CHAPTER 11 – THE LATER MIDDLE AGES: CRISIS AND DISINTEGRATION IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY

pp. 303-337

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A TIME OF TROUBLES: BLACK DEATH AND SOCIAL CRISIS - WHAT IMPACT DID THE BLACK DEATH HAVE ON THE SOCIETY AND ECONOMY OF EUROPE?Well into the third century, Europe had experienced good harvests and an expanding population. By the end of the century, however, a period of disastrous changes had begun. The Black Death brought social upheaval and economic dislocation such as unnecessary taxing.

Famine and population - Historians estimate that famine killed 10 percent of the European population in the first half of the fourteenth century. By 1300, indications are that Europe had reached the upper limit of its population, not in an absolute sense, but in the number of people who could be supported by existing agricultural production and technology. There was also a movement from over-populated rural areas to urban locations. The number of poor appeared to have increased noticeably. Famine may have led to chronic malnutrition, which in turn contributed to increased infant mortality, lower birthrates, and higher susceptibility to disease because malnourished people are less able to resist infection.

The Black Death - what was it? How did it spread? SymptomsThe most devastating natural disaster in It was spread by black rats infested with High fever, aching joints, swelling of the European history, ravaging Europe’s fleas who were host to the deadly bacterium lymph nodes, and dark blotches caused by Population and causing economic, social, Yersinia pestis. Also, it was spread by trading bleeding beneath the skin. Political, and cultural upheaval. Caravans carrying the plague westward, andAlso known as a bubonic plague. Originally by the Mongol troops into central

China in the early 1300s.Role of the MongolsIn the early 1300s, rats accompanying Mongol troops spread the plague into central China and by 1331 to northeastern China. In the 13th century, the Mongols had brought much of the Eurasian landmass under a single rule, which in turn facilitated long-distance trade, particularly along the Silk Road, now dominated by Muslim merchants from Central Asia. The movement of people and goods throughout this Eurasian landmass also facilitated the spread of the plague.

Reactions to the plague:Knowing they could be dead in a matter of days, people began to live for the moment; some threw themselves with abandon into sexual and alcoholic orgies. Wealthy and powerful people fled to their country estates. Some resorted to extreme asceticism to cleanse themselves of sin and gain God’s forgiveness. Such were the flagellants, whose movement became popular in 1348, especially in Germany. An outbreak of virulent anti-Semitism also accompanied the Black Death. The worst organized massacres, or pogroms, were carried out in Germany against the Jews. Post-plague Europe also demonstrated a morbid preoccupation with death.

OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS QUESTIONS:WHAT WERE THE DIFFERENT EXPLANATIONS FOR THE CAUSES OF THE BLACK DEATH?Giovanni Boccaccio suggests that the cause was through the operation of the heavenly bodies or because of our own iniquities which the just wrath of God sought to correct. Geoffrey de Meaux asserts that the cause was through the influence of the stars: ‘…I do not wish to imply that the mortality comes only from Saturn and Jupiter but rather through Mars, which was mixed with them at the time of the eclipse. Another explanation is that the cause was ‘a corrupt and poisonous earthly exhalation, which infected the air in various parts of the world and,

when breathed in by people, suffocated them and suddenly snuffed them out…’ Lastly, Herman Gigas suggested that the Jews planned to wipe out all the Christians with poison and had poisoned wells and springs everywhere.

HOW DO YOU EXPLAIN THE DIFFERENCES, AND WHAT DO THESE EXPLANATIONS TELL YOU ABOUT THE LEVEL OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE IN THE LATER MIDDLE AGES?The differences are that some explanations come from astronomy, one from earthquakes, another from knowledge of higher entities, and the last from hatred towards the Jews (Anti-Semitism). These views are different because they come from different cultures of people. These explanations tell me that the level of scientific knowledge in the Late Middle Ages was very low because they did not know very much at the time in the field of science.

WHY DO YOU THINK EUROPEANS MADE JEWS THE SCAPEGOATS?Europeans made Jews the Scapegoats because anti-Semitism was popular at this time. Also, this idea of Anti-Semitism has been around for a long time, since the Jewish Diaspora in Palestine. Lastly, Jews were disliked by Europeans because they were seen as outsiders (from Palestine)

Economic Dislocation and Social Upheaval Relations between nobles and peasants:Economic dislocation was accompanied by social The position of noble landlords continued to deteriorate during the lateupheaval. In the fourteenth century, a series of 14th and early 15th centuries. At the same time, conditions for peasants urban and rural revolts rocked European society. Improved, though not uniformly throughout Europe. The decline in the

number of peasants after the Black Death accelerated the process of

labor services to rents, freeing peasants from the obligations of servile

tenure and weakening the system of manorialism. Peasants faced the same

economic hurdles as the lords.

Peasant revolt in France Peasant revolt in England Revolts in the citiesBoth the French and English forces followed a English Peasants’ Revolt of 1381 was most In urban areas, industrial revoltsDeliberate policy of laying waste to peasants’ prominent of all. It was a product of rising broke out throughout Europe. Fields while bands of mercenaries lived off the expectations. The cause was the monarchy’s Most famous was the revolt of the Land by taking peasants’ produce as well. Attempt to raise revenues by imposing a poll ciompi in Florence in 1378. TheirPeasant anger was also exacerbated by growing tax or a flat charge on each adult member of won them some concessions from

Class tensions. Many aristocrats looked on peasants the population. Peasants in eastern England from the municipal government,With utter contempt. The peasants reciprocated refused to pay the tax and expelled the collectors including the right to form guildsThis Contempt for their so-called social superiors. Forcibly from their villages. This sparked a and be represented in the govern-The Outburst of peasant anger led to savage widespread rebellion of both peasants and towns- -ment. Authorities ended ciompiconfrontations. -people led by a well-to-do peasant called Wat participation in the government

Tyler and a preacher named John Ball. The young by 1382. Uprisings were quickly

King Richard II hundreds of the rebels with the crushed and their gains lost.

Assistance of the aristocrats. The poll tax was Eliminated, and in the end most of the rebels Were Pardoned.

WHAT WERE THE CHIEF FACTORS THAT LED TO THE URBAN AND RURAL REVOLTS OF THE 14TH CENTURY?Destruction of normal order by the Black Death, subsequent economic dislocation, social upheaval, attempts to raise revenues by imposing a poll tax, and a decline in commercial and industrial activity were factors that led to the urban and rural revolts of the 14th century.

WHAT WAS THE BLACK DEATH’S IMPACT ON EUROPEAN SOCIETY AND ECONOMY?Well into the third century, Europe had experienced good harvests and an expanding population. By the end of the century, however, a period of disastrous changes had begun. The Black Death brought social upheaval and economic dislocation such as unnecessary taxing.

WAR AND POLITICAL INSTABILITY – WHAT MAJOR PROBLEMS DID EUROPEAN STATES FACE IN THE 14TH CENTURY?Famine, plague, economic turmoil, social upheaval, and violence were not the only problems of the fourteenth century. War and political instability must also be added to the list. Of all the struggles that ensued in the fourteenth century, the Hundred Years’ War was the most famous and the most violent.

The Hundred Years' WarWHAT WERE THE Causes of the conflict: Early phases of the War:The immediate cause of the war between France and England When Edward renewed his efforts in 1346 with an invasion of Was yet another quarrel over Gascony. In 1337, when Edward Normandy, Philip responded by raising a large force to crush the

III, the king of England and duke of Gascony, refused to do homage English army and met Edward’s forces at Crecy, just south of To Philip VI for Gascony, the French king seized the duchy. Edward Flanders. This battle was a stunning victory for the English. TheResponded by declaring war on Philip, the “so-called king of France.” English campaigns were waged by Edward III and his son Edward, The personalities of the two monarchs also had much to do with the the prince of Wales, known as the Black Prince. When the army Outbreak of the Hundred Years’ War. Of the Black Prince was finally forced to do battle, the French,

Under their king, John II (1350-1364), were once again defeated. This Battle of Potiers (1356) ended the first phase of the Hundred Years’ War. In the next phase of the war, in the capable hands of John’s son Charles V (1364-1380), the French recovered what they had previously lost. By 1374, the FrenchHad recovered their lost lands, although France itself continuedTo be plagued by “free companies” of mercenaries who, no longer paid by the English, simply lived off the land by plunder and ransom.

Course of the war: Renewal of the war: End of the war:The outcomes of battles were In 1415, the English king, Henry V (1413-1422), Although the war dragged on for another twoIncreasingly determined not by renewed the war at a time when the French decades, defeats of English armies in NormandyBut by peasant foot soldiers. The were enduring civil war as the dukes of and Aquitaine ultimately led to French victory.French army of 1337, with its heavily Burgundy and Orleans competed to control the Important to French success was the use of theArmed and noble cavalry, resembled weak French king, Charles VI. Henry went on to cannon, a new weapon made possible by the Its twelfth- and thirteenth century reconquer Normandy and forge an all iance with invention of gunpowder. The death of England’sForebears. The English army had the duke of Burgundy, which led Charles VI to best commanders and the instability of the Differently and had included peasants agree to the Treaty of Troyes in 1420. The English government under King Henry VI (1422-As paid foot soldiers since at least seemingly hopeless French cause fell into the 1471) also contributed to England’s defeat.Anglo-Saxon times. Although the hands of Charles the dauphin (heir to the throne),

English made use of heavily armed son of Charles VI, who despite being disinheritedCavalry, they relied even more on with by the Treaty of Troyes, still considered Large numbers of foot soldiers. Himself the real heir to the French throne.

Significance of Joan of ArcDeeply religious, Joan experienced visions and came to believe that her favorite saints had commanded her to free France and have the dauphin crowned as king. In February 1429, Joan made her way to the dauphin’s court, where her sincerity and simplicity persuaded Charles to allow her to accompany a French army to Orleans. Apparently inspired by the faith of the peasant girl, the French armies found new confidence in themselves and liberated Orleans, changing the course of the war. Within a few weeks, the entire Loire valley had been freed of the English. In July of 1429, fulfilling Joan’s other task, the dauphin was crowned king of France and became Charles VII (1422-1461). In accomplishing the two commands of her angelic voices, Joan had brought the war to a decisive turning point.

WHAT WERE THE RESULTS OF THE WAR IN THE 14TH CENTURY FOR FRANCE AND ENGLAND?The results of the war for France and England would be a parliament, factional conflict, and civil strife.

The political, social, and economic long-term results of the Hundred Years' War in

England – growth of political institutions France – problems of the French KingsBy the end of Edward’s reign, Parliament had become an At the beginning of the fourteenth century, France was the mostImportant component of the English governmental system. Prosperous monarchy in Europe. By the end of the century, much of The House of Lords and the House of Commons its wealth had been dissipated, and rival factions of aristocrats had Constituted Parliament. House of Lords before was the Great made effective monarchical rule virtually impossible. The French Council of barons and evolved into a body composed of parliament, known as the Estates-General and composed of Chief bishops and abbots of the realm and aristocratic peers representatives of the clergy, nobility, and the Third Estate Whose position in Parliament was hereditary. House of Commons (everyone else), usually represented only the north of France,Was made up of the representatives of the shires and boroughs not the entire kingdom. When Philip VI (1328-1350) became Who held collective meetings. After Edward III’s death, his involved in the Hundred Years’ War with England, he found it Grandson, Richard II (1377-1399) reigned. In the fifteenth necessary to devise new sources of revenue,

through a tax onCentury, factional conflict would lead to a devastating series salt (the gabelle) and a hearth tax (the taille) which weighed

Of civil wars known as the War of the Roses. Heavily on the French peasantry and the middle class.

After Marcel’s movement was crushed in 1358, this attempt to make

The Estates-General a functioning part of the French government

Collapsed. The dauphin became Charles V (1364-1380) and went on

To recover much of the land lost to the English. The insanity of

Charles VI (1380-1422), which first became apparent In 1392,

Opened the door to rival factions of French nobles aspiring to power

And wealth. By the beginning of the fifteenth century, France

Seemed hopelessly mired in a civil war between the dukes of

Burgundy and Orleans.

JacquerieA peasant revolt that broke out in northern France in

1358. The Destruction of normal order by the Black Death and the

subsequentEconomic dislocation played important factors in causing

the revolt. The Jacquerie soon failed as the privileged classes closed ranks, savagely massacred the rebels, and ended the revolt.

German Monarchy and the Elector systemIn Germany itself, the failure of the Hohenstaufens ended any chance of centralized monarchical rule, and Germany became a land of hundreds of virtually independent states. Although all of the rulers of these different states had some obligations to German king and Holy Roman Empire, more and more they had acted independently. The German monarchy had become established on an elective rather than a hereditary basis. This principle of election was standardized in 1356 by the Golden Bull issued by Emperor Charles IV (1346-1378). This document stated that the four lay princes and three ecclesiastical rulers would serve as electors with the legal power to elect the “king of the Romans and future emperor, to be ruler of the world and of the Christian people.”

The States of ItalyIn fourteenth-century Italy, two general tendencies can be discerned: the replacement of republican governments by tyrants and the expansion of the larger city-states at the expense of the less powerful ones. End of 14th

century, three major dominant states in northern Italy: the despotic state of Milan and the republican states of Florence and Venice. Duchy of Milan: Located in the fertile Po valley, at the intersection of the chief trade routes from Italian coastal cities to the Alpine passes, Milan was one of the richest city-states in Italy. Republic of Florence: It was initially a free commune dominated by a patrician class of nobles known as the grandi. Venice: It had grown rich from commercial activity throughout the eastern Mediterranean and into northern Europe. The families of the Great Council now formed a hereditary patriciate that completely dominated the city. The duke of Florence was largely a figurehead.

CondotteriLeaders of bands of mercenary soldiers in Renaissance Italy who sold their services to the highest bidder. These mercenaries wreaked havoc on the countryside, living by blackmail and looting when they were not actively engaged in battle.

popolo grasso popolo minutoA wealthy merchant-industrialist The small shopkeepers and artisans

class; literally the “fat people.” In and artisans. Their revolutionary 1293, the popolo grasso assumed a activity won them a share in the

dominant role in government by government. by establishing A new constitution known as the Ordinances of Justice.Four years later, a counterrevolution Brought the “fat people” back intoVirtual control of the government.

WHAT MAJOR PROBLEMS DID EUROPEAN STATES FACE IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY?Famine, plague, economic turmoil, social upheaval, and violence were not the only problems of the fourteenth century. War and political instability must also be added to the list. Of all the struggles that ensued in the fourteenth century, the Hundred Years’ War was the most famous and the most violent.

DECLINE OF THE CHURCH – HOW AND WHY DID THE AUTHORITY AND PRESTIGE OF THE PAPACY DECLINE IN THE 14TH CENTURY?The papacy of the Roman Catholic Church reached the height of its power in the thirteenth century. Theories of papal supremacy included a doctrine of “fullness of power” as the spiritual head of Christendom and claims to universal temporal authority over all secular rulers. But papal claims of temporal supremacy were increasingly out of step with the growing with the growing secular monarchies of Europe and ultimately brought the papacy into a conflict with the territorial states that it was unable to win.

Papal and State Conflict Pope Boniface VIII and the conflict with the state and King Philip IV FrancePapal claims of temporal supremacy were increasingly in his desire to acquire new revenues, Philip claimed the right to tax the French out of step with the growing with the growing secular clergy. Boniface VII responded that the clergy of any state could not pay taxes

monarchies of Europe and ultimately brought the to their secular ruler without the pope’s consent. The fundamental issue was thepapacy into a conflict with the territorial states that universal sovereignty of the monarch. it was unable to win.

Significance of Unam SanctamThe most important papal bullet or letter written by Boniface VIII, issued in 1302. It was the strongest statement ever made by a pope on the supremacy of the spiritual authority over the temporal authority.

Papacy at Avignon 1305-1377 - “Babylonian Captivity” Long-term effectsResidency of the popes in Avignon for most of the fourteenth century led to The splendor in which the pope and cardinalsA decline in papal prestige and growing anti-papal sentiment. It was widely were living in Avignon led to highly vocalBelieved that the popes at Avignon were captives of the French monarchy. Criticism of both clergy and papacy in theThe papal residency at Avignon was also an important turning point in the fourteenth century. Avignon had become a powerfulChurch’s attempt to adapt itself to the changing economic and political symbol of abuses within the church, and many peopleConditions of Europe. The papal bureaucracy in the 14th century under the began to call for the pope’s return to Rome.Leadership of the pope and college of cardinals became the most sophisticatedAdministrative system in the medieval world.

The Great Schism - what precipitated the break? Long-term effectsThe event that precipitated the break was when the college of cardinals met in The schism greatly aggravated the financial abuses thatConclave to elect a new pope, the citizens of Rome, fearful that the French had developed within the Church during the Majority would choose another Frenchman who would return the papacy to Avignonese papacy. Two papal administrative systemsAvignon, threatened that the cardinals would not leave Rome alive unless they (with only one-half the accustomed revenues) worked Elected a Roman or at least an Italian as pope. Since Urban remained in Rome, to increase taxation. At the same time, the schism There were now two popes, initiating what has been called the Great Schism of badly damaged the faith of Christian belivers.Church.

DESCRIBE THE NEW THOUGHTS ON CHURCH AND STATE, AND THE RISE OF CONCILIARISM:

One of the most systematic revolutionary approaches to the church’s institutional problems was provided by Marsiglio of Padua, rector of the University of Paris and author of a remarkable book, Defender of the Peace. Marsiglio denied that the temporal authority was subject to the spiritual authority, as popes from Innocent III to Boniface VIII had maintained. Instead, he argued that the church was only one element of society and must confine itself solely to spiritual functions. Thus, final authority in spiritual matters must reside not with the pope but with a general church council representing all members.

ConciliarismA movement in fourteenth and fifteenth century Europe that held that final authority in spiritual matters resided with a general church council, not the people; it emerged in response to the Avignon papacy and the Great Schism and was used to justify the summoning of the Council of Constance (1414-1418).

Popular Religion in an Age of AdversityWe should note that pilgrimages, which became extremely popular, and charitable contributions were good works that could be accomplished without the involvement of clerics, a reflection of the loss of faith in the institutional church and its clergy and another noticeable feature of popular religious life. As well, mysticism and lay piety became popular in the fourteenth century. Explain the Significance of each of the following:

Purgatory mysticism pogroms Brothers and sisters of the Common LifePurgatory was defined by the Simply defined, mysticism is Although Jews were These people were a group a Groote’sChurch as the place where the immediate experience of persecuted in Spain, the followers. The Brothers and Sisters ofSouls went after death to be oneness with God. It is this worst organized massacres, the Common Life did not constitute Purged of punishment for sins experience that characterized or pogroms, against this regular religious orders. They were Committed in life. In effect, the teaching of Meister Eckhart. Helpless minority werelaypeople who took no formal monasticSoul was purified in purgatory carried out in Germany; vows but were nevertheless regulated byBefore t ascended into heaven. More than sixty major quasi-monastic rules that they imposed It was believed that like Jewish communities in on their own communities. They attest toIndulgences, prayers and Germany had been the vitality of spiritual life among lay Private Masses for the dead exterminated. Christians in the fourteenth century.

Could shorten the amount oftime spent in purgatory.

Catherine of SienaOne of the most prominent calls for the pope’s return to Rome came from Catherine of Siena (c. 1347-1380), whose saintly demeanor and claims of visions from God led the city of Florence to send her on a mission to Pope Gregory XI (1370-1378) in Avignon.

WHAT IMPACT DID THE ADVERSITIES OF THE 14TH CENTURY HAVE ON CHRISTIAN PRACTICES?The Black Death made an important impact on Christian practices by heightening the preoccupations with death and salvation.

Explain the Significance of each of the following:

Changes in TheologyThe fourteenth century presented challenges not only to the institutional church but also to its theological frame-work, especially evident in the questioning of the grand synthesis by Thomas Aquinas. Some late medieval theologians came to accept the compatibility of rational analysis of the material world with mystical acceptance of spiritual truths.

Meister Eckhart Modern Devotion and Gerard Groote Thomas AquinasThis man sparked a movement in A movement founded by Gerard Groote in In the 13th century, Aquinas’ grand thesis of Western Germany. He was a well- the fourteenth century, which aimed at a faith and reason was not widely acceptedEducated Dominican theologian practical mysticism based on leading lives outside his own Dominican order. At the sameWho wrote learned Latin works on dedicated to serving the needs of fellow time, differences with Aquinas were kept within Theology, but he was also a popular human beings. A framework of commonly accepted scholastic thought. Preacher whose message on theUnion of the soul with God was Typical of mysticism. According toEckhart, such a union was attainableBy all who pursued it wholeheartedly.

William of Occam nominalismThis philosopher posed a severe Occam posited a radical interpretation of this. He asserted that all universals or general

Challenge to the scholastic achievements concepts were simply names and that only individual objects perceived by the senses

Of the High Middle Ages. His emphasis were real. On using reason to analyze the observable Phenomena of the world had an important Impact on the development of physicalScience by creating support for rationalAnd scientific analysis.

HOW AND WHY DID THE AUTHORITY AND PRESTIGE OF THE PAPACY DECLINE IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY?The papacy of the Roman Catholic Church reached the height of its power in the thirteenth century. Theories of papal supremacy included a doctrine of “fullness of power” as the spiritual head of Christendom and claims to universal temporal authority over all secular rulers. But papal claims of temporal supremacy were increasingly out of step with the growing with the growing secular monarchies of Europe and ultimately brought the papacy into a conflict with the territorial states that it was unable to win.

CULTURAL WORLD OF THE 14TH CENTURY – WHAT WERE THE MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS IN ART AND LITERATURE IN THE 14TH CENTURY?The cultural life of the fourteenth century was also characterized by ferment. In literature, several writers used their vernacular languages to produce notable works. In art, the Black Death and other problems of the century left their mark as many artists turned to morbid themes, but the period also produced Giotto, whose paintings expressed a new realism that would be developed further by the artists of the next century.

Vernacular – DEFINITION = The language or dialect spoken by the ordinary people in a particular country or region.

Development of Vernacular Literature - what distinguishes the works of these authors at this period of time?The development of an Italian vernacular language distinguished the works of these authors at this period of time. Dante’s, Petrarch’s, and Boccaccio’s use of the Tuscan dialect common in Florence ensued that it would prevail as the basis of the modern Italian language. WHO ARE THE AUTHORS AND DESCRIBE THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THEIR WORKS:Dante Petrarch Boccaccio Chaucer PizanHe came from an old He was a Florentine who He was a Florentine who He was a leading vernacular

He was an Florentine noble family spent much of his life who also used the Tuscan author, who brought a new

extraordinaryThat had fallen on hard outside his native city. Dialect. He worked for the level of sophistication in his

vernacular writer ofTimes. He had held high His primary contribution Bardi banking house in famous Canterbury Tales.

The age. Her

Political office in to the development of the Naples. His best-known It is a collection of storieshusband died when

Republican Florence. His Italian vernacular was made work, the Decameron, told by a group of twenty-nineshe was only twenty-

Masterpiece, the Divine in his sonnets. His sonnets reflects the immediate pilgrims journeying from the-five. She became a

Comedy, is basically the were inspired by his love easygoing, cynical post- London suburb of Southwark to writer in order toStory of the soul’s for a married lady named -plague values. The tomb Saint Thomas a

make a living. Her Progression to salvation, Laura, whom he had met in Becket at Canterbury. Most famous workA fundamental medieval 1327. was The Book of thePreoccupation. City of Ladies. In

The piece, she Denounces the

manyMale writers who Had argued thatWomen needed

to Be controlled by

men because women

By their nature were

Prone to evil, Unable to learn,

andEasily swayed.

Art and the Black Death – characteristicsMorbid work was influenced by the Black Death and recurrences of the plague. The Florentine artist Giotto (1266-1337) created a new kind of realism, a desire to imitate nature that Renaissance artists later indentified as the basic component of Classical art. Giotto’s figures were solid and rounded; placed realistically in relationship to each other and their background, they conveyed three-dimensional depth. The expressive faces and physically realistic bodies have his sacred figures human qualities with which spectators could identify. Postplague art began to concentrate on pain and death . A fairly large number of artistic works came to be based on the ars moriendi, the art of dying.

WHAT WERE THE MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS IN ART AND LITERATURE IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY?

The cultural life of the fourteenth century was also characterized by ferment. In literature, several writers used their vernacular languages to produce notable works. In art, the Black Death and other problems of the century left their mark as many artists turned to morbid themes, but the period also produced Giotto, whose paintings expressed a new realism that would be developed further by the artists of the next century.

SOCIETY in and Age of Adversity – HOW DID THE ADVERSITIES OF THE 14TH CENTURY AFFECT URBAN LIFE AND MEDICAL PRACTICES?In the midst of disaster, the fourteenth century proved creative in its own way. New inventions made an impact on daily life at the same time that the effects of the plague were felt in many areas of medieval urban life.

CHANGES In Urban life:One immediate by-product of the Black Death was greater regulation of urban activities by town governments. Medieval society had tolerated prostitution as a lesser evil: it was better for males to frequent prostitutes than to seduce virgins or married women. By organizing brothels, city authorities could supervise as well as tax prostitues.

Family Life and Gender Roles in Late Medieval Cities:The basic unit of the late medieval town was the nuclear family of husband, wife, and children. Before the Black Death, late marriages were common for urban couples. The economic difficulties of the fourteenth century also tended to strengthen the development of gender roles. Men were generally active and domineering while women were passive and submissive. Europeans in the fourteenth century benefited in the fourteenth century imposed a division of labor roles between men and women that persisted until the Industrial Revolution.

Childhood changes:Parents in the High and Later Middle Ages invested considerable resources and affection in rearing their children. In the High Middle Ages, then, urban communities demonstrated a commitment to the training of the young. As a result to the devastating effects of the plague and its recurrences, these same communities became concerned about investing in the survival and health of children.

New Directions in Medicine: “the four humors”At the top of the medical hierarchy were the physicians, The preplague medicine of university-trained physicians was Usually clergymen. They received education in universities, theoretically grounded in the Classical Greek theory of the “fourWhere they studied ancient authorities such as Galen and humors,” each connected to a particular organ: blood (from the Hippocrates. These physicians were highly trained in heart), phlegm (from the brain), yellow bile (from the liver), andTheory but had little or no clinical practice. By the black bile (from the spleen). Because the four humors correspondedFourteenth century, they were educated in six chief medical in turn to the four elemental qualities of the universe- air (blood),

Schools- Salerno, Montpellier, Bologna, Oxford, Padua, and water (phlegm), fire (yellow bile), and earth (black bile)- a human Paris (the most prestigious one). Beneath the physicians being was a microcosm of the cosmos. Good health resulted from aIn the hierarchy of the medical profession stood the surgeons, perfect balance of the four humors; sickness meant that the humorsMid-wives, barber-surgeons, and apothecaries. All of these were out of balance.Medical practitioners proved unable to deal with the plague. This failure to understand the Black Death produced a crisisin medieval medicine that resulted in some new approachesto health care. One result was the rise of surgeons to greaterprominence because of their practical knowledge. Finally, as a result of the plague, cities, especially in Italy, gave increased attention to public health and sanitation.

Significance of New Technological advances: Eyeglasses and Paper Gunpowder and CannonsDespite its problems, the fourteenth century Eyeglasses were introduced in the thirteenth Invented earlier by the Chinese, Witnessed a continuation of the technological century but not refined until the fourteenth. Gunpowder also made its appearance inInnovations that had characterized the High The high cost of parchment forced people to the West in the fourteenth century. Its Middle Ages. write in extremely small script; eyeglasses primary purpose was in cannons, although

madeIt more readable. Although it was more early cannons were prone to blow up,

subject to insect and water damage than making them as dangerous to the peopleparchment, medieval paper was actually firing them as to the enemy. Gunpowdersuperior to modern papers made of high-acid made castles, city walls, and armoredwood pulp. Knights obsolete.

The ClockThe mechanical clock was invented at the end of the thirteenth century but not perfected until the fourteenth. The best-designed one was constructed by Giovanni di Dondi in the mid-fourteenth century. Clocks introduced a wholly new conception of time into the lives of Europeans; they revolutionized how people thought about and used time. This brought a new regularity into the lives of workers and merchants, defining urban existence and enabling merchants and bankers to see the value of time in a new way.

HOW DID THE ADVERSITIES OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY AFFECT URBAN LIFE AND MEDICAL PRACTICES?

In the midst of disaster, the fourteenth century proved creative in its own way. New inventions made an impact on daily life at the same time that the effects of the plague were felt in many areas of medieval urban life. The Black Death made it very difficult to find cures to the disease at the time.

TO WHAT EXTENT WERE CLIMATE AND DISEASE KEY FACTORS IN PRODUCING ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CHANGES IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY? Climate and disease are very important key factors in producing economic, social and political changes in the fourteenth century as they could have worsened all of these things. An example is the Black Death as well as lower temperatures or heavy rains.