain are active

Functional MRI (fMRI)Functional MRI (fMRI)

Tracks the levels of oxygen and Tracks the levels of oxygen and where they go to see what areas are where they go to see what areas are activeactive

Give more detail, are clearer than Give more detail, are clearer than PET scansPET scans

Structure of the BrainStructure of the Brain

The HindbrainThe Hindbrain Medulla means marrow or inner substanceMedulla means marrow or inner substance Located at the top of the spinal columnLocated at the top of the spinal column Part of the brain that controls heartbeat, Part of the brain that controls heartbeat,

breathing and swallowingbreathing and swallowing This is where Christopher Reeves was hurt when he This is where Christopher Reeves was hurt when he

fell off a horse. He became paralyzed and could not fell off a horse. He became paralyzed and could not breath on his ownbreath on his own

This is where the nerves for the left side of the body This is where the nerves for the left side of the body cross to the right side of the brain and vice versacross to the right side of the brain and vice versa

Structure of the BrainStructure of the Brain

Pons means bridgePons means bridge Connects the lower parts of the brain Connects the lower parts of the brain

with the upper partswith the upper parts Above the medullaAbove the medulla This is where the motor nerves carry This is where the motor nerves carry

messages to the bodymessages to the body Helps to coordinate the left side with the Helps to coordinate the left side with the

right side in movementsright side in movements Influences sleep, dreaming and arousalInfluences sleep, dreaming and arousal

Reticular Formation (RF)Reticular Formation (RF) Where the neurons run through the middle Where the neurons run through the middle

of the pons and medullaof the pons and medulla Area allows a person to pay attention to Area allows a person to pay attention to

pertinent informationpertinent information Allows a person to ignore white noiseAllows a person to ignore white noise

Helps keep people alert and arousedHelps keep people alert and aroused Reticular Activating System (RAS)-stimulates Reticular Activating System (RAS)-stimulates

the upper part of the brain keeping the person the upper part of the brain keeping the person awake and alertawake and alert

Come to full attention when a car pulls in front of youCome to full attention when a car pulls in front of you Mother hears only the crying baby and can ignore Mother hears only the crying baby and can ignore

other noisesother noises May be involved in ADHDMay be involved in ADHD

Reticular FormationReticular Formation

If the RF is stimulated in rats they If the RF is stimulated in rats they immediately awakenimmediately awaken

If it is damaged they go into a If it is damaged they go into a permanent comapermanent coma

CerebellumCerebellum Means little brainMeans little brain Part of the lower brain that controls Part of the lower brain that controls

involuntary, rapid, fine motor movementinvoluntary, rapid, fine motor movement Learned reflexes, skills and habits are Learned reflexes, skills and habits are

stored here so they become automaticstored here so they become automatic Allows people to not have to think about Allows people to not have to think about

posture, muscle tone and balanceposture, muscle tone and balance May use skills like skating, dancing play May use skills like skating, dancing play

musicmusic If this is damaged the person becomes If this is damaged the person becomes

uncoordinateduncoordinated

CerebellumCerebellum

Spinocerebellar Degeneration Spinocerebellar Degeneration Disease in which the symptoms are Disease in which the symptoms are

tremors, unsteady walk, slurred speech, tremors, unsteady walk, slurred speech, dizziness and muscle weaknessdizziness and muscle weakness

Eventually looses all coordinationEventually looses all coordination Similar to a intoxicated personSimilar to a intoxicated person

Structures under the CortexStructures under the Cortex Cortex-The outer wrinkled covering Cortex-The outer wrinkled covering

of the brainof the brain Limbic SystemLimbic System

Includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, Includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus and amygdalahippocampus and amygdala

Involved in emotions, motivation and Involved in emotions, motivation and learninglearning

Limbic SystemLimbic System Thalamus (inner chamber)Thalamus (inner chamber)

Relays sensory information from the lower part Relays sensory information from the lower part of the brain to the proper areas of the cortex of the brain to the proper areas of the cortex and processes some sensory information and processes some sensory information before sending it to its proper areabefore sending it to its proper area

Damage to this area may lead to partial or Damage to this area may lead to partial or total loss to any or all of these sensestotal loss to any or all of these senses

Olfactory bulbs-two projections under the front Olfactory bulbs-two projections under the front of the brain that receive information from the of the brain that receive information from the receptors in the nose receptors in the nose

This is the only sense that is not affected by damage This is the only sense that is not affected by damage to the thalamusto the thalamus

Limbic SystemLimbic System Hypothalamus (below the inner Hypothalamus (below the inner

chamber)chamber) Responsible for motivational behavior Responsible for motivational behavior

such as sleep, hunger, thirst and sexsuch as sleep, hunger, thirst and sex Regulates temperatureRegulates temperature Controls the pituitary glandControls the pituitary gland

Pituitary Gland “Master Gland”- Controls the Pituitary Gland “Master Gland”- Controls the functions of all other endocrine glandsfunctions of all other endocrine glands

Limbic SystemLimbic System Hippocampus- located within each Hippocampus- located within each

temporal lobe and is responsible for temporal lobe and is responsible for the formation of long-term memory the formation of long-term memory and the storage of memory of the and the storage of memory of the location of objectslocation of objects Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter that Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter that

is involved in memory function is involved in memory function

Limbic SystemLimbic System Amygdala (Almond)- Responsible for Amygdala (Almond)- Responsible for

fear responses and memory of fearfear responses and memory of fear Information from the senses goes Information from the senses goes

through here before going to the through here before going to the upper part of the brain so the upper part of the brain so the response can be quickresponse can be quick

Damage to this area leads to a lack Damage to this area leads to a lack of fearof fear

Limbic SystemLimbic System The CortexThe Cortex

Outermost part of the brainOutermost part of the brain Made of tightly packed neuronsMade of tightly packed neurons This is so wrinkly to allow for more area This is so wrinkly to allow for more area

to exist within the skullto exist within the skull Corticalization- The cortex starts out Corticalization- The cortex starts out

smooth, but gains wrinkles as it smooth, but gains wrinkles as it becomes more complex and increases in becomes more complex and increases in sizesize

This is the actual measure of This is the actual measure of intelligenceintelligence

Quiz 3Quiz 3

Cortex and the Lobes Cortex and the Lobes Cortex is divided into two sections Cortex is divided into two sections

called Cerebral Hemispheres which called Cerebral Hemispheres which are connected by the Corpus are connected by the Corpus CallosumCallosum

Corpus Callosum allows the two Corpus Callosum allows the two hemispheres to communicatehemispheres to communicate Each hemisphere can be divided into Each hemisphere can be divided into

four sectionsfour sections

Cortex and the lobesCortex and the lobes Occipital Lobes (Rear of the head)- Occipital Lobes (Rear of the head)-

Processes visual information in the Processes visual information in the primary visual cortexprimary visual cortex

Any stimulation to the area at the Any stimulation to the area at the back of the head processes vision, so back of the head processes vision, so when you get hit back there you “see when you get hit back there you “see stars”stars”

Cortex and the LobesCortex and the LobesParietal Lobes (Wall)- Located at top of Parietal Lobes (Wall)- Located at top of

each hemisphere that contains the each hemisphere that contains the centers for touch, taste and temperature centers for touch, taste and temperature sensationssensations

Somatosensory Cortex- Area of neurons Somatosensory Cortex- Area of neurons running down the front of the parietal running down the front of the parietal lobes responsible for processing lobes responsible for processing information from the skin and internal information from the skin and internal body receptors for touch, temperature, body receptors for touch, temperature, body position and possibly tastebody position and possibly taste

The cells at the top receive info from The cells at the top receive info from the bottom of the body and vice versathe bottom of the body and vice versa

Cortex and the LobesCortex and the Lobes Temporal Lobes (of or near the Temporal Lobes (of or near the

temples)- Located just behind the temples)- Located just behind the temples, contain the Primary temples, contain the Primary auditory cortex and Auditory auditory cortex and Auditory association areaassociation area When hit in the side of the head, may When hit in the side of the head, may

hear a ringing soundhear a ringing sound This area also deals with language and This area also deals with language and

tastetaste

Cortex and the LobesCortex and the Lobes Frontal Lobes- Located at the front of Frontal Lobes- Located at the front of

the brain, this is where higher the brain, this is where higher functioning of the brain is performed functioning of the brain is performed such as planning, personality, such as planning, personality, memory storage, complex decision memory storage, complex decision making and language also helps with making and language also helps with emotionsemotions

Damage to this area may cause a Damage to this area may cause a person to become “stuck” on one step person to become “stuck” on one step of a task or repeat the wrong answer of a task or repeat the wrong answer over and overover and over

Cortex and the LobesCortex and the Lobes Frontal LobesFrontal Lobes

Motor Cortex- area in back of frontal Motor Cortex- area in back of frontal lobe that sends motor commands to the lobe that sends motor commands to the muscles of the somatic nervous systemmuscles of the somatic nervous system

Association areas of the Association areas of the CortexCortex Association areas- areas within each lobe Association areas- areas within each lobe

of the cortex responsible for making of the cortex responsible for making connections between the sensory connections between the sensory information coming into the brain and information coming into the brain and stored memories, images, and knowledgestored memories, images, and knowledge This area makes sense of the sensory This area makes sense of the sensory

information that is receivedinformation that is received Broca’s Area- Allows a person to speak Broca’s Area- Allows a person to speak

smoothly and fluentlysmoothly and fluently Broca’s Aphasia-Damage to this area makes it Broca’s Aphasia-Damage to this area makes it

hard for the person to speak in a smooth, hard for the person to speak in a smooth, orderly fashionorderly fashion

May mispronounce words, they cannot control May mispronounce words, they cannot control their pronunciation of the words (not a stutter)their pronunciation of the words (not a stutter)

““I lov…..eat…….muchI lov…..eat…….much

Association areas of the Association areas of the CortexCortex

Wernicke’s Area- Area of brain Wernicke’s Area- Area of brain associated with understanding the associated with understanding the meanings of wordsmeanings of words

Wernicke’s Aphasia- Damage to the Wernicke’s Aphasia- Damage to the Wernicke’s area that causes a person Wernicke’s area that causes a person to not understand or produce to not understand or produce meaningful languagemeaningful language ““Oh that’s so Saturday hard.”Oh that’s so Saturday hard.” ““Get me some milk out of the air Get me some milk out of the air

conditioner!”conditioner!”

Spatial NeglectSpatial Neglect Spatial neglect- Damage in the Spatial neglect- Damage in the

association areas of the right side of association areas of the right side of brain which prevents the person from brain which prevents the person from recognizing objects on the left side of recognizing objects on the left side of vision or bodyvision or body Left side will be recognized if specifically Left side will be recognized if specifically

called attention to itcalled attention to it Make-up and mirror examples pgs. 76-Make-up and mirror examples pgs. 76-

7777

The Cerebral HemispheresThe Cerebral Hemispheres Cerebrum- Upper part of brain consisting of Cerebrum- Upper part of brain consisting of

two hemispheres with structures connecting two hemispheres with structures connecting themthem

Split-Brain researchSplit-Brain research Each side of the brain has it’s own Each side of the brain has it’s own

specializationsspecializations Corpus Callosum was cut disconnecting the two Corpus Callosum was cut disconnecting the two

halves of the brainhalves of the brain Showed objects to one side of person and if Showed objects to one side of person and if

on right could identify the object, if on left on right could identify the object, if on left could not verbally identify the object or be could not verbally identify the object or be certain they saw anythingcertain they saw anything

If left hand was used they could verbally If left hand was used they could verbally state, but not seestate, but not see

Cerebral HemispheresCerebral Hemispheres Left sideLeft side

Language, speech, handwriting, Language, speech, handwriting, calculations, sense of time, rhythm and calculations, sense of time, rhythm and any thought analysisany thought analysis

Can break information down into small Can break information down into small parts for interpretationparts for interpretation

RightRight Perception, visualization, spatial perception, Perception, visualization, spatial perception,

recognition of patterns, faces, emotions, recognition of patterns, faces, emotions, melodies and expression of emotionsmelodies and expression of emotions

Also comprehends simple languageAlso comprehends simple language Can process information all at onceCan process information all at once

Cerebral HemispheresCerebral Hemispheres Most right-handed people also have Most right-handed people also have

their left hemisphere in control of their left hemisphere in control of their other fine motor skills, such as their other fine motor skills, such as speech, a few right-handers actually speech, a few right-handers actually have their language functions in the have their language functions in the right hemisphereright hemisphere

The Endocrine GlandsThe Endocrine Glands Some glands do not secrete chemicals Some glands do not secrete chemicals

that affect behavior; sweat and salivarythat affect behavior; sweat and salivary Endocrine glands- do not have ducts and Endocrine glands- do not have ducts and

secrete chemicals into bloodstreamsecrete chemicals into bloodstream These chemicals are hormonesThese chemicals are hormones The hormones are carried in the The hormones are carried in the

bloodstream to the organ they are meant to bloodstream to the organ they are meant to impactimpact

The molecules of the hormones fit into the The molecules of the hormones fit into the receptor sites of the organs and influence receptor sites of the organs and influence behaviorbehavior

The Pituitary GlandThe Pituitary Gland

Pituitary gland- secretes human growth Pituitary gland- secretes human growth hormone (HGH) and influences all of the hormone (HGH) and influences all of the other hormone secreting glandsother hormone secreting glands AKA the Master GlandAKA the Master Gland HGH impacts a child’s size as he/she growsHGH impacts a child’s size as he/she grows Is an important part of communication Is an important part of communication

between the organs, hypothalamus and between the organs, hypothalamus and other glandsother glands

The Endocrine GlandsThe Endocrine Glands Pineal gland- Secretes melatonin Pineal gland- Secretes melatonin

which regulates the sleep-wake cyclewhich regulates the sleep-wake cycle Thyroid gland- Secretes thyroxin Thyroid gland- Secretes thyroxin

which regulates metabolismwhich regulates metabolism Pancreas- Controls the level of sugar Pancreas- Controls the level of sugar

in the blood by secreting insulin and in the blood by secreting insulin and glucagonsglucagons Too little insulin=diabetes, Too much Too little insulin=diabetes, Too much

insulin=hypoglycemia-hunger all of the insulin=hypoglycemia-hunger all of the timetime

The Endocrine GlandsThe Endocrine Glands

The Gonads- sex glands including The Gonads- sex glands including ovaries and testesovaries and testes Secrete hormones that regulate sexual Secrete hormones that regulate sexual

behavior and reproductionbehavior and reproduction Does not control all sexual behaviorDoes not control all sexual behavior

The brain is the master controller of sexual The brain is the master controller of sexual behavior like psychological factors such as behavior like psychological factors such as attractivenessattractiveness

The Adrenal GlandsThe Adrenal Glands Both are located on top of the Both are located on top of the

kidneyskidneys Each one is divided into two sectionsEach one is divided into two sections

Adrenal medulla-releases ephinephrine Adrenal medulla-releases ephinephrine and norepinephrine which are released and norepinephrine which are released in times of stress and aids in sympathyin times of stress and aids in sympathy

The Adrenal GlandsThe Adrenal Glands

Adrenal cortex- produces corticoids Adrenal cortex- produces corticoids what regulate salt intake, initiate and what regulate salt intake, initiate and control stress reactions, and provide sex control stress reactions, and provide sex hormones in addition to the gonadshormones in addition to the gonads

Cortisol-released during times of stressCortisol-released during times of stress Influences the release of glucose into the Influences the release of glucose into the

bloodstream to give energy to the brain bloodstream to give energy to the brain and fatty acids to the muscles for energyand fatty acids to the muscles for energy

Mirror NeuronsMirror Neurons

Neurons that fire when doing an Neurons that fire when doing an action also fire when seeing that action also fire when seeing that action preformedaction preformed Wince when see someone get hurtWince when see someone get hurt Smile when see someone else smileSmile when see someone else smile A stroke patient may be able to relearn A stroke patient may be able to relearn

a behavior if he/she sees it done by a behavior if he/she sees it done by someone elsesomeone else

Mirror Neurons and AutismMirror Neurons and Autism Mirror neurons are a part of Mirror neurons are a part of

communication and socializationcommunication and socialization

People with autism People with autism The mirror neurons to not fire when The mirror neurons to not fire when

seeing others doing a behaviorseeing others doing a behavior Malfunctioning mirror neurons may be Malfunctioning mirror neurons may be

the cause of autismthe cause of autism

In a bad mood/depressed=watch a In a bad mood/depressed=watch a comedy?comedy?