CHAPTER

1 Resource Use Efficiency Revisited Nicolás Mateo1 and Rodomiro Ortiz2

1 Consultant:nmateo@gmail.com2 SwedishUniversityofAgriculturalSciences(SLU),Alnarp,Sweden.

Abstract

Thenotionof“eco-efficiency”canprovideasolidbasisfordevelopingaconceptualunderstandingofrationalandeffectiveuseofresourcesinagricultureandasetoftoolstomoveustowardtheseobjectives.Itwillnot,however,bethemagicbullettosolvetheoveruseofresourcesinagriculture.Awiderangeofconceptsandapproachesneedtocometogetherifwearetosucceedinsolvingthisproblem.Bothhigh-inputintensiveagricultureandlow-inputagricultureneedtoevolvebasedonagroecologicalprinciples.Inbroadterms,high-inputagricultureshouldaimatbecomingmoreeco-efficient,andlow-inputagricultureneedstoincreaseinproductivitywhileretaininghighefficiencyofinputuse.

Thischapterlooksateco-efficiencyfromaperspectiveofexperiencesandlessonsinresourceuse,researchfordevelopment,climatechangeadaptationandmitigation,policiesandincentives,andsocialequityandgender.Thenarrative:(1)pointsoutthekeyrolesofresearchandpotentialresearchbreakthroughstoalleviatefoodshortagesinthefuture;(2)suggestsfollowingthepathof“resourceuseefficiency”intermsofstrategiesandmanagementpractices;(3)suggeststheneedforchangesinlanduse;and(4)indicatestheimportanceofinvestingingenderequityasameanstoimprovefoodproductionandfoodsecurityandachievegreatersocialequity.

Contents

2 Backgroundandhistoricalperspective 3 Theneedforeco-efficiencyinagriculture 4 Higherproductivitywithlowernegativeimpact 5 Implicationsofmajorlandusechanges,scaleofproduction,

biofuels,andglobalfarmland 7 Climatechangeadaptationandmitigation 8 Eco-efficientpracticestoresolvelanduseandclimatechange

challenges 9 Policies,capacitybuilding,andcapitalizingonmarketforces10 Meetingchallengestosocialequity11 Monitoringandevaluation13 Conclusions13 References

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Eco-Efficiency: From Vision to Reality

Background and Historical Perspective

In the long run the planet has the upper hand. In the short run humans act as if they do and as if this will continue to be the case (Hall, 2008)

Theconceptof“eco-efficiency”originatesfromthefieldofnaturalresourcesresearch.However,inthischapter,whilegivingparticularattentiontonaturalresources,weadoptthemoreinclusivedescriptionusedbyCIATandelaboratedinitsMedium-TermPlan2010-2012,p.3.Thisstatesthefollowing:

“Eco-efficientagricultureincreasesproductivitywhilereducingenvironmentalimpacts.Eco-efficientagriculturemeetseconomic,social,andenvironmentalneedsoftheruralpoorbybeingprofitable,competitive,sustainable,andresilient.Itharmonizestheeconomic,environmental,andsocialelementsofdevelopment,andstrivestowardsolutionsthatarecompetitiveandprofitable,sustainable,andresilient,andgeneratebenefitsforthepoor.Eco-efficientagriculturecannoteffectivelyaddresstheneedsofthepoorwithouttakingintoaccounttheparticularneedsofwomen.”

ThisdefinitionfollowssuggestionsofauthorssuchasParketal.(2010)toexplicitlyincludesocialcriteriaaswellaseconomicandenvironmentalcriteriainordertoimproveratesofuptakeofeco-efficiencytechnologies,topromotepracticesthatimprovetheeffectivenessofhunger-reductionefforts,andtominimizeenvironmentaldegradation.Chapter2ofthisvolumegoesintodetailonconceptualfoundationsandframeworksforeco-efficiency.

TheseminalworkofMeadowsetal.(1972)—The limits to growth—impactedacademiaandsocietyatlarge,althoughperhapsnotsomuchthepoliticalprocess.Usingwhatwasthenanadvancedmodelofinteractionsbetweenhumanpopulation,industrialgrowth,foodproduction,andecosystems—World3—theauthorswarnedthatgrowthwithoutlimitswouldhaveserious

consequencesonearth’sfiniteresources.Twentyyearslatertheauthorsfollowedupwithanothersignificantpiece,Beyond the limits (Meadowsetal.,1992),inwhichtheyarguedthathumanswereovershootingthecapacityandavailabilityofearth’sresources.Thisresearchsparked,andhasbecomeacornerstoneof,theintensedebateonsustainabledevelopment.Morerecently,Limits to growth: The 30-year update(Meadowsetal.,2004)attemptedoncemoretoprovidedataandmakeacompellingcaseforasignificantdebateandurgentactionstolimitandtomakerationaluseofscarceresources.

TheexperiencesandlessonslearnedfromtheGreenRevolutionofthe1960sandbeyondpointtosignificanttrade-offsinresourceuse.Whiletherewereamplebenefitsfromtargetedplantbreedingandtheapplicationofexternalinputsintermsofincreasedproductivity,income,andfoodproduction,thisstrategyplacedsignificantpressuresonnaturalresourcesandtheenvironment.

Duringthelast4decadesrecognitionofunsustainableresourceuseandtheincreasingconcernsexpressedbyproducers,consumers,andcivilsocietyhavepromptedthedevelopmentandtestingofapproachestooptimizeresourceuse,suchasminimumtillage,precisionagriculture,plantbreedingforinputuseefficiency(water,nitrogen),marker-assistedbreeding,andtransgeniccropsandanimals.Thisvolumehighlightsanumberoftheseaccomplishmentsaswellasrelatedexperiencesandlessonslearned.

Despitetheadvancesinagriculturalproductivity,wastefulandcontaminatingsystemscontinuetocoexistwitheco-efficiency-basedapproaches.Populationgrowth,marketforces,productivitylevels,andincentivesallimpactonthebalancebetweenpositiveandnegativeforcesdrivingagriculturalinnovation.Policiesandincentivesatthelocal,national,andinternationallevelsexertastronginfluenceonoutputsandoutcomes.

Weneedtoconsidereco-efficiencybeyondthefarm,crop,oranimalenterpriselevel,andextend

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theconceptstoincludethewholefoodchain.Thiswillincludethefulllifecycleofinputstothefarmandproductsleavingthefarm,i.e.,nutrientandenergyflowsthatincludetransportandprocessing.

Whiletherearegreatopportunitiesforincreasingeco-efficiencybyadoptionofmixedfarmingsystems,particularlythoseinvolvingbothcropsandlivestock,thetrend,particularlyindevelopedcountries,hasbeenforincreasedspecializationandseparationofcropandlivestockenterprises.Increasinglytheremayalsobemarketopportunitiesbasedonconsumerpreferencesforproductsfromeco-efficientsystems.Currentlytheproportionoffoodmarketedasbeingfromsuchsystemsisverysmall.

Severalauthors(Pimenteletal.,2005;Hobbsetal.,2008;Horriganetal.,2002)havemadethecaseformovinghigh-inputagriculturetowardgreatersustainability.Theargumentsforthisincludethebeneficialeffectsofhighlevelsofsoilorganicmatter,whichhelpconservesoilandwaterresourcesandareparticularlybeneficialduringdroughtyears;theunsustainabilityofcurrentlevelsofuseoffossilfuels,water,andtopsoil;andthedocumentedbenefitstoboththeenvironmentandproductivityofdirectseeding,conservationtillage,integratedsystems,bedplanting,andmulching.

Ultimately,therewillnotbeasimple,singlesolutiontoincreasingtheeco-efficiencyofagriculture.Therearepracticaladvantagesforintensiveagricultureandlow-inputagriculturetoeachadaptandadoptthebestpracticesoftheother.High-inputagricultureshouldaimatbecomingmoreeco-efficient,andlow-inputagricultureneedstoaimathigherproductivity,oftenbasedonmoreintensivepractices.Tomeetthegrowingdemandsforfood,feed,fiber,andfuelsfromagricultureinthelongterm,thiscombinationofhigherproductivityandsustainabilitythrougheco-efficientpracticesisimperative.

The Need for Eco-Efficiency in Agriculture

Thequestion“whyworryaboutproducingmorefood?”needstobeconsideredfromseveralangles.

Firstishowmuchwearecurrentlyproducing.Despiteconstraintsinwateravailability,land,andfertilizers(particularlynitrogen),theworldshouldbeabletofeeditself.AccordingtoThe Economist (2011),allowingforthestaggeringamountsoffoodwastedandallthefoodthatcouldbeeatenbutisinsteadturnedintobiofuels,farmersareproducingmuchmorefoodthanisrequired—morethantwicetheminimumnutritionalneedsofabout2100caloriesaday.

TheFoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO)estimatedthatweneedtoincreasefoodsuppliesby70%by2050ifwearetofeedapopulationof9billion(FAO,2009).Thisisamajorchallenge,andevenmoresowiththeconstraintsofavailablewater,land,andfertilizer.

Currently,every9monthsweconsumewhattheplanet’secologycanprovidesustainablyinanygivenyear(GlobalFootprintNetwork,2011).Fromthatpointuntiltheendoftheyear,wemeetourecologicaldemandbyliquidatingresourcestocksandaccumulatingCO2intheatmosphere.Thiscannotcontinue.

Anotherwaytovisualizethisimbalanceinresourceuseishumanity’secologicalfootprint.TheLiving planet report 2010 (WWF,2010)revealsthatthisfootprinthasmorethandoubledsince1966.In2007,themostrecentyearforwhichdataareavailable,humanityusedtheequivalentof1.5planetearthstosupportitsactivities.EvenwithmodestUnitedNations(UN)projectionsforpopulationgrowth,consumptionpatterns,andclimatechange,humanitywillneedthecapacityoftwoearthsby2030toabsorbCO2wasteandkeepupwithnaturalresourceconsumption.Thereportillustratesthescopeofthechallengeshumanityfaces,notonlyforpreservingbiodiversity,butalsoforhaltingclimatechangeandmeetingbasichumandevelopmentaspirations,suchasreducingworldwidehungerandpoverty.

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Eco-Efficiency: From Vision to Reality

Theincreasedfoodinsecurityandvulnerabilityofalargenumberofpeopleworldwidepointtoabrokenfoodproductionanddistributionsystem.Weneedtolookatthecontributionagricultureshouldmakenotonlytofeedagrowingpopulationbutalsotoimpactlessontheplanet’sresources.Thefuturefoodsupplyequationneedstoconsiderthecurrentrealityoflowergrowthratesformajorcropyieldsinconventionalagriculture,eco-efficientapproachestodiminishimpactsonnaturalresources,theclimatechangechallenge,andthevolatilityofenergyprices.Intensive,oil-dependentagricultureisreachingworrisomeyieldplateausandwatertableskeepdecreasing.

Theworldneedsanewparadigmforthewaysthatweusenaturalresources—anewsetoftoolsandpolicies.Shouldweeatless?Shouldweeatsmarter(e.g.,lessproteinofanimalorigin,withitshighdemandsforenergy,land,andwater)?Shouldwecreateincentivestousefewerresourcesandimplementlegaldirectivestopushforeco-efficiency?Shouldweputinplacemeasurestocontrolpopulationgrowth?Pimenteletal.(2008)demonstratethatuseoffossilenergyintheUnitedStates’foodsystemcouldbereducedbyabout50%ifappropriatetechnologieswereadoptedinfoodproduction,processing,packaging,transportation,andconsumption.

Higher Productivity with Lower Negative Impact Agriculturalproductivitymustincreaseifwearetomeettheincreasingdemandsofagrowingandmoreaffluentpopulationforfood,feed,fiber,andfuelsinthecontextoflimitedlandavailableforexpansionofagriculture(Hubertetal.,2010).Humanshavealwaysattemptedtoraisetheefficiencyofagroecosystems,aimingtoharvestmoreperunitofinput,mainlywater,nutrients,energy,oragrobiodiversity(seeChapter2ofthisvolume).Effortstoincreaseproductivityshouldthereforeconsidercropbreeding(particularlyformaximizinginputuseefficiencyandforhostplantresistanceforreducingpesticideuse),eco-friendlyhusbandry,andthesustainableuseofnaturalresources(especiallyagrobiodiversity),while

enhancingecosystemservices.Thisvolumeexploresmanywaysthatthiscanbeaccomplished.

Sustainableintensificationofagricultureshouldreducetheneedtoexpandintoenvironmentallyvulnerableareas,therebysparingsomelandsfromfurtherdegradationbyconcentratingproductioninothers.However,theresultofthisapproachisnotalwaysclearcut.Rudeletal.(2009)analyzedtrendsinareaplantedto10majorcropsbetween1970and2005,withparticularemphasisonthe1990–2005period.Thedatasuggestthatagriculturalintensificationwasnotoftenaccompaniedbydeclineorevenstasisincultivatedareaonanationalscale,exceptincountriesthatimportedgrainandimplementedconservationset-asideprograms.Thus,policiesandinnovationsaimedatincreasinglanduseefficiencymustbecarefullydesignedandmonitoredtoassuretheyhavethedesiredimpact,ratherthanleadingtouncontrolledlanduseexpansion(LambinandMeyfroidt,2011).

Humansfacethechallengeofmanagingtrade-offsbetweenimmediateneedsandmaintainingthecapacityofthebiospheretoprovidegoodsandservicesinthelongterm(Foleyetal.,2005).Policymeasuresareneededthatprovideincentivesfordevelopmentandadoptionofmorediverse,eco-efficientfarming;suchmeasuresincludepremiumpricesforproductsfromeco-efficientsystems,andpricesupportsfortheprovisionoftheirenvironmentalservices.Innovativeeducationisneededonwhole-systemapproachesthatfeatureresource-useefficiencyandresilientfarmingsystemstotrainanewgenerationofpractitionerswhosemainaimwillbeensuringproductivity,profitability,andsecurityoffoodvaluechains(Francisetal.,2011).

Therearenumerousapproachesforincreasingagriculturalproductivityusingeco-efficientproductionsystems.Forexample,integratinglivestock,crops,andforestrysystemscanleadtohigherproductivityandlowernegativeimpact.Insuchintegratedsystems,livestockarerearedmostlyongrass,browseonnonfoodbiomassfrommaize,millets,rice,andsorghumandinturn

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supplymanureandtraction(Herreroetal.,2010).Wilkins(2008)arguesthateco-efficiencycanbeincreasedeitherbyalteringthemanagementofindividualcropandlivestockenterprisesorbyalteringthelandusesystem,forexamplebyadoptingmixedcrop-livestocksystemsthatincorporatebiologicalnitrogenfixationanduseofmanureasfertilizer.Combiningintensification,betterintegrationofanimalmanureincropproduction,andmatchingnitrogenandphosphoroussupplytolivestockrequirementscaneffectivelyimprovenutrientflows(Bouwmanetal.,2011).Furthermore,ashiftinhumandiets(e.g.,poultryorporkreplacingbeef)canreducenutrientuseincountrieswithintensiveruminantproduction.

Implications of Major Land Use Changes, Scale of Production, Biofuels, and Global Farmland

Land use changesLandusechangesimpactthequalityandavailabilityofsoils,water,andbiodiversity.Globally,croplands,pastures,plantations,andurbanareashaveexpandedinrecentdecades,accompaniedbylargeincreasesinenergy,water,andfertilizerconsumption,andsignificantlossesofbiodiversity(Foleyetal.,2005).ThesechangescanalsoleadtochangesinatmosphericconcentrationofCO2,andmaythereforebeacontributortoclimatechange(seediscussionbelow).

AsnotedbyLambinandMeyfroidt(2011),Bhutan,Chile,China,CostaRica,ElSalvador,India,andVietnammanagedtoincreasebothagriculturalproductionandtheareaofforestsintheirterritories.Indoingthis,theyreliedonvariousmixesofagriculturalintensification,landusezoning,forestprotection,increasedrelianceonimportedfoodandwoodproducts,creationofoff-farmjobs,foreigncapitalinvestments,andremittances.Theauthorsconcludethatsoundpoliciesandinnovationscan,therefore,reconcileforestpreservationwithfoodproduction.

AccordingtoFAO(1993),thereisanincreasinglyurgentneedtomatchlandtypesand

landusesinthemostrationalwaypossible,soastomaximizesustainableproductionandsatisfythediverseneedsofsocietywhileatthesametimeconservingfragileecosystemsandourgeneticheritage.Landuseplanningisfundamentaltothisprocess.Itisabasiccomponent,whetherweareconsideringmountainecosystems,savannas,orcoastalzones,andunderliesthedevelopmentandconservationofforestry,range,inland,andcoastalresources(FAO,1993).Forexample,landuseallocationhascontributedtoprotectingthePeruvianAmazon,inspiteofrecentincreasesindisturbanceanddeforestationrates(Oliveiraetal.,2007).Likewise,protectionofproductiveagriculturallandhasbecomeamajorpriorityinmanyregionsoftheworld.Overgrazingandintensiveagricultureonmarginallandsareamajordriveroflandlossthroughdegradation.Policiesareinplaceinmanycountriestoavoidthislossofproduction,buttheireffectivenessinthefaceofeconomicdemandisoftenlimited(EllisandPontious,2010).

Scale of productionTheassumptionthatlarge-scalemechanizedagricultureismoreproductiveandefficientthansmall,familyfarmsmaybeinfluencingagriculturaldevelopmentpolicyaroundtheworld.Inseveralcontinents,developingcountriesaremovingtowardlarge-scale,corporatefarmingasawaytoboostproductionandjump-startagriculturaldevelopment(Landesa,2011).

InthecaseofCanada,MaynardandNault(2005)proposetomaintainbothbigandsmallfarms,giventhecurrentsituationwhere2%offarmsproduce35%ofthefood.Theauthorsproposeoverallstrategiestokeepandexpandthenumberofsmallenterprises,forexample,maintainingvibrantruralcommunities,investinginresearchandextension,andimplementingincentives,regulations,andindicators.Currentregulationsarenotproperlydifferentiatedandtendtofavorbigfarms.Theyalsoexaminetheterm“sustainability”inthecontextofbigandsmallfarmsandfindthatconclusionsaredifficult,asthetermisopentomultipleinterpretations.Thedailyrealityoffarmingasksthequestionsoftradeoffsbetweensustainabilityandprofitability.

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BiofuelsThedebateaboutthecostsandbenefitsofbiofuels(economicallyandenvironmentally)nowfocusessquarelyonwhethertheirusecausestoomuchconversionofnaturallandsintocropandlivestockproductionaroundtheworld.AccordingtoBabcock(2009),“theworryisthatthelossofcarbonstocksontheconvertedlandwouldmorethanoffsetthedirectreductioningreenhousegasemissionscausedbylowergasolineuse.TheCaliforniaAirResourcesBoardhasconcludedthatcornethanolcausessuchlargeamountsoflandconversionthatitdoesnotqualifyasalow-carbonfuel.Initsrecentanalysisofgreenhousegasemissionsfrombiofuels,theU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgencyestimatesthatcornethanolandbiodieselmadefromsoybeanoilcauseenoughlandusechangestocallintoquestionwhetherthesebiofuelsmeetrequiredgreenhousegasreductions.”

Newtechnology,cropmanagementchanges,andrenewableenergyareplayingimportantrolesinincreasingtheenergyefficiencyofagricultureandreducingitsrelianceoffossilresources(Woodsetal.,2010).Alternativerenewableenergysourcesalsobringdiverseopportunitiesandchallenges,suchashowtointegratepotentialbiofuelmarkets,dealwithimpactsonfoodsecurity,alleviatepoverty,andmanagecropandnaturalresourcessustainably(FAO,2010).Theagriculturalsystemsusedtoproducefeedstockforbiofuelsmustusebiomasssustainably,andpartitionitamongenergy,feed,food,andCO2fixationdemands(Tilmanetal.,2009).Hilletal.(2006)indicatethatbiofuelsproducedfromlow-inputbiomassplantsgrownonmarginallandorfromwastebiomass,couldprovidemuchgreatersuppliesandenvironmentalbenefitsthanstaplefood-basedbiofuels.Appropriatelife-cycleanalysiswillthereforebeneededtodeterminetheuseoflandresourcesandestimatenetcarbonemissionsofeachsuggestedrenewableenergytechnology(VonblottnitzandCurran,2007).

Global farmlandTherehasbeenadramaticriseininterestofinvestorsinacquiringfarmland,particularlyinAfrica,asaresultoftheescalatingfoodpricesat

theendofthefirstdecadeofthe21stcentury.Thefocusofthisinteresthaslargelybeenonlandwithagriculturalpotentialthatiseitheruncultivatedorproducinglessthanitspotential.Thisfoodcrisispointedtonewplayers,challenges,andperhapssomeopportunitiesassociatedwithlandusechanges.Thisphenomenaldevelopment,ifconsideredbythesheersizeofthelandsbeingacquired(some56millionhectaresin2009),haspromptedspecificproposalsontheethicsandprinciplesthatshouldbeappliedbyallinterestedparties(Deiningeretal.,2011).Threekeyprinciplesthatarecloselyrelatedtotheissueoflandusechangeare:

• Respecting land and resource rights.Existingrightstolandandassociatednaturalresourcesshouldberecognizedandrespected.

• Responsible agro-investing.Investorsshouldensurethatprojectsrespecttheruleoflaw,reflectindustrybestpractice,areeconomicallyviable,andresultindurablesharedvalue.

• Environmental sustainability.Environmentalimpactsofaprojectshouldbequantifiedandmeasurestakentoencouragesustainableresourceusewhileminimizingandmitigatingtheriskandmagnitudeofnegativeimpacts.

ArecentreportfromtheWorldBank(2009)examinescommercialagricultureintheGuineasavannaandelsewhereinAfrica.ThereportclaimsthatAfricanagriculturecontinuestolag,asreflectedinthedeclineininternationalcompetitivenessofmanytraditionalAfricanexportcropsduringthepast30years,aswellasinthecompetitivenessofsomefoodcropsforwhichimportdependencehasincreased.Incontrast,overthesameperiodtwoagriculturalregionsinthedevelopingworldhaveshowntheway—theCerradoregionofBrazil(seeChapter4ofthisvolume)andtheNortheastRegionofThailand.Bothhavedevelopedatarapidpaceandconqueredimportantworldmarkets.Theirsuccessdefiedthepredictionsofmanyskeptics,whohadassertedthatthetworegions’challengingagroecologicalcharacteristics,remote

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locations,andhighlevelsofpovertywouldproveimpossibletoovercome.

TworecentdevelopmentshaveledtoachangeinthinkingaboutthepotentialofAfricanagriculture(TheWorldBank,2009).First,duringthepastdecade,strongagriculturalgrowthhasbeenrecordedinmanyAfricancountries,suggestingthatthesectorcanindeedbeadriverofgrowthwhentheconditionsareright.Second,thesteepriseinpricesoffoodandagriculturalcommoditiesthatoccurredin2008hasledtoarealizationthatnewopportunitiesmaybeopeningforcountriesthatareendowedwiththeland,labor,andotherresourcesneededtorespondtothegrowingdemandforfood.

Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation Althoughtheremaybealargeregionalvariability,modelssuggestthatchangesintemperatureandprecipitationpatternsduetoclimatechangeandincreasingconcentrationsofatmosphericCO2willsignificantlyaffectagroecosystemsandyields(BattistiandNaylor,2009;LobellandField,2007),reducingfoodavailabilityandtherebyjeopardizingfoodsecurityandfarmincomes(Lobelletal.2008)(seealsoChapter3ofthisvolume).Therewillbeshiftsofplantdistributionsbecausesomespecieswillexpandintonewlyfavorableareasandotherswilldeclineinincreasinglyadverselocations.Climatechangemayincreaseglobaltimberproductionasaresultofchangesofforestrylocations(shiftingfromlow-latituderegionsintheshorttermtohigh-latituderegionsinthelongtermasclimatechanges),whereasdemandforforestproductswillriseslightly(KirilenkoandSedjo,2007).

Agriculturecontributestocarbonemissionsthroughthedirectuseoffossilfuelsinfarming,theindirectuseofenergyininputsthatareenergy-intensivetomanufacture(e.g.,fertilizers),andthecultivationofsoilsresultinginthelossofsoilorganicmatter(PrettyandBall,2001).Agriculturalmanagementexplainshistoricchangesinregionalsoilcarbonstocks.Agricultureisalsoamajorcontributorof

atmosphericnitrousoxide(N2O),apotentgreenhousegas(GHG)commonlygeneratedbytheuseofmanureornitrogen(N)fertilizers.Inintensivewheat-croppingsystems,commonNfertilizerpracticesmayleadtohighfluxesofN2OandNO(nitricoxide).SeveralgroupsofheterotrophicbacteriauseNO3

-asasourceofenergybyconvertingittothegaseousformsN2,NO,andNO2.N2Oisthereforeoftenunavailableforcropuptakeorutilization.

LandusechangecontributesconsiderablytoincreasesinatmosphericCO2.TheIPCC(2007)estimatesthelandusechange(e.g.,conversionofforesttoagriculturalland)contributes1.6±0.8gigatonsofcarbonperyeartotheatmosphere,comparedwith6.3±0.6gigatonsofcarbonfromfossilfuelcombustionandcementproduction.

Thetotalbiomasscarbonstockoftropicalforestsisestimatedtobe247gigatons,with193gigatonsstoredabovegroundand54gigatonsstoredbelowgroundinroots.LatinAmerican,sub-SaharanAfrican,andSoutheastAsianforestsaccountfor49,25,and26%ofthetotalstock,respectively(Saatchietal.,2011).Deforestationanddegradationoftropicalforestsaccountedfor12to20%ofglobalanthropogenicGHGemissionsinthe1990sandearly2000s.ReducingdeforestationandforestdegradationwouldthusbothreduceGHGemissionsandincreasethepotentialofforeststoremoveadditionalcarbonfromtheatmosphere.

ExpansionofcattleranchinghasbeenidentifiedasamajorcauseofdeforestationandamajorcontributortoCO2emissions(seeChapter10ofthisvolume).ThecarbonfootprintofbeefproducedonnewlydeforestedlandintheAmazonexceeds700kgCO2equivalentsperkilogramofcarcassweightifdirectlanduseemissionsareannualizedover20years(Cederbergetal.,2011).EntericfermentationisalsoamajorcontributortoGHGemissions,particularlyinthedevelopingworld,whichaccountsforalmostthree-quartersofsuchemissions(Thorpe,2009).Intensiveruminant-basedmeatproductionsystemsconsumelargeamountsofhigh-valuefeedbutsufferfromlow

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feedconversionratesandlongreproductiveintervals,makingtheminefficientusersofresources.ChangingfromruminantstomonogastricscouldsignificantlyreducethecontributionoflivestocktoGHGproduction(SteinfeldandGerber,2010).

Eco-Efficient Practices to Resolve Land Use and Climate Change ChallengesAdoptionofeco-efficientpracticeswouldcontributeimmenselytosolvinglanduseandclimatechangechallengesnotedintheprevioussections.Agriculturecansequestercarbonwhenorganicmatterisbuiltupinthesoilorwhenabove-groundwoodybiomassactseitherasapermanentsinkorisusedasanenergysourcethatsubstitutesfossilfuels.Themitigationeffectsofadoptionofimprovedpastures,intensifyingruminantdiets,changesinlandusepractices,andchangingbreedsoflargeruminantscouldaccountfor4to7%oftheglobalagriculturalmitigationpotentialto2030,orUS$1.3billionperyearatapriceofUS$20/tofCO2equivalents(ThorntonandHerrero,2010).

Expandingcroplandontoareasundernaturalecosystemsreducescarbonstocksinnaturalvegetationandsoils,withtheamountofcarbonreleasedandcropyieldsdifferingmarkedlybetweentemperateregionsandthetropics(Westetal.,2010):foreachunitoflandcleared,landinthetropicsreleasesnearlytwiceasmuchcarbon(~120t/havs.~63t/ha)andproduceslessthanhalftheannualcropyieldaslandintemperateregions(1.71t/haperyearvs.3.84t/haperyear).However,high-inputindustrializedagricultureusesfarmoreenergy,intheformofnitrogenfertilizers,pumpedirrigation,andmechanicalpower,thandoeslow-input,sustainableagriculture,makingitlessenergyefficient.Productionof1tonofcerealsorvegetablesfromhigh-inputfarmingconsumes3000–10,000MJofenergy,comparedwithonly500–1000MJusingsustainablefarmingpractices(PrettyandBall,2001).

VanWesemaeletal.(2010)studiedchangesinsoilorganiccarbon(SOC)stocksinsoilsin

Belgiumbetween1960and2006,andfoundalargereductioninSOCingrasslandsoilsthathadbeendrainedafter1960,andlargegainsincroplandsinsandylowlandsoilsduetomanureadditions.

Cassman(1999)indicatesthatprecisemanagementandimprovementsinsoilqualityareneededtoachievehighyieldswithoutcausingenvironmentaldamage.Conservationagriculture,greenmanures,andcovercropscontributetoorganicmatterandcarbonaccumulationinthesoil,physicallyprotectthesoilfromtheactionofsun,rain,andwind,andhelpfeedsoilbiota.No-tillagesystemsresultinaccumulationof0.3–0.6tC/haperyear,butno-tillagecombinedwithrotationsandcovercropsmaydoubletheamountofcarbonaccumulated,to0.66–1.3tC/haperyear(PrettyandBall,2001).

No-tillagehasrevolutionizedagriculturalsystemsbecauseitallowsindividualproducerstomanagelargeramountsoflandwithfewerinputsofenergy,labor,andmachinery(TrippletandDick,2008).Lal(2010)pointsoutthatnotallconservationagriculturepracticesandotherresourceconservationtechnologiesareapplicableacrossallfarmingsystems.However,hereportsthatincreasingSOCintherootzonecanincreasegrainyields(kg/hapertonofC)ofbean(30–60),maize(200–300),rice(20–50),soybean(20–50),andwheat(20–40).SuchincreasesinSOCalsoimprovesoilquality,increaseeco-efficiency,andenhanceecosystemservices.Suchsoilsinksmustbecomepermanentiftheyaretocontributetomitigatingclimatechange;iflandsunderconservationagricultureareploughedallthegainsinsoilcarbonandorganicmatterwouldbelost.

UsingthecorrectamountandtimingofNapplicationcanhalveNO2emissionsinintensiveirrigatedagroecosystemswithoutsignificantlyaffectingcropyields(RuanandJohnson,1999).Usingahandheldopticalsensorthatcalculatesthenormalizeddifferentialvegetationindex(NDVI),therebyassessingyieldpotentialasplantsgrow,canreduceunnecessaryN-fertilizerinputs,savingfarmersmoneyandprotectingtheenvironmentbyreducingtracegasemissions.

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Someplantsproducechemicalsthatinhibitnitrificationinthesoil,reducinglossoffertilizerN(Fillery,2007).Thisability,whichisreferredtoasbiologicalnitrificationinhibitionorBNI(Subbaraoetal.,2006),seemstovarywidelyamongandwithinspecies,andappearslikelytobeawidespreadphenomenonintropicalpasturegrasses(Subbaraoetal.,2007).

Nitrificationinhibitionenhancesagroecosystemfertilityinasustainableway,especiallyunderhighnitrateleachinganddenitrificationfluxes,whichmayaccountfortheecologicaladvantageofAfricangrassesoverindigenousgrassesinSouthAmericanpastures(Boudsocqetal.,2009).Thesedeep-rootedgrasses(e.g., Brachiaria humidicola)alsosequestersignificantamountsoforganiccarbondeepinthesoilandhelpoffsetanthropogenicCO2emissions(Fisheretal.,1994).Brachiaria humidicola,anAfricanforagegrassfoundfromsouthernSudanandEthiopiainthenorthtoSouthAfricaandNamibiainthesouth,showsparticularlyhighBNIcapacity(Ishikawaetal.,2003;Subbaraoetal.,2009).

Localagrobiodiversitywillbeanimportantcopingmechanismforclimatechange,especiallyforthemostvulnerablepeople(Ortiz,2011a).Agro-silvo-pastoralsystemscanalsobedesignedtooptimizeagrobiodiversityandattainproductionbenefitswithoutaddingpressuretoconvertnaturalhabitattofarmland(Ortiz,2011b;seealsoChapter4ofthisvolume).However,insomeareaslocallyavailableagrobiodiversitymaynotabletoadaptquicklytochangingconditions,andthereforenewcropcultivars,livestockbreeds,orotherspeciesbettersuitedtothenewenvironmentswillbeneededtocopewithclimatechange.

Nitrogenuseefficiency(NUE)ofagriculturalsystemscanbeincreasedbygrowingplantspeciesorgenotypeswithhighNuptakeandutilizationabilities(FageriaandBaligar,2005).Whole-plantphysiology,quantitativegenetics,andforward-andreverse-geneticsapproachesareprovidingabetterunderstandingofthephysiologicalandmolecularcontrolsofNassimilationincropsundervaryingenvironments(Hireletal.,2007).CropsarebeingbredforNUE

becausethistraitwillbeakeyfactorinreducingNfertilizerpollutionandincreasingyieldsinN-limitingenvironments.

Besidessophisticatedapproachestomakephotosynthesismoreefficient,anumberofalreadywell-developedbiotechnologiessuchasplantmicropropagation,virus-freeplantingmaterials,moleculardiagnosticsofplantandlivestockdiseases,andmolecularmarkerstoidentifysuperiorlinesandpopulationsinconventionalbreedingoperationsmustcontinuetobeimprovedanddisseminated,particularlyinthosecountrieswithlimitedresearchinfrastructureandlowratesofadoption.Productionofgeneticallymodifiedorganisms(GMOs),undoubtedlythemostcontroversialapproachofthenewbiotechnologies,holdssignificantpromiseforcontributingtoeco-efficientagriculture,butthereisanurgentneedtofocusinvestmentontheneedsofthepoor(TheWorldBank,2008).Thisislikelytorequireincreasedpublicinvestmentinthesetechnologies.Itwillalsobenecessarytoincreasethecapacitytoevaluatetherisksandregulatethesetechnologiesinwaysthatarecosteffectiveandinspirepublicconfidenceinthem.

However,conventionalbreeding,benefittingfromtechniquessuchasmarker-assistedselection,islikelytobeatthecenterofagriculturaldevelopmentsintheimmediatefuture.Unfortunately,thenumberofplantandlivestockbreederscontinuestodecline.Thiswillaffectourcapacitytoimprovecropsandanimalsinthefuture,andurgentmeasuresareneededtoreversethistrend.

Policies, Capacity Building, and Capitalizing on Market ForcesEco-efficientagriculturewillonlybeadoptedandimplementedifconducivepoliciesandincentivesareinplace.Thiswillrequirethatlessonsbelearnedfrompriorexperiences,alignmentwithmarketforces,clearcommunicationandengagementwithpublicopinion,developmentofpublic-privatepartnerships,andstrongleadership.

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Eco-Efficiency: From Vision to Reality

Anyeco-efficiencyapproachmustrecognizeandexploittheimpactofmultidimensionaleconomic,environmental,andsocialinteractionsonthefourcomponentsofthefoodsystem,i.e.,availability,utilization,accessibility,andstability(Parketal.,2009).Failingtodosowillimpedeuptakeofadaptationandefficiencystrategies.

Thereisanurgentneedtointensify,diversify,andintegrateproductionsystemstoachieveeco-efficiency,butthiswillrequiremorethanjusttechnicalsolutions.Anewvision,combinedwithpoliciesandincentives,needstobepartofthemix.Revertingtomixedfarmingwillnotbeeasy(Wilkins,2008).Persuadingfarmerstodosowillrequireevidenceofcleareconomicadvantagesfromlinkingcropandlivestocksystems,cost-effectivewaysofhandlingandincorporatinganimalmanures,andsystemsthataremanageriallysimpletooperate.Itmayalsorequireconducivepoliciesandsupportpayments.Forexample,theEuropeanUnion’sNitrateDirectiveandtheWaterFrameworkDirective,bylimitinginputs,haveprovidedaverydirectincentivefortheadoptionofeco-efficientpractices,whilesupportpaymentshavepromotedconversionoflandtoorganicfarmingandmaintenanceoforganicsystems(Wilkins,2008).

Thefoodrequirementsoftheexpectedpopulationlevelsin2050cannotbemetexclusivelybytheintensiveagricultureoftoday,simplybecausethenaturalresourcebasewouldeithercollapseorbeplacedunderveryseverestress.Likewise,lessinput-intensive,agroecologicalapproaches—inparticularintegratedlivestock,crop,andtreesystems—couldnotbeutilizedeverywhereduetolimitationsinlabor,land,water,markets,andinfrastructure.Technology,innovation,andpoliciesareessentialcomponentsofthemixinordertoreachacceptablesocial,economic,andenvironmentaloutputsandoutcomesinthefuture.Consumersexertsignificantpressureonthemarketandareultimatelyoneofthemaindriversoftheagriculturalagenda(Gopalan,2001).

Policiesandsubsidiesaresensitiveandcontroversialissues.Developed-country

agriculturalpoliciescostdevelopingcountriesaboutUS$17billionperyear,acostequivalenttoaboutfivetimesthecurrentlevelsofoverseasdevelopmentassistancetoagriculture,whilesubsidiesindevelopingcountriesdivertfundsfromhigh-returninvestmentsinpublicgoods(TheWorldBank,2008).Investmentininfrastructure(irrigation,roads,transport,power,andtelecommunications),markets,ruralfinance,andresearchwouldboostagriculturalproductivityindevelopingcountrieswhilebeinglessdistortingthanpricesubsidiesandincentives.

Howbesttopromoteproductsfromeco-efficientsystemsisanareathatrequiresfurtherresearchandmoresystematicanalysesinordertoguidebothproducersandconsumersonfoodgrownusingeco-efficientapproaches.Forexample,therearelearningopportunitiesfromtheexperiencesoftheorganicmarketsandlocallyproducedfoodstuffs,aswellasconsiderationofnon-priceincentivesandthepowerofconsumerstoguideproductiontowardsamoreeco-efficientpath.

Meeting Challenges to Social Equity

Eco-efficientagriculturecandeliverqualityproductsthatmeetconsumers’needswithalowecologicalimpact.However,toensurethatitdoessoequitablyandsustainablyitisimperativethatassessmentsaddresssocialandeconomicperformanceaswellasecologicalcriteria(Parketal.,2010).

Researchonandimplementationoftheconceptandpracticesofeco-efficiencymustbesensitivetogenderissues.Womenplayamajorroleinagriculture,accountingforabout70to80%ofhouseholdfoodproductioninsub-SaharanAfrica,65%inAsia,and45%inLatinAmerica,cultivatingfoodcropsandcommonlycontributingtoproductionofcommercialcrops(TheWorldBanketal.,2009).Womenaregenerallyresponsibleforfoodselectionandpreparationandforthecareandfeedingofchildren.Theyarethuskeytofoodsecurityfortheirhouseholds(Quisumbingetal.,1995).

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Resource Use Efficiency Revisited

Womenalsocommonlyplayactiverolesastraders,processors,laborers,andentrepreneurs.However,manydevelopmentpoliciesandprojectscontinuetoassumethatfarmersandruralworkersaremainlymen(TheWorldBanketal.,2009).AccordingtoDeereandLeon(2003),about70to90%offormalownersoffarmlandaremeninmanyLatinAmericanlocations.

AWorldBankwaterandsanitationstudy(Fongetal.,1996)concludedthatgenderisanissuenotonlyofequitybutofefficiency,becauseinvolvingbothwomenandmenenhancesprojectresults,increasescostrecovery,andimprovessustainability.Areviewof121ruralwatersupplyprojectsfoundthatwomen’sparticipationwasamongthevariablesstronglyassociatedwithprojecteffectivenessinthesector.Women’sparticipationservesbothpracticalandstrategicgenderneeds.Thepracticalgenderneedsofwomenareneedsbasedonexistingdivisionsoflaborandauthority,whereasthestrategicgenderneedsarethosethatrequireredressofgenderinequalitiesandredistributingpowermoreequitably.

Acloserlookatwomen’srolesinagriculturalproduction(Table1-1)illustratestheimportantparttheyplayineveryaspectofagricultureandfoodproduction,thesignificantchallengestheyface,andwhygender-neutralstrategiesalonewillnotbesufficienttomeetfutureneedsandexpectations.

Bothmenandwomenplaycriticalandoftencomplementaryroles,bothatthefarm-levelinsmallholderagriculturalsystemsanddownstreaminmoreintensiveproductionsystems,whereprocessing,packaging,andoverallvalue-addingrequirethecomplementaryabilitiesandknowledgeofwomenandmen.Interventionsmustaddressthespecificneedsandopportunitiesofbothwomenandmen,particularlythepoorest,iftheyaretoreduceinequalities,stimulategrowth,andcontributetoreducingenvironmentaldegradation(TheWorldBanketal.,2009).Toachievethisitisvitaltounderstandandchangenaturalresourcetenureandgovernanceandaddressgender-basedinequalitiesinaccesstoandcontrolovernaturalresources.

TheWorldBank(2006)sumsuptheimportanceofaddressinggenderissues,statingthat“Gainsinwomen’seconomicopportunitieslagbehindthoseonwomen’scapabilities.Thisisinefficient,sinceincreasedwomen’slaborforceparticipationandearningsareassociatedwithreducedpovertyandfastergrowth.Insum,thebusinesscaseforexpandingwomen’seconomicopportunitiesisbecomingincreasinglyevident;thisisnothingmorethansmarteconomicsandappropriatesocialpolicy.”

Monitoring and Evaluation

Eco-efficiencymonitoringrequiresdisciplinedrecord-keepingandmanagedconservationtoensurelong-termenvironmentalimprovement(ReithandGuidry,2003).

Life-cycleanalysis(LCA)helpstoassesspotentialenvironmentalimpactsalongthevaluechain(McGregoretal.,2003).LCAquantifiesinputs(e.g.,water,nutrients,energy,andagrochemicals)andoutputs(e.g.,grain,stubble,flour,oil,waste),assessestheenvironmentalperformancerelativetoinputuseandoutputs,analyzesandexplainstheenvironmentalperformanceofthesupplychain,andsuggestswhereandwhatmeasurescanimproveperformance.LCAhelpstheindividualactors(farmers,foodprocessors,farmsuppliers,retailers,andendusers)tomanagetheirenvironmentalongthevaluechain,tosettheirownenvironmentalperformancegoalsandindicators,andtoidentifypractical,cost-effectivemeasurestoimproveenvironmentalperformance.Itcanalsobeusedtoimprovethequalityofextensionservices,increasetheprofitabilityoffarmsbygreenmarketing,andsupporttheregionaltransitiontosustainableagriculturalsystems(Hayashietal.,2007).

Inagriculture,water,energy,andlanduseintensityareusedasresourceintensityindicators,whereasNOxpollution,CO2,andCH4intensityareusedtomeasureenvironmentalimpacts(UnitedNations,2009).Wießneretal.(2010)introducedasetofpracticalindicatorsreflectingecologicalandagronomicperformancetodescribethecurrenteco-efficiencyofsugar-beetcultivation,

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Eco-Efficiency: From Vision to Reality

Activities Keycharacteristics

Agriculturalproduction

Ruralwomenarethemainproducersoftheworld’sstaplecrops—rice,wheat,andmaize—whichprovideupto90%ofthefoodconsumedbytheruralpoor.Womensow,weed,applyfertilizerandpesticides,andharvestandthreshcrops.Theircontributiontogrowingsecondarycropssuchaslegumesandvegetablesisevengreater.Grownmainlyinhomegardens,thesecropsprovideessentialnutrientsandareoftentheonlyfoodavailablewhenmajorcropsfail.

Waterownershipandtenure

Womenhavemuchlessaccesstowaterthanmen.Thedistributionofwaterandlandisamajordeterminantofpoverty,andinheritancelawsthatdeprivewomenofaccessareoftenthecauseofwomen’spoverty.

Selection,improvement,andadaptationoflocalcultivars

Womenaretypicallyinvolvedintheselection,improvement,andadaptationoflocalcultivars,aswellasseedexchange,management,andsaving.Theyoftenkeephomegardenswheretheygrowtraditionalcultivarsofvegetables,herbs,andspicesselectedfortheirnutritional,medicinal,andculinarybenefits.Women,therefore,playanimportantroleinmaintainingbiodiversity.Womenarealsotheprimarycollectorsofwildfoodsthatprovideimportantmicronutrientsindietsandthatarevitalforthesurvivalofhouseholdsduringfoodshortages.

Climatechange Least-developedcountriesaremorereliantonrainfedagricultureandnaturalresourcesthanmoredevelopedcountries,andarethereforethemostvulnerabletoclimatechange.Thesecountriesgenerallylackthenecessaryadaptivecapacitiestocopewithclimatechange.Poorpeopletendtoliveonmarginallandsthataresubjecttofrequentdroughtsorfloodsandaremostlikelytobeaffectedbyevensmallchangesinclimatevariability.Becauseofgender-basedinequalitiesinaccessingcriticallivelihoodassets(suchasland,credit,technology,information,markets,andorganizations),womenaremoreexposedtotheserisks.

Biomassandfuelwood

Overone-thirdoftheworld’spopulation(2.4billionpeople)reliesonfuelwood,agriculturalresidues,andanimalwastesfortheirprimaryenergyneeds.Manywomenspendupto3to4hoursadaycollectingfuelforhouseholduse,sometimestraveling5to10kmaday.InmanyAfrican,Asian,andLatinAmericancountries,ruralwomencarryapproximately20kgoffuelwoodeveryday.Thisworkburdenlimitstimeavailableforfoodproductionandpreparation,household-relatedduties,andwomen’sparticipationinincome-generatingactivitiesandeducationalopportunities.

Weeds,pests,anddiseases

Some20–40%oftheworld’spotentialcropproductionislostannuallybecauseoftheeffectsofweeds,pests,anddiseases.Attemptstocontrolagriculturalpestshavebeendominatedbychemicalcontrolstrategies,buttheoveruseofchemicalshasadverselyaffectedhumanhealth,theenvironment,internationaltrade,andfarmbudgets.Itisbroadlyestimatedthatbetween1millionand5millioncasesofpesticidepoisoningoccureachyear,resultinginseveralthousandfatalities.Pesticidefatalitiesareoverwhelminglyadeveloping-countryphenomenonandchildrenandwomenareespeciallyatrisk.

Table1-1. Roles,needs,andchallengesfacedbywomeninagriculture.

andshowedthateco-efficiencycouldbeenhancedbyreducinginputlevels.Recently,BASF(2010)announceditsfirsteco-efficiencyanalysisformaizegrownwithorwithoutafungicide.Theanalysiscomparedbotheconomicandenvironmentalaspectsofproductsandprocesses,andtooktheproduct’sentirelifecycle

intoaccount,fromsourcingrawmaterialstoproductmanufacture,use,anddisposal.Theyfoundthatusingthefungicidereducedcostsandenergyandresourceuseanddeliveredhighyields,i.e.,farmerscouldbothearnmorebyusingthisfungicideandprotecttheenvironment.

SOURCE:SummarizedandadaptedfromTheWorldBanketal.(2009).

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Resource Use Efficiency Revisited

Conclusions

ThoseagriculturalsystemsandpracticesthatreleaselessCtotheatmosphere,conserveorganicmatter,utilizebiologicalmethodsfordiseaseandpestcontrol,usecleverrotations,pursuerecyclingopportunitiesbymeansofcrop,treeandanimalcomponentsandinteractions,andusewaterrationallytendtobeinherentlyeco-efficient.Humankind—givenprospectivedemandsandsocio-economic,politicalandenvironmentalchallenges—willnotbeabletosustainandsurvivebasedsolelyonlow-inputagriculturalsystems.Intensiveandhigh-inputagriculturealsohasakeypresentandfutureroletoplay;however,itmustattempttodomorewithlessand,asarguedbyseveralauthors,itshouldaimatbeingmoresustainable(Pimenteletal.,2005;Hobbsetal.,2008;Horriganetal.,2002).

Insummary:

• Inviewofthechallengetoenhanceproductivityandcounteractcurrentyieldplateausinkeycropandanimalsystemsbymeansofeco-efficientmethods,technologymustbeattheforefrontofpolitical,strategic,andinvestmentpriorities.

• Policiesandincentivesshouldbealsoofhighpriority,inordertotiltthebalancetowardseco-efficiency,foodsecurity,foodsafety,andreducedwaste.

• Researchersandpolicy-makersneedtoconsiderthemore-from-less,themore-from-more,andeventhesame-from-lessscenariostodefineprioritiesandgoalsatthenational,regional,andlocallevels.Inthiscontext,eco-efficiencyneedstobeconsideredatwiderscalesthanthefarmorindividualcroporanimalproductionsystem.

• Thewidelyassumednotionthatdevelopedcountriesaretheonesthattendtospecializeinfewintensiveproductionsystemsnolongerholds.Agrowingnumberoflargeandintensivecropandanimalenterprises(inparticularfruits,vegetables,poultry,andbeeffortheexportmarkets)arenowadayscommonlyfoundinthetropicalbelt.

• Generationanddisseminationofeco-efficiencyknowledgeandadoptionwill

greatlybenefitfromactiveparticipationoffarmersinresearchanddevelopment,enhancedextensionmethods(includingthenewinformationtechnologies),andproducerandconsumereducation.

• Thecurrentandpotentialimpactofclimatechangeonachievingahigherdegreeofeco-efficiencyneedstobebetterresearchedandunderstood.Therearebothchallengesandopportunitiesthatmustbeworkedout,particularlyinrelationtohoweco-efficiencymayormaynotimpactdiversificationandsystemsadaptability.

• Researchandimplementationoftheconceptsandpracticesofeco-efficiencycannotandshouldnotbemadewithagender-neutralapproach.Lessonslearnedallovertheworldandabundantliteratureclearlyshowtheadvantages—smarteconomicsasdepictedbytheWorldBank(2006)—ofconsideringanddesigningresearchandimplementationofeco-efficientsystemsbasedongenderrolesandinherentadvantages.

Inthelinesofthoughtoutlinedabovethebestpossibleoutcomeisforhigh-inputintensiveagricultureandlow-inputagriculturetocomeclosertoeachother.High-inputagricultureshouldcertainlyaimatbecomingmoreenvironmentallyfriendlyandlow-inputagricultureshouldadopt,wheneverpossible,amoreintensiveapproachleadingtohigherproductivity

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