Chapter 10

The Scientific Revolutionand the Age of the Enlightenment

Readings:The meaning of the scientific revolution – pages 246-248The age of enlightenment – pages 248- 249Political thought – page 250

Laissez-Faire Economics – pages 257-258Enlightened despotism – page 260

The Meaning of Scientific RevolutionThe scientific revolution destroyed the medieval world

view in which the earth occupied the central position, that heaven lay just beyond the fixed stars, and every object had its place in a hierarchical and qualitative order.

The church was losing credibility as more people were becoming independent thinkers.

Science had given people reason to question the old order.

Nicolas Copernicus (1473-1543)

The earth is a planet that orbits the sun along with other planets.

He did not want to publish his work for fear of controversy but was persuaded by his friends (1543).

His theory offended the church which still controlled the universities and the pulpit. The book was banned.

The book became a topic of popular discussion 50 years later.

Galileo (1565-1642)

The Astronomer and physicist who shattered the medieval conception of the cosmos and shape the modern scientific outlook.

Rejected the church’s medieval division of the universe into higher and lower realms.

Built a telescope and made observations of the moon and stars which were different than those of earlier philosophers.

Discovered 4 moons that orbit Jupiter; that a celestial body could move around another body other than the earth; that the earth was not the common centre of the universe; that a one body could orbit another while orbiting the sun.

Start 6-11 Galileo applied math to the study of movement

Rejected the idea that, when a rock falls it is because it is striving to reach its proper place in the universe. Rather, he said that motion is the relationship of bodies to time and distance. He used math to demonstrate it.

Galileo challenged those who put faith in old philosophers over investigative thinking and considering new information and criticized Roman Catholic authorities for suppressing modern science

In 1616 his works were censored, he was found guilty by the Inquisition and imprisoned (house arrest). In 1820 the church removed his works from the censored list

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

Laws of Planetary Motion Discovered three basic laws of planetary motion1. Planets move in elliptical (oval) orbits2. Planets do not move at uniform speed but

accelerate as they near the sun3. Found a mathematical relationship between the

time it takes a planet to compete its orbit of the sun and its average distance from the sun which can be used to calculate a planet’s position and velocity at a particular time

Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

Explained the laws of gravity which linked the astronomy of Copernicus and Kepler with the physics of Galileo.

Newton invented calculus which explained the physical laws in mathematical equations.

Newton’s 3 Laws1. The principle of inertia: that a body at rest remains at

rest unless acted on by a force and that a body in rectilinear motion continues to move in a straight line at the same velocity unless a force acts on it. A moving body does not require force to keep it in motion. Once started, bodies continue to move. Motion is as natural condition as rest.

2. A given force produces a measurable change in a body’s velocity. A body’s change of velocity is proportional to the force acting on it.

3. For every action or force there is an equal and opposite reaction or force. The sun pulls the earth with the same force that the earth exercises on the sun.

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

Not a scientist but an advocate of the scientific method.

He believed that little progress had been made over the years, because the church bent theories of nature to Christian scripture, which prevented independent thinking and blocked new knowledge.

He advocated the Inductive Approach: careful observation of nature and the systematic accumulation of data, drawing general laws from the knowledge of particulars and testing through constant experimentation.

He insisted on the need for verification.

Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

Creator of the deductive approach, which is derived by following successive steps based on earlier principles.

Descartes is also regarded as the founder of modern philosophy. He believed that it was he who was doing the doubting and thinking. He said, “I think therefore I am”

New ideas about the purpose of life became popular.Such as, If earth is one of a billion planets,1. Does God exist for only our earth or is there a God for the

entire universe?2. If there are billions of planets, are there other intelligent

life forms out there and if so, what are their beliefs in the all powerful beings we refer to as God?

Louis Pascal (1623-1662) a French scientist and Catholic believed that the eternal silence of these infinite spaces could stir doubt, uncertainty, and anxiety, which could threaten Catholic belief.

What do you think?

Scholars set reason above all else…..Scholars: Believed that reason must serve religion Denounced magic spells, demons, witchcraft,

alchemy and astrology as vulgar superstition Questioned all inherited opinions and traditions Not all scholars attacked religion. Some claimed that

they were unveiling the laws of nature as created by God

The masses: Still believed in superstitions Still feared stirring the anger of the Christian God

The bible was no longer considered the literal word of God.

The clergy began to lose their position as the judge of what was knowledge.

God’s miracles were being explained as naturally occurring phenomenon.

Debates raged over the senseless wars fought in the name of religion.

The Inquisition: Religious TortureWater boarding was used by the Catholic Church

Prison conditions during the enlightenment were awful.

Christian View of Human Nature was Challenged

Philosophes criticized Christians for: declaring human nature is evil and humans as

helpless without God assistance Focusing on heaven instead of quality of our life on

earth claiming their interpretation of the bible as truthPhilosophes argued that to establish an enlightened

society, the corrupt power of the church must come to an end.

The philosopes attempted to use the scientific method to uncover societal defects and discover ways to reform society.

Question. Is science capable of doing what the philosophes attempted?

Answer. Yes. Psychology, sociology, economics and politics are all fields of Social Science that have helped to improve the plight of the less fortunate. Examples include: Social programs, pensions, insurance, international trade agreements, treatments for depression, anxiety and post traumatic stress disorder.

Voltaire (1694-1778)

Recognized as the leader of the French Enlightenment Exiled to England in 1720s He exclaimed Christianity was superstition that would be

destroyed by reason Christianity made no logical sense but they still committed

crimes and murdered each other to force obedience to their beliefs, which benefitted a minority of religious leaders

Deists sought a natural religion of reason and science They rejected the Christian political power structure Denied the bible was God’s revelation, denied the virgin

birth, Jesus walking on water, the resurrection, and that the reward for obeying Christian law was eternal reward in heaven.

Thoughts on DemocracyThe philosophes favoured constitutional government

but did not have faith that the masses of people would make competent participants in a democracy.

Question. Why do you think they felt this way?A. Lack of education; superstitious; emotionally

susceptible; economically vulnerable, etc.

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) LeviathanHobbes wrote “only unlimited power of a sovereign

could contain the human passions that disrupt the social order and threaten civilized life; only absolute rule could provide an environment secure enough for people to pursue their individual interests”

Question. What if those interests were contrary to the person in power?

Hobbes was more pessimistic than most, about the deficits of human nature, while most philosophes disagreed with his gloomy view of human nature

However, most philosophes agreed with his secular approach to politics and his criticism of Divine Right of Kings.