Cells I can distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. I can differentiate between plant...
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Transcript of Cells I can distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. I can differentiate between plant...
Cells
• I can distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
• I can differentiate between plant and animal cells.
• I can identify the different organelles associated with major cell processes.
Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cells
Cell Membrane
• Outer boundary of cell
• Protects the cell
• Controls what enters and leaves the cell
• HOMEOSTASIS
Cell Wall - PLANTS
• Only found in plant cells
• Adds protection and support
• Made of cellulose.• Allows water and
dissolved substances to pass through.
ANIMAL PLANT
The Nucleus
• Controls most activities in the cell
• Contains all genetic information in the form of DNA.
Cytoplasm
• Clear fluid within cell that contains all organelles
• Moves materials throughout the cell
Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Series of folded membranes that form sacs or tubes
• Rough ER has ribosomes attached
Ribosomes
• Transports materials between the cytoplasm and nucleus
• Makes proteins in the cell• May be free in cytoplasm
or attached to ER• Proteins are vital to life-
all cells must produce them
Golgi Bodies
• Saclike membranes used for storing/ packaging of chemicals
• Cells that make saliva or mucus have many Golgi bodies
• UPS – Sorts, packages, and delivers
Mitochondria
• Energy producers
• Powerhouse of the cell
• Sausage-shaped
• Many mitochondria in muscle cells
Chloroplast – PLANTS only
Vacuoles
• Store food, water, or waste materials
• Plant cells have large vacuoles
Lysosomes
• Found in Golgi bodies
• Contain digestive enzymes to digest unwanted particles
• Help white blood cells to destroy bacteria
Cell Transport
• I can compare and contrast passive transport and active transport.
• I can predict the movement of water and other molecules across selectively permeable membranes. (hypertonic, isotonic, and hypotonic)
Cell Transport
Active or Passive Transport?
• Which requires ATP energy?
• Which goes with the concentration gradient?
• Which goes against the gradient?
Osmosis• Movement of
water• Across a semi-
permeable membrane
• Special case of diffusion
Passive Transport• Diffusion or
Osmosis• Going with the
gradient• No ATP energy
required* * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * *
High Conc. To Low Conc.
High to Low Concentration
Active Transport• Against the
gradient• Requires ATP• Low to High
Concentrations• Salt returning to
blood in kidneys
* * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * *
Hypotonic or Hypertonic Solutions?
• Hypotonic = “under” or low salt outside, relative to cell
• Hypertonic = “over” or high salt relative to cell
Salt waterinside cell
Tap Water
Sea water organism in fresh water……………….
• Hypotonic Solution =• Low salt concentration
outside the cell• High Water
concentration outside• Water moves?• Inside• Cell will swell up like a
HIPPO - Cell Bursts!
Tap Water
Salt Water•Inside Cell•Low Water
H20
Fresh water organismin salt water………….
• Hypertonic Solution
• Water moves?• Out of the cell• Cell shrinks
Fresh water•Inside cell=•High Water
Salt Water•High salt•Low water
H20
Isotonic
• SAME concentration – Water will move in and out at SAME rate
Cheek cells with dye
Checkpoint
• 1. What does the mitochondria do?• Cellular Respiration• 2. What is the function of the ribosomes?• Synthesize Proteins• 3. What is the function of the cell membrane?• Control what goes in and out of cell• 4. What does the Golgi do?• UPS of cell, sorts, packages, and delivers
• 5. If a cell is placed in a Hypotonic solution, which direction does the water move?
• Into cell, swell up like a HIPPO• 6. If a cell is placed in a Hypertonic solution,
what happens to the cell?• Shrinks, water moves out• 7. There are two types of transport, active
and passive. Which of the following is not an example of passive transport? Osmosis, Diffusion, Endocytosis, or facilitated diffusion
• Endocytosis is Active Transport
• 8. In muscle cells, calcium ions are pumped through channels into the ER. These ions move from low to high concentration. This is an example of which of the following: Osmosis, Diffusion, Active Transport, or Exocytosis.
• Active Transport• 9. Protein synthesis takes place on the _______________.• Ribosomes• 10. The golgi does which of the following: makes proteins,
disassembles proteins, packages and redistributes proteins, or gives the codes for making proteins.
• Packages and redistributes
Macromolecules
• I can distinguish among proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.
• I can identify positive tests for carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.
• Refer to Macromolecule CHART
Objectives:
• I can identify how enzymes control chemical reactions in the body.
• I can explain what happens during cell cycle.• I can compare and contrast mitosis and
meiosis.
ENZYME
• Biological Catalyst• Catalyst = speeds up the
rate of chemical reaction by LOWERING activation energy.
• Substrate or Reactants bind to active site.
• Makes reactions happen FASTER
Active SiteActive Site
A restricted regionrestricted region of an enzymeenzyme molecule which bindsbinds to the substratesubstrate.
3535
So How Do So How Do EnzymesEnzymes Work?Work?
Enzymes work by weakening weakening bondsbonds which which lowers lowers activation activation energyenergy
Activation Energy = minimum amount of energy needed for reactants (substrate) to form Products (new substance)
EnzymesEnzymes
FreeEnergy
Progress of the reaction
Reactants
Products
Activation EnergyActivation Energy
Without EnzymeWith Enzyme
Lowers ActivationEnergy
Notice Name of Enzyme
NoticeName ofSubstrate
Name of Enzyme ends with “ASE” and is named according to its job.
Reactants (Substrate)
Enzyme ChemicalReaction
Products
Enzyme
Notice Reactants (Substrate bind to enzyme where chemical reaction occurs faster because the activation energy is lowered (less energy needed than without enzyme).
The enzyme is ready to act again and does NOT become part of the Products.
Active Site
See if you can identify Enzyme, Chemical Reaction, Reactants (Substrate), Products, active site, and induced fit.
Induced Fit
But this only occurs up to the optimum temperature (usually about 98.6 o For 37o C)
The temperature at which the rate of reaction is fastest is known as the optimum temperature
When temperature increases the reaction also increases as the molecules have more kinetic energy
After the optimum temperature, the heat causes the enzyme to denature.
The enzyme changes shape and the active site no longer matches the shape of the substrate molecule
• Enzymes prefer to work at an optimum pH. Outside of its pH range the enzyme is denatured. What pH does amylase work best in? What about pepsin?
RateOf Reaction
pH
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
pepsin amylase
The activity and shape of enzymes is also affected by pH
Optimum pH
Mitosis and Meiosis
• Identify the relationship between cell growth and cell reproduction.
• Describe how meiosis is involved in the production of egg and sperm cells.
• Describe how meiosis and sexual reproduction contribute to genetic variation in a population.
Cell Cycle
• G1 = cell grows• S = DNA replication -• G2= Prepare to divide
• M= Mitosis INTERPHASE
Stages of Mitosis – 2 Diploid IDENTICAL Daughter Cells
• Prophase – Chromosomes APPEAR (condense)• Metaphase – Chromosomes line up in MIDDLE• Anaphase – Chromosomes move AWAY to opposite poles• Telophase – TWO nuclear envelopes
• Cytokinesis – Cells divides into two daughter cells• Cell Plate forms in PLANTS• Cleavage furrow in ANIMALS
Sex Cells (Gametes) from Meiosis1N (four genetically different)
EGG
4646 46464646 4646
DNA Replicates + 46
Meiosis--Sex Cell Formation 4 Haploid Cells Genetically DIFFERENT• In meiosis, there are 2 divisions of the
nucleus: meiosis I & meiosis II• Prophase I: double stranded chromosomes
and spindle fibers appear; nuclear membrane and nucleolus fade
• 3. Metaphase I: chromosome pairs (chromatids) line up– spindle fibers form and attach to centromeres
and centrioles
• 4. Anaphase I: chromotids move AWAY from matching pair
• Telophase I: cytoplasm divides and 2 cells form
• 6. Prophase II: chromatids and spindle fibers reappear
• Metaphase II: chromatids line up in the center of the cell– spindle fibers attach to centromere & centriole
• Anaphase II: centromere divides– chromosomes split and move to opposite poles
• . Telophase II: spindle fibers disappear– nuclear membrane forms around
chromosomes at each end of cell– each nucleus has half the # of chromosomes as
the original (haploid)– now there are 4 sex cells (daughter cells)
Meiosis I
Meiosis II
No DNA replication
Mitosis Meiosis
2N 1N
2 Identical Diploid Daughter Cells
4 Genetically Different Haploid Cell (Crossing Over)
PMAT PMAT x 2
Begins with 2NAsexual
Begins with 2NSexual
Meiosis
• Egg and sperm cells only carry one set of 23• Each human haploid cell is “N”• Egg and sperm combine (fertilization) to form 2N
or 46• All other chromosomes are called autosomes• Each human or animal cell has sex chromosomes
XX or XY
Photosynthesis/Cellular Respiration
• I can compare and contrast photosynthesis and cellular respiration in terms of energy transformation.
• I can differentiate between light dependent and light-independent reactions.
• I can recognize and understand the process of aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
Pho
tosy
nthe
sis
(ove
rvie
w)
“Dark” Reaction
Carbon fixation
Fermentation
What happens when oxygen is not available?Glycolysis goes a different pathway.Fermentation releases energy from food
molecules without oxygen.During fermentation, cells convert NADH to
NAD+ by passing high energy electrons back to pyruvic acid.
This allows glycolysis to produce a steady stream of ATP.
Fermentation – ANAEROBIC
Lactic Acid Fermentation – reason your muscles get sore from build-up of lactic acid.
Pyruvic acid + NADH →lactic acid + NAD+
Alcoholic fermentation has a formula ofPyruvic acid + NADH → alcohol + CO₂ +
NAD+
Compare photosynthesis and cellular respiration
Photosynthesis Cellular Respiration
Function Energy storage Energy release
Location Chloroplast Mitochondria
Reactants CO₂ and H₂O and light
C₆H₁₂O₆ and O₂
Products C₆H₁₂O₆ and O₂ CO₂ and H₂O
Equation 6CO₂+ 6H₂O →C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
6O₂ + C₆H₁₂O₆ →CO₂ + H₂O
Genetics
• I can predict the outcome of a cross between parents of known genotype.
• I can determine the probability of a particular trait in an offspring based on the genotype of the parents and the particular mode of inheritance.
Phenotype & Genotype
• Phenotype - the way an organism looks - Physical
• red hair or brown hair
• genotype - the gene combination of an organism
• AA or Aa or aa
Word Wall
Homozygous
Heterozygous
Genotype
Phenotype
Gene
Allele
Gamete
Hybrid
True-breeding
Sex Cells – Egg and Sperm
TT or tt
Physical TraitTall
Tt
Form of gene (T or t)
2 Alleles (one from each parent that code for trait)
The actual genetic make-upTT:Tt:tt
Big Eyes are dominant = BB or BbSmall eyes = bb
Punnett square example
Alleles for Female
Alleles for male
Both parents are heterozygousYy x Yy
PossibleGenotypes of Offspring1 YY:2 Yy: 1 yyPhenotype –3:1
Genotype = Phenotype = Probability =
R R
r
r4 Rr (heterozygous)4 round100% round
RR or Rr= roundrr = wrinkled
Rr Rr
Rr Rr
Cross a homozygous Round with wrinkled
Parents are RR which is same (homozygous) alleles for dominant and rr which are same for recessive trait
In a Punnett square, theAlleles always move to squares as shown.
The actual alleles
Physical description of trait
Genotype = Phenotype = Probability =
R r
R
r1 RR:2Rr:1rr3 Round, 1 wrinkled75% round, 25% wrinkled
RR or Rr= roundrr = wrinkled
RR Rr
Rr rr
Cross a hybrid with a hybrid
Parents are Rr which is heterozygousCLASSIC – Mendel Hybrid CrossDominant – 75%Recessive – 25%
In a Punnett square, theAlleles always move to squares as shown.
The actual alleles
Physical description of trait
*Determine recessive trait by small number showing the trait
Independent Assortment
• Alleles separate independently during the formation of gametes.
The dihybrid crossEeTt x EeTt
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Cross: TtYy x TtYy
TY
TY
Ty
Ty
tY
tY
ty
ty
Tall, yellow Tall, yellow
9 tallplants with
yellow seeds
3 tallplants withgreen seeds
3 dwarfplants with
yellow seeds
1 dwarfplant with
green seeds
Tall, yellow Tall, yellow
Tall, yellow Tall, green Tall, yellow Tall, green
Tall, yellow Tall, yellow Dwarf, yellow Dwarf, yellow
Tall, yellow Tall, green Dwarf, yellow Dwarf, green
TTYY TTYy TtYY TtYy
TTYy TTyy TtYy Ttyy
TtYY TtYy ttYY ttYy
TtYy Ttyy ttYy ttyy
Genotypes:
Phenotypes:
1 TTYY : 2 TTYy : 4 TyYy : 2 TtYY : 1 TTyy : 2 Ttyy : 1 ttYY : 2 : 1 ttyyttYy
Mendel’s Peas Dihybrid Cross
Notice Phenotype Ratio9:3:3:1
Incomplete DominanceJapanese four-o-clock flowers
• Red flower plant genotype = RR• White flower plant genotype = WW• Pink flower plant genotype = RWAppear blended. Incomplete, not Full
Strength.
Genotype = Phenotype = Probability =
R R
W
W4 RW4 Pink100% Pink
RR = RedWW = whiteRW = Pink
RW RW
RW RW
Cross a Red flower with a White Flower
Parents are RR for red and WW for white. Both are homozygous or true breeding.
In a Punnett square, theAlleles always move to squares as shown.
The actual alleles
Physical description of trait
Co Dominance
Roan Cow
FULL Strength
RR x WW = RW orRR X R’R’ = RR’
NOTE: Alleles can be represented different ways. RR for Red, WW for White,RW for Roan or RR for Red, R’R’ for white, and RR’ for Roan. Let’s look at a Punnett Square with both examples.
Genotype = Phenotype = Probability =
R W
W
W2 RW, 2 WW2 Roan, 2 White50% Roan, 50% White
RR = Red cowWW = white cowRW = Roan Cow
RW WW
RW WW
Cross a Roan cow with white cow. Co-Dominance
Parents are RW for Roan which is heterozygous WW which is homozygous for White
In a Punnett square, theAlleles always move to squares as shown.
The actual alleles
Physical description of trait
Genotype = Phenotype = Probability =
R R’
R’
R’2 RR’, 2 R’R’2 Roan, 2 White50% Roan, 50% White
RR = Red cowR’R’ = white cowRR’ = Roan Cow
RR’ R’R’
RR’ R’R’
Cross a Roan cow with white cow. Co-Dominance
Parents are RW for Roan which is heterozygous WW which is homozygous for White
In a Punnett square, theAlleles always move to squares as shown.
The actual alleles
Physical description of trait
Multiple Alleles
• When more than two alleles (form of gene) contribute to the phenotype.
• Human blood types are an example• There are three possible alleles: A,B, and O• Both A and B are dominant over O.• O is recessive • AB is an example of Co-Dominance
6 different genotypes, 3 different Alleles
• IAIA
• IAi• IAIB
• IBIB
• Ibi• i i Type OType O
Type ABType AB
Type A - 2 possible genotypes
Type B – 2 possible genotypes
Genotype = Phenotype = Probability =
IA i
IB
IB
IAIB, IBi2 AB, 2 B50% AB, 50% B
A = IAIA, IAiB= IBIB, IBiAB =IAIB O = ii
IAIB IBi
IAIB IBi
Cross a heterozygous type A with homozygous type B
Punnett square theAlleles always move to squares as shown.
The actual alleles
Physical description of trait
Polygenic traits• Traits controlled by two or more
genes.• Lots of variation in trait.• Examples:
–Human height,eye and skin color
Figure 11.17
Skin Color
Autosomal and Sex-Linked Traits
• Autosomal - Traits controlled by genes on chromosomes 1 -22.
• Sex-Linked – Traits controlled by the X chromosome or the Y chromosome.
• Most often sex-linked traits are on the X chromosome.
• Let’s look at some of examples and work together.
Genotype = Phenotype =
Probability =
Xn Y
XN
XnXNXn,XnXn,XNY,XnY2 Females, 1 Normal, 1 Color-blind2 Males, 1 Normal, 1 Color-blind50% Colorblind
Female = XXMale = XYNormal = N, color-blind = n
XNXn XNY
XnXn XnY
Cross a heterozygous female with a colorblind male
The actual alleles
Physical description of trait
Work like any other Punnett Square. Remember no letter on the Y.The trait is connected to the X!
Test Your Knowledge of Punnett Square
• http://www.biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio105/geneprob.htm
Punnett Squares Monohybrid & Dihybrid Crosses
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Cross: TtYy x TtYy
TY
TY
Ty
Ty
tY
tY
ty
ty
Tall, yellow Tall, yellow
9 tallplants with
yellow seeds
3 tallplants withgreen seeds
3 dwarfplants with
yellow seeds
1 dwarfplant with
green seeds
Tall, yellow Tall, yellow
Tall, yellow Tall, green Tall, yellow Tall, green
Tall, yellow Tall, yellow Dwarf, yellow Dwarf, yellow
Tall, yellow Tall, green Dwarf, yellow Dwarf, green
TTYY TTYy TtYY TtYy
TTYy TTyy TtYy Ttyy
TtYY TtYy ttYY ttYy
TtYy Ttyy ttYy ttyy
Genotypes:
Phenotypes:
1 TTYY : 2 TTYy : 4 TyYy : 2 TtYY : 1 TTyy : 2 Ttyy : 1 ttYY : 2 : 1 ttyyttYy
Punnett Squares
• Practice crossing different genotypes.• Notice patterns• True breeding and true breeding• TT x tt• All Tt 4:0 - phenotype• Hybrid x Hybrid = Tt x Tt• 3:1 – phenotype
Scientific Inquiry
• I can read graphs and charts• I can determine appropriate tools and
recognize that the electron microscope is used to examine details.
What MUST occur during cell cycle to ensure proper division of
chromosomes?
DNA must replicate
Type of consumer a mushroom is.
decomposer and heterotroph
Centrioles are found in (plant or animal cells) and are used for cell division
animal cells
Two molecules that store energy for longer than an hour.
Carbohydrate and lipid
What type of transport is exocytosis and what does it do?
active transport and it moves ions from inside to OUTSIDE
Powerhouse of the cell and location of aerobic respiration
mitochondria
Amino acids are building blocks of what macromolecule
proteins
Prokaryotic cells lack these
nucleus and organelles
In muscle cells, calcium ions are pumped through channels from
LOW to HIGH concentration using what?
active transport
Protein synthesis occurs on these.
ribosomes
What the Golgi apparatus does.
package and redistribute proteins?
Benedicts solution turns orange-brown in presence of what
macromolecule?
carbohydrate or glucose or sugar
A cell placed in salt water will gain or lose water causing it to swell or
shrink?
lose water and shrink because it is in a Hypertonic solution?
Hypo = Hippo – swells, move inIso = equal = moves in and out at
same rate
Cell structure found only in plants and location of photosynthesis
chloroplast
Role of enyzme in chemical reaction.
lower activation energy thus increasing rate of chemical reactions
Name three types of passive transport.
Diffusion (high to low concentration), osmosis (diffusion of water, and
facilitated diffusion (using protein channel or carrier.
Proper order of mitosis.
Pro, Meta, Ana, Telophase
Forms between plant and animal cells between telophase and
cytokinesis.
cell plate for plants and cleavage furrow for animals
Step that follows Krebs cycle in aerobic respiration?
ETC or Electron Transport Chain the ETC produces the MOST ATP inside
of mitochondria where aerobic respiration takes place.
Type of respiration when oxygen is absent or LOW
What is anaerobic respiration?
Form of chemical energy used in cellular respiration
glucose
Cell that undergoes meiosis and starts with 46 chromosomes will end with 4 cells with _______. While cell
that undergoes mitosis with 46 chromosomes will end up with 2
cells with _______
23 or half for meiosis and 46 which is identical for mitosis
Energy transfer molecule of cell.
ATP
Pathways for anaerobic respiration.
• Glycolysis, Lactic Acid fermentation, Alcoholic fermentation
Stage of mitosis where chromatin condenses into chromosomes,
therefore becoming visible.
Prophase
Macromolecule that has Nitrogen as well as Carbon,
Hydrogen, and Oxygen
protein
Heterozygous Genotype
• Tt• Heterozygous means DIFFERENT• Homozygous – TT or tt means same alleles for
genotype
Chemical equation for Photosynthesis
• 6 CO2 + 6 H2O with sunlight yields C6H12O6 + 6O2