Bythesameauthor

WarGamesTackleModelSoldiersThisWayNavalWarGamesAirWarGamesAllForAShillingADay

FirstpublishedinGreatBritainin1968byClarksonN.Potter,Inc.Reprintedin2003byPen&SwordMilitaryClassics

ThiseditionfirstpublishedinGreatBritainbyPen&SwordMilitaryanimprintofPen&SwordBooksLtd47ChurchStreet

BarnsleySouthYorkshireS702ASCopyright©DonaldF.Featherstone1967,2003,20119781844685998

TherightofDonaldF.FeatherstonetobeidentifiedasAuthorofthisWorkhasbeenassertedbyhimin

accordancewiththeCopyright,DesignsandPatentsAct1988.

ACIPcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary.

Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthisbookmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicor

mechanicalincludingphotocopying,recordingorbyanyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,withoutpermissionfromthePublisherinwriting.

Typesetin11.5ptEhrhardtbyMacStyle,Beverley,E.Yorkshire

PrintedandboundintheUK

byCPI

Pen&SwordBooksLtdincorporatestheImprintsofPen&SwordAviation,Pen&SwordFamilyHistory,Pen&SwordMaritime,Pen&SwordMilitary,Pen&SwordDiscovery,WharncliffeLocalHistory,WharncliffeTrueCrime,WharncliffeTransport,Pen&

SwordSelect,Pen&SwordMilitaryClassics,LeoCooper,ThePraetorianPress,RememberWhen,SeaforthPublishingandFrontlinePublishing.

ForacompletelistofPen&SwordtitlespleasecontactPEN&SWORDBOOKSLIMITED47ChurchStreet,Barnsley,

SouthYorkshire,S702AS,EnglandE-mail:enquiries@pen-and-sword.co.ukWebsite:www.pen-and-sword.co.uk

TableofContentsAlsobyTitlePageCopyrightPageIllustrationsAuthor’sIntroductionProloguePartI-TheBirthoftheBow

Chapter1-TheEarliestDaysChapter2-TheWelshWars–LateThirteenthCenturyChapter3-TheArmiesoftheEnglishandtheFrenchChapter4-TheirWayofFightingChapter5-TheEnglishArcherChapter6-HisLongbow

PartII-TheTacticsareForgedChapter7-FalkirksetsthePattern–1298Chapter8-Bannockburn–1314Chapter9-HalidonHill–1333Chapter10-TheArcheratSea:Sluys–1340Chapter11-Morlaix–1342

PartIII-TheYearsofVictory

Chapter12-Crécy–1346Chapter13-Neville’sCross–1346Chapter14-Mauron–1352Chapter15-Poitiers–1356Chapter16-HomildonHill–1402Chapter7-Agincourt–1415Chapter18-Verneuil–1424;andRouvray–

1428PartIV-TheTideBeginstoTurnChapter19-Patay–1429;andFormigny–1450

PartV-TheLastVictoriesChapter20-TheWarsoftheRoses–1461Chapter21-FloddenField–1513Chapter22-TheEndoftheRoad

EpilogueBibliographyIndex

IllustrationsSiegeofMortagne.FromChroniqued’AngleterrebyJeanWavrin

EdwardIII.Electrotypefromthegiltcoppertombeffigy

EffigyoftheBlackPrince,ChapelofSt.ThomasBecket,Canterbury

Cathedral

RichardBeauchamp,EarlofWarwick.FromhismonumentinSt.Mary’sChurch,Warwick

JohnLordMontacute.FromhismonumentinSalisburyCathedral

RalphNeville,EarlofWestmorland.FromhismonumentinStaindrop

Church,Durham

HenryV.Artistunknown

TiltinghelmetbytraditionwornbyHenryVatAgincourt,flankedbyhissaddleandshield.FromtheChantryChapel,WestminsterAbbey

Abascinetshownwithandwithoutitsvisor

ThisGothicarmourshowsa‘barded’horse

YewbowfoundduringtheexcavationsatBerkhamsted

CaptainJackChurchillshootsforGreatBritainintheWorldArcheryChampionships,August1939

SirLaurenceOlivier’s

conceptoftheEnglisharchersatAgincourt.FromHenryV

Author’sIntroductionAtsometimeintheirhistorynearlyeveryraceonearthhasusedthebowandarrow,butnowheredidtheyreachthepitchofskillandperfectionasinEnglandduringthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies.Inthatperiodthe

EnglishbowmandominatedthewarsofEuropeasnocomparableforcehaseverdonesince.

ItwasatimewhenEnglandwasayoungnation,feelingherfeetandstillalittleunsteady.ThetriplevictoriesofCrécy,PoitiersandAgincourtstokedupthefiresofnationalconsciousnesstoforgeapridethathasneverleftthese

shores.Directedbybrilliant,braveandfar-seeingcaptains,theEnglisharmydidnotloseamajorbattlebetweenMorlaixin1342andPatayin1429.Thebestprofessionalfightingmanofhisday,theEnglishyeoman,andhislongbowwerethemostsignificantsinglefactorthatchangedalltheoldtraditionsandconceptsofmediaevalfightingandwarfare.

TheEnglisharcherwasnotapeasanttobelordedoverbythehigherbornandarrogantoftheland;hewasafreeman,arespectedyeomanpossessingaproudanddignifiedstatus.Heexchangedhisexceptionalskillandtalentswiththesix-footyewstaveforspecifiedpayandtermsofmilitaryservice.Thathewasapowerful,muscularmanisobvious–onlythebiggest

andthestrongestofmencouldpullahundredpoundsanddrawafullclothyardshafttotheirear.Hisbackgroundencouragedhimtoshowinitiativeandresource,sothat,whentheoccasiondemanded,hewoulddrophisbowandnimblylaytowithsword,axeandthemurderousfive-footmauleormallet.

Thesuccessorsofthe

EnglisharcherfoughtwithMarlboroughatBlenheim,WolfeatQuebec,CliveatPlasseyandwithWellingtoninthePeninsula.TheirbonesalsosaltedtheSudanesesandsandwhitenedontheruggedhillsofIndia’snorth-westfrontier;theyamazedtheGermansatMonswiththeirrapidrifle-fireandbuiltupareputationfordoggedtenacityamidstadversityintwoworldwars.Inthe

beginningthelongbowbroughtthefirstimmortalfametothecommonsoldierwhomightotherwisehavehardlyratedamentioninthehistorybooks.

Whetherthelongbowreallyalteredthecourseofhistoryisdebatable,norcanitbeclaimedthattheEnglisharchercontributedtowardsthefoundationoftheBritishEmpire.Butitcannotbe

deniedthathisskillandcouragemaywellhavediscouragedother,morepowerful,nationsfromattemptingtoaddEnglandtotheirempires.

InwritingofCrécy,PoitiersandAgincourtoneiswritingoftheHundredYearsWar,ofEdward,theBlackPrince,andHenryV,but,morethanthat,onemustwritethehistoryofthe

Englisharcher,becausewithouthim,andthetacticsbuiltaroundhim,noneofthevictoriesinFranceduringthatmediaevalperiodwouldhavebeenpossible.

Itmightwellbeclaimedthathistorianshaveengagedinnumerousandfiercecontroversiesoverbattlesites,numbersengagedandcasualties,andthatthesepointsofdisagreementare

notreflectedinthepagesofthisbook.Tothispointitispossibletogiveanumberofvalidreasons.Inthefirstplaceitisintendedthatthisshouldbethestoryofamanandhisweapon–everythingelseisabackgroundtothatpersonalisedaccount.Secondly,aconsiderablenumberofsourcesandauthoritieswereconsultedandstudiedduringthepreparationofthis

manuscript;manydifferedbutnoneappearedtotheauthortoimproveuponorsupplanttheexcellentreasoningofthelateLieutenant-ColonelA.H.BurneinhisbooksontheCrécyandAgincourtwars.Therefore,muchthatiswrittenandstatedasfactinthisbookissorecordedbecausetheauthorisconvincedthatithappenedinthatway–inthemanner

describedbyColonelBurneandwhichrequiresnoargumentordiscussion.

FurtherinspirationwasgainedfromA.ConanDoyle’sbookTheWhiteCompany–thismostfascinatingandenjoyablereadingprovidedtheinitialimpetustoputwordsonpaperinpraiseofthattrulyEnglishcharacterandhisweapon–thebowman.Iam

gratefultoJohnMurray(Publishers)Ltd.ofLondonfortheirunhesitatingpermissiontoquotefromthiswonderfulbook.

ThisisperhapsthesixthbookthatIhavewrittenwiththeinvaluableaidofSouthamptonPublicLibrary.VolumeslongsinceoutofprinthavebeensoughtandborrowedfromotherlibrariesbyBobCorlettandBill

Graham,towhomIoweagreatdeal.

DonaldFeatherstoneSouthampton

PrologueItwasagoodpositiontohold.Fromthetopofthesmallhillthearchersgazedaroundthem,notingwithprofessionaleyesitsdefensivemerits–theylikedthelongandgradualslopethatdroppedawayintheirfront,remarkedthatits

tangledundergrowthandstonysurfacewouldhandicapthehorses.Thepatchesofsoggymarshlandoneitherflankformedacomfortingguardandtherewasaniceconvenientwoodrightbehindthemtoholdthebaggage-train.Yes,ithadbeenwellchosen.

Amidthebustleandpreparationthatensuedonallsides,thebowmenappeared

calmandconfidentastheymethodicallynew-strungtheirbowsandmadesurethattheywerefirmatthenocks.Fromhissteelskull-capeacharcherremovedacarefullycoiledbowstring,unrollingitgentlysoasnottotwistitmoreorlessthanthenaturaltwistalreadyinit.Thebowendwasplacedagainsttheinsideoftheleftfoottopreventitdiggingintotheground,thehandlegraspedwiththeleft

handsothatthebowslopedawaytotheright,withthebackuppermost.Thenthetoploopofthestringwasslippedovertheupperendofthebowandallowedtodropafewinchesdownthestave;thelowerloopputsafelyhomeinthebottomnockonthebow.Againstthebackofthebow,afewinchesfromthetop,eachbowmanplacedthepalmofahornyhand,withthefirstfingerandthumbon

eithersideofthestringabouthalfwaydowntheloop,takingcarethatnofingergotroundtheundersideoftheboworbetweenthestringandbow.Next,hepulledonthehandlewithhislefthandandpushedatthetopwiththeright,slidingtherighthandandtheloopofthestringupwardsuntiltheloopslippedintothenock.Withastudiedandpractisednonchalanceherelaxed

gradually,justincasethebottomloophadslippedoutofplace.

Bowsreadyforaction,thepeeledsix-footpoles,roughlysharpenedateachend,werepickedfromthegroundwheretheyhadbeendroppedbyeachmanwhentheyhalted.Usingdaggers,holeswereduginfrontofthem,andoneendofthepoledroppedintothesmallpit.

Mauleswerethenusedtohammerhomethestakes,thepointedendsbeingre-sharpenedwhenthepoleswerefirm.Inashorttimetherewasabarrierofthreateningstakespointingobliquelyupwards,inasolidfencethatundulatedwiththeriseandfallofgroundacrossthefrontoftheposition.

Whilstthearchersworked,theirofficersandfile-leaders

movedamongthem,givinganinstructionhere,awordofadvicethere.Theseniorofthemasterbowmenraisedhisvoicesothatthosearoundhimcouldhear:

‘Nowlisten,melads!Makesureyou’vegotallyouneed…abraceronyourlefthand,ashootinggloveonyourright…haveyourwaxhandytoo.Remember,bendyourbowwell…nockyour

staveproperlyandlockyourstringwell!’

‘MyolddadtoldmethemthingsaforeIwasknee-hightohim!’

Aroaroflaughtergreetedthesally,growledoutbyatannedandgrizzledveteran,lookingupfromcheckingstring-heightbyhisown‘fist-mele’.Themasterbowmangloweredathim;turning

awayhemuttered:

‘I’llrememberyou…ifwegetoutofthisalive!’Oneoftheolderbowmencalledafterhim:‘Don’tpayhimnoheed,MasterRobin!He’sagoodladatheart!Rememberhiman’hismatesatCrécy?LittleHalWatridge,andPerkinofWinchester…an’WatPurkisswhobroughtdownthebigplumedlord?Godinheaven…theywere

menwewon’tseethelikeofnomore!Idaresaytheycouldbeatanywegothereatlongbuttsorshort,hoyles,roundsorrovers!’

Atrumpetshrilledloudandclearabovetheclamour.Stillbucklingarmourandtestingweapons,thesoldiersflowedintofamiliarformations,tostandatease.Thearchersfellintofourlineswithunder-officersandfile-leadersin

frontandontheflanks;inarippleofmovementthatrandowntheirrankstheyremovedtheskull-capsandbowedtheirheads.Allmenstoodsilent,alonewiththeirthoughts,astheirleadersharshlymutteredaprayer;theninarustlingmonotoneallrepeatedthePater,theAveandtheCredo.Themen-at-arms,intheirdull,leaden-huedarmour,theruddyvisages,craggyfeaturesand

hardbeardedfacesjoinedtogetherinasuddenhush;someofthemendrewamuletsandrelicsfromtheirtunics,tobekissedandcarefullyreplaced.Thelast‘Amen’,deepandresonant,hadbarelyrolledthroughthestillairwhenthereverentsilencewasbrokenbythedistantsquealoftrumpets,thedeeprollingofdrums,backedbythedullmonotoneoffootstepsandmanythousands

ofvoices.

Alleyesturnedtowardsthecrestoftheridge,three-quartersofamiledistantacrossthevalley,thatlayatthefootoftheirownhill;itwasnowtoppedwithcountlesslancepennons,glitteringsteelpoints,colourfulsurcoatsandwavingplumes.

‘It’sthem…’eretheyare,

lads!’

‘Jistgot‘ereintime,din’we?’

Theystoodinsilence,watchingtheenemymassintheirthousands,sawtheirformationsrippleandshudderastheimpatientknightstriedtofighttheirwaytothefront,jealousofanyotherswhomighttakefromthemthehonourofopeningthebattle.

Inspiteoftheconfidencethattheyfelt,manyoftheEnglisharchersandmen-at-armswereunabletopreventtheireyesfromtravellingquicklyovertheirownsmallforceandcomparingitwiththatoftheenemy–atleastfourtimesasnumerous.Bynowtheywerecloseenoughtobeindividuallydistinguished,butstilljustoutofbowshot.Inresponsetomurmuredorders,shortarrowswere

nockedtoperhapsathousandbowstrings,tobeloosedtofallfarshortoftheopposingarmyinanefforttoencourageittocomecloser.Thechallengewasacceptedandnowthebattlewasabouttobegininearnest.

‘Thinkthey’rewithinrange?’

‘Dunno…it’sneartwentyscorepaces.Still,weoughter

beabletonotchamarkatthatdistance.Comeon,Perkin,WatkinofFarehamandBigJohn…let’sshow‘emthey’vegotEnglishbowmentodealwith!’

‘I’lltakethelordwiththewhite-and-redplume.’

‘An’Ihimwiththegoldheadpiece!’

Fromhisstockoftwo

dozenbodkin-pointedarrowsplantedinthegroundbeforehim,eacharcherdrewone,nockedit,benthisbow,and,ontheorder:‘Loose!’,letitflywiththousandsofothersup,upintotheairabovetheapproachingenemy.Itclimbedswiftlywithasoul-shrivellinghowlandwhip,likeagaleinthetopsoftalltrees.Astheenemyfearfullygazedupwardstowatchthem,theshaftsturned,to

becomeaswarmofblackspecksagainstthesky,plummetingdowntowardsthem.Then,togetherwithahundredothers,theknightswearingthered-and-whiteplumeandthegoldheadpiececrashedtothegroundinaclanking,tumblingheapofhorsesandmen.

‘Higher,Wat,higher!’

Tutthybodyintoit,Will!’

‘Forgetnotthewind,Arnold!’

Onallsidesroseamutteredchorusofadvice:shrewdprofessionalcommentsontheircraftofskilfullyusingastaveofwoodandastringsuchastheyhadneverbeenusedbefore.Aboveallcouldbeheardthesharptwangingofthestrings,thehissandhowloftheshafts,mingledwith

ordersandadvicefromtheofficersandthemasterbowman:

‘Drawyourarrow!’

‘Nickyourarrow!’

‘Shootwhollytogether!’

Noneoftheenemycavalrygotclosertothemthanfiftyyards;mostremainedintheircrumpledheapsonthe

muddy,bloodstainedandscuffledslopeofthehill.Thearchersceasedfiringandrestedontheirbows,exultantlytalkingamongthemselves.

‘I’vegotthirteenarrowsleft...an’I’llsinkeveryoneof’eminFrenchfleshormynameain’twhatitis!’

‘Dickon,didyeseetheblack-armouredlord?Itook

bothhimandhishorsewithbutoneshaft!’

Theenemygrouped,massedintoanevenlargerformationthanthefirst;thetrumpetssounded,thehorseswerespurredintoatrotandthencumbrouslytheylurchedupwardstowardstheEnglishpositiononceagain.Thebowmenwereready,feetfirmlyplanted,sleevesrolledbacktogivefreeplaytotheir

arms,longyellowbow-stavesheldoutinfrontofthem,theywaitedinthefour-deepharrowformationwhichgavestrengthtotheirarrayandpermittedeverymantodrawhisarrowfreelywithoutharmtothemeninfrontofhim.Someofthebowmenthrewlighttuftsofgrassintotheairtogaugethewindforce;hoarsewhispersrandowntheranksfromthefile-leaders:

‘Holdyourarrows!Don’tlooseoutsidefifteenscorepaces!We’llneedallourshaftsbeforewe’vebeatenthislot!’

‘Don’tundershoot,lads!Bettertohitamanintheirrearthanhaveyourshaftfeatherintheearth!’

‘Loosequickandsharpwhentheygetnear.’

Themasterbowman,passingbehind,heardthislastremark;hequicklyanswered:

‘Keepyoureyetothestringandthestringtotheshaftanditwillfinditsmark!’

Theglitteringenemysquadronstossedandheaved,theysurgedforward,trotting,nowcantering,thengalloping–thewholevastarraywas

hurtlingforward,lineafterline,theairfullofthethunderoftheirhoovesandthegroundshaking.Thevalleywaschokedwiththerushingtorrentofsteel,toppedbywavingplumes,slantinglancesandflutteringpennons.Ontheysweptoverthelevelandthenuptheslope,tobemetwithablindingdriftofEnglisharrowsthatbroughtdownwholeranksinawhirlofmadconfusion;horses

plungingandkicking,bewilderedandstunnedmenrisingorwallowinglikeupturnedturtlesintheirheavyarmour.Butnewlinesforcedtheirwaythroughthefallen,crushingandridingdownwoundedmenandhorses;spurringthroughthegapsinthemoundsofdead,newlinesofhorsemenurgedthemselvesuptheslope.

Onallsidescouldbeheard

theshrill,stern,shortordersofthemasterbowmenandfile-leaders;theairwasfilledwiththekeentwangingoftheirbowstringsandtheswish,howlandpatteroftheirshafts.

‘Rightbetweentheeyes,byheavens!ButImeantitforhisthroat!’

‘Now…who’snext?Ah,thelordwiththeleopardon

hissurcoat!’

‘That’sit!Totheinch!’

‘Goodshotforyou,Arnold!’

‘Thank’ee.WhenmyeyeisinI’mbetteratroversthanatlongbuttsorhoyles!’

‘Loosegently!Loosegently,lads!Don’tpluckwiththedrawinghand!’Tisatrick

thathasmarredmanyagoodbowman!’

Acrossthefootoftheirhillawallofstrugglingmenandhorseshadbuiltup,whichgrewhigherasfreshmenandhorsesaddedtoit.Ledbyabigknightonagreydestrier,abodyoftheenemypushedresolutelyonwarduntiltheyreachedtheEnglishline.Astheyforcedtheirwaythroughthepointedstakes,their

leaderfellwithinaspear-lengthoftheEnglishposition,thefeathersofarrowsthrustingoutfromeverycreviceandjointofhisarmour.

Thebattlewasnowafierce,tumblinghand-to-handconflictthatsurgedandflowedinandaroundthenowbeaten-downstakesinfrontoftheEnglishposition.Theirarrowsgone,thearchersdrew

swords,clutchedaxesorfearsomefive-footmaulesandnimblyrantotheoutskirtsoftheclanging,roaring,desperatemêlée.Lightlycreepingunderhorses’bellies,dancingaroundponderous,heavilyarmouredmen-at-arms,theyslashed,stabbed,clubbedandheweduntiltheywereasbloodyasthered-mottledheapamidstwhichtheyfought.Slowly,

remorselessly,theenemywereforcedbackdownthehill;theyfoughtfiercely,buthereandtherewoundedandfaint-heartedmenlurchedfromthetangledmobandmadetheirstrugglingwaydownthehill,tobechasedandfallenuponbythefast-movingarcherslikedogsonarabbit.Oncedown,theheavilyarmouredmenwerehelplessandeasypreytothejudiciouslyinsertedlong

knifethroughacreviceorjointintheirarmour.Theenemywavered,trembled,andthenturnedandfledonallsides.

‘Theyrun!’

’Tisatrick!’

‘Nay,youfool!They’rebeaten…we’vewon!’

‘ThankGod.’

‘HoorayforEngland,EdwardandSt.George!’

PartITheBirthoftheBow

Chapter1

TheEarliestDaysTheshootingofarrowswithabowisundoubtedlyoneoftheoldestoftheartsstillpractisedtoday.Forthousandsofyearsthesimple

bowhelditsownasalong-distanceweapon;itwasthemostwidelyusedandgenerallydispersedofallweapons,spreadingfromnationswhosehistoryisstillboundinthepastallovertheworld.Man’sconstantcompanionfromtheearliestdaysuntilthesixteenthcentury,itwasprobablyhisfirstinventionofadeviceinwhichenergycanbeaccumulatedslowly,stored

temporarilyandreleasedsuddenlywithcontrolanddirection,leadingtogreataccuracyofprojectionovertwoorthreehundredyards.Claimedtorankinimportanceasaculturaladvancewiththedevelopmentofspeechandthediscoveryoftheartofmakingfire,thebowandarrowgoesbackatleast30,000years.

Itisnothardtoimaginetheemancipationbroughtaboutbythebowandarrow.Manhadlivedforthousandsofyearsinperilofhislifeandlivelihood,havingtokillhisfoodandhisenemieswithhisbarehands,or,atbest,withcrudeextensionstohishandssuchasstonehammersandaxes.Tolivehehadtobeafastmover,getincloseandstrikequicklywithlittletimetoensurethathisblowfellin

alethalplaceonhisquickandactivequarry.Withthecomingofthebowhehadleisuretoaimcarefullyatasafedistancefromhistarget;hispowertokilldependednolongeronhisphysicalstrengthalone;hewastheequalofhisfellows,nomatterhowbigandstrongtheymightbe.

Althoughnearlyeveryraceonearthusedthebowat

sometime,nowheredidtheartandskillofarcheryreachsuchapitchofdevelopmentasintheEnglishlongbowmanofthethirteenth,fourteenthandearlyfifteenthcenturies.DuringthoseyearspackedranksofEnglisharchersdominatedthewarsofEuropeasnocomparableforcehaseverdonesince.ThemeresightofthemwasenoughtostrikethefearofGodintoan

enemywho,ifhedidnotretreatorkeephisdistance,wasalmostcertainlyslaughtered.Somehowtheenemyneverlearnedthis.French,IrishandScots–eachofthemlostthousandsoftheiryouthandnobilitytothelaconicEnglishbowman.ButtheEnglishlongbow,whenitplayedhavocwiththeScots,wasnonewweapon,norwasitsoriginEnglish.Bowshadbeenknownfromprehistoric

timesandwereusedattheBattleofHastingsandintheCrusades,butthesewerenottruelongbowsunlesstheyweredrawntotheearandnotmerelytothebreast.InEngland,asallovertheContinent,the‘short’bowwasheldinlittleesteem,notevenbeingmentionedinHenryIIsAssizeofArmsin1181.

Itisimpossibletotracethe

actualoriginofthelongbow,butthereisgoodevidencethatitwasinuseinSouthWalesduringthesecondhalfofthetwelfthcentury.GiraldusCambrensisspeaksrepeatedlyofthemenofGwentandMorganwgasexcellingallothersinthepracticeofarchery;hegivesevidencetoooftheeffectsoftheirshooting.AtthesiegeofAbergavennyin1182theWelsharrowspenetratedan

oakdoorsaidtobeatleastfourinchesthick.TheywereallowedtoremainthereasacuriosityandGeraldhimselfsawthemsixyearslater,in1188,whenhepassedthecastle,theirironpointsjustshowingontheinnersideofthedoor.DuringthesameperiodaknightofWilliamdeBraosewashitbyonewhichwentthroughtheskirtofhishauberk,hismailhose,histhighandthroughtheleather

andwoodofhissaddleandintohishorse;whenheswervedroundanotherarrowpinnedhiminthesamewaybytheotherleg!

‘Whatmorecouldaboltfromabalistahavedone?’askedGerald.DescribingthebowsofGwent,hesays:‘Theyaremadeneitherofhorn,ashnoryewbutofelm;ugly,unfinished-lookingweapons,butastonishingly

stiff,largeandstrong,andequallycapableofuseforlongorshortshooting.’

Thesewerethebows,inthehandsoftheSouthWelshbowmen,whichwereusedintheNormaninvasionofIrelandin1171.TheNormanshadlearnedofthepoweroftheWelshshaftsanddreadedthem;WilliamdeBrensa,havingconvenedameetingoftheprincipalchiefsofSouth

WalesatAbergavennyCastlesomeyearspreviously,madethempurchasetheirlibertybyswearingtheywouldnotinfutureallowanyoftheirfollowerstotravelarmedwiththebow.‘Nequisgladiumferretvistorvelarcum.’In1120HenryIIundertookanexpeditionintoWales,beingopposedbyMeredithapBlethyn.NeartheconfinesofPowyssomeyoungWelsharchers

enfiladedtheEnglishinawoodypass,onearrowglancingofftheKing’sbreastplate,greatlyalarminghim.Onanotheroccasion,whilsttheEnglishwereattemptingtoforceabridge,theKingwasrecognised,andaWelsharcheraimedathim.Seeingthis,aNormanbaron,HubertdeSt.Clare,ConstableofColchester,threwhimselfforwardandwaskilledwhenthearrow

piercedhisbreast.TheWelshhadfounditnecessarytohuntandfightatgreaterdistancesthanusualintheirmountainouscountryandsohadincreasedthesizeandthicknessoftheirbowstoobtainmorepower.Theythenfound,theironlytimberbeingwych-elm,thattobereliabletheyhadtobeatleasttheheightofthearcherifhewasfullytodrawanarrowsuitedtohisstature.

WritingoftheNormans’Irishinvasion,Geraldtellshowthefirstcontingent,underRobertFitzstephen,sailedforIrelandwithninetymailedmen-at-armsand300footarchers‘ofthefloweroftheyoungmenofWales’.Thiscombinationofmountedmen-at-armsandarcherswasfoundtobeirresistible.Geraldnoteditseffectiveness;so,too,acenturylater,didEdwardIin

hisWelshwars.TwicethespearmenofSnowdoniawentdownbeforethearchersfromGwentlacedwithhorsemen,onceatOrewinBridgeandthennearConway.

Thelongbowisaboutthesimplestpieceofmechanismimaginable,consistingofonlyabowstaveandstring;itpossessedthreedistinctadvantagesinthatitwascheaptoproduce,hadafairly

extensiverangeandprovidedrapidityofdischarge.Suchanelementaryweaponwaseminentlysuitableforusebypeasantmilitia,forithadnocomplicationsofmechanismandnoprofessionalskillwasneeded.TheEnglisharcherofthefourteenthcenturyhadaboutaslittledrill–apartfrompracticeatthebutts–astheBoerfarmerdidin1899,buthetookaskindlytohisweaponastheBoerdidtohis

rifle.

AlandmarkinthehistoryofarcherywasreachedinHenryIII’sAssizeofArmsin1251;thatdocumentcommandsthat:‘…allwhoownmorethan40orlessthan100schillingsinlawcomebearingaswordandbowwitharrowsandadagger’.Similarly,citizenswithchattelsworthmorethanninemarksandlessthantwenty

aretobearmedwithbow,arrowsandsword;thereisaspecialclauseprovidingthatevenpoormenwithlessthanthisshouldbringbowsandarrows,iftheyhadthem.Initiallybeingthenaturalweaponoftheyeomanforhunting(alsooftheoutlawandpoacher)andofthecommonsoldier,thebowwastheidealweaponforthepurpose.Itwasbeneaththedignityofnoblemen,who

huntedwithsword,spearandhounds,tostalkandkillgameinsilencewithanarrow,fromadistance.Thus,whenafeudallordsummonedhisknightsandbaronstogotowar,theirlowestranks,impressedpeasants,boretheonlyweapontheypossessed–thebow,althoughashorteroneatfirst.

Butwhenthelongbowcameintoitsown,shooting

withitwasnotthesamepleasantpastimeasusingtheshorterhuntingbow;thelongbowhadadraw-weightofperhapsseventy-fivepounds.WithplansinmindfortheWelshlongbow,EdwardIconfirmedHenry’sAssizeofArmsbytheStatuteofWinchester,makingpracticecompulsoryonSundaysandHoly-days.Onmanyasandstonevillagechurchgroovescanstillbe

seenwherearcherssharpenedtheirarrowsafterMass,preparatorytodoingbuttpractice.Othergames,suchasfootball,handballandcockfighting,weremadeillegal;directionoflabourwasintroducedsothatbowyersandfletcherscouldbecompelledtoresidewheretheyweremostneeded,andthereweremanyactsregulatingthepriceofequipment.Inthefirsthalfof

thethirteenthcenturythebowappearstohavebeeningreatervogueinthenorthernthaninthewesterncountiesofEngland.TheratherobvioustheorythatmenfromthewoodlandregionswereproficientinbowmanshipissubstantiatedbyanattackmadeintheWealdduring1264–5byDeMontfort’sarchersonKingHenry’smarchingcolumns.ThenthereisawritissuedinMay

1266orderingRogerdeLeyburntoraise500archersintheWeald;inthiswritfromtheExchequerAccountsthesearchersarecalled‘WALLENSES,WALDENSESetalii’(Welshforestersandothers).ContemporarydocumentsoftenspeakoftheobligationofvariousmanorstoprovidetheKingwithoneormorearchers…‘whenhemakesanexpeditionagainstthe

Welsh’.Itiscurioustonotethatevenaslateas1281RichardtheLionheart’spreferenceforcrossbowmenseemstohavebeenmaintained,thewagesofitsbearerbeingconsiderablymorethanthoseofthearcher.Inthepay-rollofthegarrisonofRhuddlanCastlein1281itisnotedthat…‘paidtoGeoffreyleChamberlinforthewagesof12crossbowmen,and13archers,

for24days,£78s.Eachcrossbowmanreceivingbytheday4d.andeacharcher2d.’

Oddly,whentheAssizeofArmsin1181organisedEnglishnationalforces,thebowdidnotappearinthelistofnationalweapons,althoughithadbeeninfulluseforsometimeassuch.Itmightwellbethattheauthoritieshesitatedtorecommendthe

keepingofabowineverypoorfreeman’scottagebecauseoftheverystrongtemptationtoemployitforpoaching!EdwardIalteredthisin1285whenhere-enactedtheAssizeofArms,redistributingthenationalforceintonewformationsarmedwithnewweapons.Archerswerere-establishedbystatute,althoughrestrictedtobowsandboltsiftheylivedintheforest–thebolt

beinglessdeadlytotheKing’sdeerthantheirarrows.EdwardI,likehisgrandsonandgreat-grandson,wasanablesoldier,capableofdevisingnewexpedientsinwar.Unlikethem,healsoshowedconsiderablestrategicalability.Thismonarch,throughhislongexperienceinWelshwars,introducedascientificuseofarcherythusoriginatingthelongbow’srisetofavour.But

hismethodshadbeenforeshadowedmorethanhalfacenturyearlier–HenryIdismountedhisknightsandwonatTenchbriar(Tinchebrai)in1106,againstRobertofNormandy;heagainwasvictoriousatBreuvillein1125inthesamemanner.ButatBeaumontheaddedacompanyofarcherswhomovedofftotheirleftflankwhentheNormancavalrycamethundering

down,tobeoverthrownwithashowerofarrows.Thesearchersmustnotbeconfusedwiththoseofalaterdate,butwereprobablycopied(liketheorderofbattle)fromaByzantinemodel.TheytaughttheEnglishthesecondoftwomostusefullessons–HenryhadalreadydiscoveredthatdismountedknightscouldholdtheirownagainsttheimpetuousFrenchknights;nowhelearnedthatacavalry

attackcouldbeweakened,almosttoannihilation,byvolleysofarchers.

Suchknowledge,atatimewhencavalryheldabsolutesupremacyinwar,wasasecretofunfathomablevalue;asecretindeedwhichlaidthefoundationsofEngland’sverymilitarypower.Henrywasevidentlyalivetothesecret,andencouragedthepracticeofarcheryby

ordainingthatifanymanshouldbyaccidentslayanotheratthebuttsthemisadventureshouldnotbereckonedtohimasacrime.

Theyear1138wasmemorableforthefirstofthemanyactionsfoughtagainsttheScots–theBattleoftheStandardwastypicalofmanyvictoriestocome.TheEnglishknightsfoughtonfootand,aidedbyarchers,

madehavocoftheenemy.Dimly,throughthemistoftime,onecanseealreadythegermofthelaterEnglishinfantry–inforthcomingcenturieslancesandbowsgavewaytopikesandmuskets,butforfivewholecenturiesthefootsoldierswerecompoundedoftwoelements,offensiveanddefensive,untiltheinventionofthebayonetslowlyweldedthemintoone.TheFrench

inventedthemimicwarfareknownasthetournamentwhich,notbeingaduelofmanagainstmanbutessentiallyacontestoftroopagainsttroop,wasatrainingfortactics,skill,disciplineandleadership;victoryturningmainlyonskilfulhandlingofthemenandthepreservationofcompactorder.Thus,bytheblendingofEnglishfootsoldiersandNormancavalry,waslaid

earlierthaninanyotherEuropeancountrythefoundationofanarmywhereinbothbranchestookanequalshareofworkinthedayofaction.

Theperiodbetween1300and1500sawtheslowtransitionfrommediaevaltomodernworld;atransitionaffectingtheartofwaraswellaseverythingelse.Itcaneasilybeclaimedthatthe

mostsignificantsinglefactorthatchangedalltheoldtraditionsandconceptsofmediaevalfightingtechniqueswasthedevelopmentofthelongbowinthehandsofEnglishpeasantsdirectedbybrilliantandfar-seeingleaders.Itreducedwartotwosimpleelements,oneofwhichorbothofwhichhavetobeemployedtodefeatanenemy–hemustbeoverthrowneitherbyshockor

bymissile-fireorbybothincombination.Theshockmethodmeansthatsuccessisachievedwhenonesidebestsanother,oftenthroughsuperiornumbers,inahand-to-handstruggle.Thismethodismateriallyaffectedalsobythesuperiorityofarmsorthegreaterstrengthandskillwithwhichtheyarewielded.Themissilemethodmeansthatthedayiswonbyonesidekeepingupsuchaconstant

anddeadlyrainofmissilesthattheenemyaredestroyedordrivenbackbeforetheycancometoclosequarters;thismethodenablesasmallerforcetodefeatalargerone.Bothmethodsarecapableofcombinationsofvariousarmsandtactics,withcountlessvariationsandtechniques.

IntheirsimplestandmostelementaryformstheEnglisharcherandtheSwisspikeman

representedthesetwobasicmethodsofmilitaryefficiency.Theformerreliedonhisabilitytobeattheenemybyhighlytrained,skilledshootingofgreataccuracy;thelatterbybeingabletopresentasolidcolumnwithaformidablehedgeofspear-pointssurmountingit,sothatitwaspossibletodrivebeforethemsuperiornumbersoftheenemywhowereunabletowithstandthe

crashingimpactandsteadypressureofthepikemen.Thecommonfactorwasthatbothmethodsweretriumphantagainst,andoverthrew,theheavy,mail-cladhorsemenwhohadforsolongbeenmastersofthebattlefield.Becauseofthemarkedsuperiorityofthetwomethodstheywerecopiedandemulatedbythosewhohadsufferedfromthem;butneitherwaseasyto

accomplishandnooneeversucceededinbecomingbetterthantheoriginators.

Andsothewholemilitarysystemofthemediaevalperiodwastornasunder,tobeprofoundlymodifiedandirrevocablyaltered.AftertheriseoftheEnglisharchertheartofwartookonanewandmoreseriouscomplexion:ithadbeentransformedfromtherathergloriousextension

ofthetournamentthatithadbecomeintoabloodybusinessrequiringintelligenceandtheutmostwariness.

Chapter2

TheWelshWars–LateThirteenthCenturyBythelastquarterofthethirteenthcenturyarcheryhad

becomearecognisedmilitaryarmofgreatimportancetoEngland.TheRoyalStatutescompelledeverypersonearninglessthan100penceperyeartohaveinhispossessionabowandarrows,officersbeingappointedbytheCrowntoseethatalltheseweaponswereingoodorderandreadyforinstantuse.Iftheownersoftheweaponslivedwithintheconfinesof,ornearto,theRoyalForests,

anearlyconservationmeasureruledthattheirarrowsshouldbebluntones.Thearcherwasbeginningtoberecognisedasapersonofmilitaryimportance,ascanbeseenfromanancientmilitaryordinance:

‘Andinspecial,atthefirstmoustre,everyarchereshallhavehisboweandarroweshole,thatistowytte,inarrowesxxxorxxivatthe

least,headedandinasheaf.Andfurthermore,thateveryarcheredoswearethathisboweandarrowesbehisown,orhismastyresorcaptaynes.Andalsothatnomanonesmousteredandadmittedasanarchere,alterorchangehimselftoanyothercondition,withouttheKinge’sspecialleave,uponpayneofimprisonment.’

Poachersandoutlawsin

SherwoodForestwereofferedapardononconditiontheyservedintheKing’sarmyasarchers.Thiswasnotsimplyageneralormeaninglesspardoneither;theoffenceforwhicheachmanwaspardonedisspecified,clearindicationofthevalueputuponthem.Thesecriminals(liketheirdescendantsinWellington’sPeninsulaarmy)amplyvindicatedEngland’sfighting

capacitybygaininganotablevictoryatHalidonHillin1333.Whenitisconsideredjusthowseriouspoachingwasviewedinthosedays,thepardoningcomesintoitscorrectperspective.BriefexaminationandaspeedyfateawaitedthelucklessSaxonwholovedabuck’shaunchmorethanhefearedthepenaltiesoftheforestlaw,orwhosewifeandchildren’spiteouspleadingforfood

spurredhimtoventureforthwithbowandarrowamidthetrees.Acaballisticverserevealsthesuspiciouscircumstancesthatcouldbringsummaryjusticetotheunfortunateman:

‘Dogdraw,Stablestand,Blackberond,Bloodyhand.’

Thusisindicatedthefourevidencesbywhich,accordingtotheoldfeudallaws,amanwasconvictedofdeer-stealing.Thefirstrelatestoanoffendercaughtinaforest,drawingafteradeerwithahoundinleash;thesecondtohimcaughtwithabentbowreadytoshoot;thethirdtobearingawaythevenisononhisshouldersandthefourthtohimmerelyfoundwithhandstainedwith

blood.

EdwardtheConfessor’sRedBookcontainsthefollowingcaution:

‘Omnishomoabstestavenariismeis,superpoenamvitae.’(Leteverymanrefrainfrommyhuntinggroundsonpainofdeath.)

Anearbytreewouldformareadygallows,hisown

bowstringthehalterbywhichtheystrangledhimlikeahound.

Realisingthatthenecessaryskillwiththelongbowcouldonlybereachedwithconstantandunremittingpractice,thestrictestmeansweretakentoensurethateveryable-bodiedmangotinhishoursofpracticeshooting.Peersandchurchmenwereprivileged

bylaw,butnootherpersons,aliensexcepted,couldabsentthemselvesfromthepublicexercisegroundwithoutincurringwhatwasthenconsideredaseriouspenalty.Sotheindependentfranklin,thewealthyyeoman,therudepeasantandtheunwashedartisanallcongregated,distinctionofranklostsightofforthetime,andadroitnessalonegivingtitletosuperiority.Theancient

publicbuttsweresothrongedwitharchers,particularlyatholidaytimes,thattheyrakedupthesurroundingturfbytheveryarrowsthatmissed,insuchamannerthatthegrasswouldnotgrowagaininthesamespots.Thecontinualtrampingoffeetasthebowmencirculatedaboutthemarksalsocontributedtodestroytheturfandvegetation.Inthevicinityofthelargeandpopuloustowns

theconcoursemusthavebeenenormousandforthisreasonthearcherusedbutasinglearrowwhenpractising.Besidestheimpossibilityofgettinginasecondshotamidsuchconfusion,hefounditnecessarytohurryawaytotheoppositebuttinordertocatchuphisshaftbeforeitwasstolenortroddenunderfoot.

Notwithstandingallthis

activity,KingEdwardIcomplainedbylettertotheSheriffofLondonthatarcheryhadfallenintoagrievouscondition;hesaidthatskillwiththebowwasputasideinfavourofuselesssportsandcommandedthathereinaftertheSheriffshouldseetoitthatsuchidlepracticeswereabandonedandthatleisuretimeuponholidaysshouldbespentinthenoblerecreationof

archery.

ItfelltoEdwardIIItoreapthefullbenefitofEnglishbowmanship,buthisgrandfather,seencomplainingabove,plantedandfosteredinsuchawaytheseed.EvenbeforehisfirstWelshwar,in1277EdwardshowedhisinterestintheWelshlongbow;inthatyearaspecialforceof100pickedmenofMacclesfieldinthe

King’sownlands,werepurelyarchersunmixedwithspearmen.Theyservedfromthefirstdayofthewar,whichbrokeoutlaterinthatyear,totheverylastdayatthethenextraordinarywageof3d.perday;whereastheotherinfantrycameuponlyforshortperiods.Theonlyotherpurelybow-armedforceofthiswarcamefromGwentandCrickhowellandthat,too,servedforalongertime

thanusual.

Theearlyfourteenthcenturysawtheevolutionofacoherentmilitarypracticewhichusedinasingletacticalschemethedistinctivepowerofarchery,thedefensivesolidarityofdismountedmen-at-armsand,whennecessary,theoffensivepowerofmountedtroops.Edwardhaddiscovered,orcomprehendedwhatwasalreadyapparent,

firstthevirtuesofarcheryinattacktobreakupadefensiveinfantryformationand,second,itspowerindefencewhenbasedonarrayofdismountedknightsandmen-at-arms.AbeginningwasmadeintheWelshwars:atOrewinBridgein1282andatMaesMaydogin1295,thefirstagainstthemenofPrinceLlewelyn,whopreparedtostandtheirgroundinadefensiveposition.The

Englishadvancedagainstthem,archersinterposedwithcavalry–thearrowsinflictingsufficientlossontheWelshtroopstocausethemtoloosentheircohesionandfallintocomparativedisordersothatthecavalrywereabletoridethemdown.Inthesecondbattle,nearConway,theEarlofWarwickusedthesametactics.Acontemporaryreportsays:

‘TheWelshontheearl’sapproach,setthemselvesfrontinghisforcewithexceedinglongspears,which,beingsuddenlyturnedtowardtheearlandhiscompanywiththeirendsplacedintheearthandtheirpointsupwards,broketheforceoftheEnglishcavalry.Buttheearlwellprovidedagainstthem,byplacingarchersbetweenhismen-at-arms,sothatbythesemissiveweaponsthosewho

heldthelanceswereputtorout.’

Inlaterbattleswiththeotherhereditaryenemy,theScots,theeffectivenessofcombinedarcheryandcavalryactionagainstimmobileinfantryformationswasshown.SuchwerethebeginningsoftheuseofEnglishinfantrytobeapowerinwar;theseventyyearswhichfollowedthe

openingofEdward’sWelshwarssawstrikingdevelopmentsbothinmilitaryorganisationandtactics.Bothledtothesameculmination–thoseEnglishvictorieswhichastonishedEuropeintheopeningstagesoftheHundredYearsWar.ItremainedforEdwardIinhislatercampaigns,andforhisgrandsonEdwardIII,togettheEnglishtobecomeexpertintheuseofthelongbowby

practice,andtolearntoactasadisciplinedcorps.YetevenaftertheBattleofHalidonHilltheEnglishhadnomilitaryreputationwhatsoever.JehanleBelisquiteexplicitinshowingthattheirtriumphatCrécycameasacompletesurprisetothewholeofContinentalEurope.

Chapter3

TheArmiesoftheEnglishandtheFrenchInspiteofhavingapopulationthreeorfourtimes

largerthanthatofEngland,Francewasneverable,untilthelatterstagesoftheHundredYearsWar,toputintothefieldanarmycapableofstandinguptotheEnglishforces.Therewereanumberoffactorsresponsibleforthis,butmainlyitcanbelaiddowntosuperiorEnglishmethodsofrecruitment,alliedtothefactthattheycouldcommandfromtimetotimebothWelshandIrishtroops;

thiswasonlyslightlyoffsetbybodiesofScotsunderFrenchcommand.Forthefirstpartofthewar,England,likeFrance,constitutedtheirarmyonafeudalbasis,backedbytheNationalMilitia(theFyrd).EdwardIIIrevolutionisedthissystembyinstitutingamethodoforganisationthatwascertainlythemostsignificantdevelopmentinthehistoryoftheEnglisharmyinthelate

MiddleAges.Fromthecampaignof1341EdwardIIIhadreplacedtheoldfeudallevywithasystemofwrittenindenturedcontractsbetweentheCrownandthecaptainsofarmedretinues,amethodofraisingpaidprofessionalsoldiersforserviceinthefieldthatwastoremainuntiltheendoftheHundredYearsWar.

Bythesemeansa

commandercontractedwiththeKingtoprovideaspecifiedforceformilitaryservice;theforcegenerallybeingofallarmssuchasmen-at-arms,mountedandfootarchersandfootspearmen.Theindenturelaiddownpreciselythesizeandthecompositionoftheforce,itsratesofpay,theplaceofassemblytogetherwithitsobligationsandprivileges.Thelengthofservicevaried,

theshortestperiodbeingthetraditionalfortydaysandthelongesttimewasnormallyoneyear,afterwhichamantookhisdischargeorsignedonagainforafurtherperiod.TheEnglisharmyhadlifteditselffromthedraggingchainsofthefeudalsystemtobecomeapaid,professionalshort-servicearmyinwhichthemountednobleandtheyeomanarcherservedoverseasattheKing’swage.

Itwasahighlytrainedanddisciplinedmercenaryarmy;asoldierdrawingregularpayforhisservicesismoreamenabletodisciplinethanthemandependentonlootingandplunder.Edward’sarmywasthemostpowerfulandhighlytrainedforceofitsday.

France,ontheotherhand,neversucceeded,oreventried,toridherselfofthe

feudalsystemofraisingtroopsuntiltheclosingyearsofthewar.Herarmywastheusualfeudalhost,composedofaheterogeneouscollectionoflordsallclaimingequalitywiththeother,backedbyjealousretainers–allsubjecttotheslenderestcontrolbytheConstableofFrance.Theoldconceptionsremained,infantrywerescornedandtheknightsnotonlyregardedthemselvesasthebackbone

ofthearmybutconsideredthattheywerethearmy!Theusuallocalleviesproducedill-trainedinfantrywhowerestrengthenedbyforeignmercenariessuchastheGenoesecrossbowmen,andoccasionallyaidedbybodiesofcourageousScotscarryingon,indifferentfields,theirperpetualstrugglewiththeEnglish.AttheverybeginningofthewarCrécyprovedthestockexampleof

Frenchdisdainforanyformofco-operationbetweenaristocraticcavalryandallotherdespisedarms,itwasalessonthatFrancetooknearlyacenturytolearn.

Inspiteofthelengthofthewarthereweresurprisinglylittlechangesordevelopmentsinarms,armamentormethodoffighting,withthesoleexceptionsofartillery,which

showedmarkedprogressinpowerandeffectiveness,andinarmour,whichgraduallychangedfrommailtoplate.Inthematterofarmsandarmamentthesoldiersofbothcountrieswerenotdissimilar.Bothsideshadmen-at-arms(knightsweremen-at-armsbutmen-at-armswerenotnecessarilyknights)armedsimilarlywithsword,lance,daggerandsometimesbattle-mace,helm,shieldandspurs

completingtheequipage.Theknighthadthreearmedattendants,whomightbepagestocleanandpolishhisarmour,helphiminandoutofit,holdhishorseandassisthimtomount;theyalsogroomedthehorse;thenhehadtwomountedarchersandoneswordsman;thewholeconstitutinga‘Lance’.Healsohadthreeorfourhorses,includingtwoheavychargers(destriers).Men-at-armswere

coveredinarmourfromtoptotoe(capàpie),butasthedevelopmentwasinastageoftransitioninthefourteenthcentury,itisdifficulttodescribetheirequipmentwithcertainty.Theincreaseinplate-armourreducedthemobilityoftheman-at-armsasitreducedtheeffectivenessofthearrow.Theydonotseemtohavebeengreathorsemen.Itisrecordedthatsometimestheyweretiedto

thesaddle;butthehorseswereundoubtedlydifficulttomanoeuvre–thebitsweretooweak,thecumbrousnessofthesaddleandtheweightofthearmourwereobstaclestogoodhorsemanship.Fromtheendofthethirteenthcenturythehorsesthemselvesworedefensivearmour.Toprotectitsheadthehorseworeachanfron,whilsttheneckwascoveredwithacrinetwithmailattachment.Thefrontof

thehorse’sbodywasprotectedbythepeytral,itssidesbytheflanchardsanditsrearbythecrupper.Astronghorsehadnodifficultyincarryingthisdefensivecoveringwhichinthelaterstagesofitsdevelopmentonlyweighedjustoverseventypounds,includingsaddleandmail.

Theshieldgraduallybecameobsoleteowingtothe

effectivenessofplate-armouranditsineffectivenessagainstcannon-balls.Briefly,armourimprovedslowlyfromaboutthemiddleofthethirteenthcenturywhenmailwasworn,withaflat-toppedbarrelhelm;thenfromabout1280itwasreinforcedwithplateandthehelmwas‘sugar-loaf;from1300therewasfurtherplatereinforcement,andavisoredhelm(thegreatbascinet),andinthefifteenth

centurycompleteplate-armourwascommon–thiswasundoubtedlythefinestperiodofarmour.

ThereisplentyofevidenceinthechroniclesoftheFrenchwarsthatifmen-at-arms,coveredcompletelyinplate,advancedagainstEnglishbowmenwithouttheirtoo-vulnerablehorsesthentheywouldstandatleastsomechanceofcomingto

handstrokes.Whenabodyoffullyarmouredmen-at-armsploddedwithbentheadsintothestormofarrows,howeverpowerfullytheshaftsstruckthehard,smooth,curvedsurfacesofthearmour,theywouldglanceoffunlesstheyfoundlodgementwhereplateoverlappedplate.Therewerenoexposedjointsexceptfortheweakspotsattheshoulderwherethespandlersmetthearmholesofthebreastplate.

Realisingthis,theEnglisharchersoftenfiredatthefaceandthroat,sothat,whentheman-at-armsunwarilyliftedhisvisororremovedhisgorgetduringahotday,heoftenreceivedashaftinthismostvulnerablespot.Chroniclersclaimthatfewmenwholiftedtheirvisorsinbattleeverlivedtoclosethemagain!Later,atTowtonduringtheWarsoftheRoses,LorddeClifford,faintwith

pain,heatandthirst,tookoffhisgorget–instantlyanarrowpassedthroughhisneckandkilledhim.

However,ifthearrowsdidnotpenetratethearmourtheireffectsweresuchasthoughtheydid,forthepresenceofarchersinthefieldeventuallycompelledtheFrenchtoadvanceonfoot.Thoughplate-armourisnotmuchheavierthanmail,andismost

flexiblyjointed,itisnotmeantformarchingin.Thenecessityofhavingtotrudgeamileormore,oftenuphilloroverploughedlandorthroughlonggrassandscrub(asatMauronin1352andatPoitiersin1356),andtofightattheendofit,wasalmostasdevastatingtotheFrenchmen-at-armsashavinghishorseshotfromunderhim.Moreoftenthannot,hediedineithercase.Itismost

markedthatinalltheEnglishvictoriesduringtheHundredYearsWaritwasalwaystheFrenchwhoattackedandtrudgedupthehillsintheirarmour.TheEnglishquietlystoodabout,waitingintheirstrong,carefullychosendefensivepositions,perfectlyfreshforcombatwhentheexhaustedFrenchmencametogripswiththem.

Andthatwasnotall.In

havingtofacethedeadlyshaftsoftheEnglishlongbowmanthemen-at-armshadtosuffertheextremelybewilderingandnerve-rackingeffectofthedeadlymissileshissingandhummingpastthem,smackingontheirarmourandricochetingoffit.Fewsoldiershavehadtofacearrowsandmusket-ballsatthesametime,buttheevidenceofthosewhohave(inIndiawithClive)

unanimouslyagreethatthearrowsweremoredemoralisingthantheballs.

WhentheFrenchattackedonhorseitwastheirpracticetopacktheirmen-at-armsintoacloseandsolidmass;untilthemomentofactiontherewasonlysufficientspaceallowedforeachhorsetoturninitsownground.Butfortheactualattackranksandfilesclosedupastightlyas

possibletomaintainacompactarraysothatitwasrecordedthatanapplethrownintothemiddleofattackingFrenchknightswouldnothavereachedtheground.ThesemethodsplayedintothehandsoftheEnglisharcher,who,evenifhewasnotalwaysablecompletelytopreventtheFrenchattackstrikinghome,wasablesotodecimateitsranksthatitwasweakanddisorderedwhenit

reachedtheEnglishposition.Aman-at-armswasnotaheadlonggallopingcavalier,hisattackcouldnotbeveryrapidunlessitwasmadeindisorder;itwasshock-action,butshockofaponderouscolumnmovingatamoderaterate.

ThewordsputintothemouthsofhisfictionalcharactersbyConanDoylegiveareasonableideaofthe

characterandcourageoftheFrenchsoldiers,besidesillustratingthedifferencebetweenthepeasantclassesofthetwocountries.1

‘TheFrenchare…veryworthymen.WehavehadgreatgoodfortuneinFrance,andithathledtomuchbobnanceandcamp-firetalk,butIhaveevernoticedthatthosewhoknowthemosthavetheleasttosayaboutit.

IhaveseenFrenchmenfightbothinopenfield,intheintakingandthedefendingoftownsorcastlewicks,inescalados,camisades,nightforays,bushments,sallies,outfallsandknightlyspear-runnings.Theirknightsandsquires,lad,areeverywhitasgoodasours,andIcouldpickoutascoreofthosewhoridebehindDuGuesclinwhocouldholdthelistswithsharpenedlancesagainstthe

bestmeninthearmyofEngland.Ontheotherhand,theircommonfolkaresocrusheddownwithgabelle,andpoll-tax,andeverymannerofcursedtallage,thatthespirithaspassedrightoutofthem.Itisafool’splantoteachamantobeacurinpeace,andthinkthathewillbealioninwar.Ifthenobleshadnotconqueredthepoorfolkitislikeenoughthatweshouldnothaveconquered

thenobles.ThemenofthelawarestronginFranceaswellasthemenofwar.Bymyhilt!Iholdthatamanhasmoretofeartherefromtheink-potoftheonethanfromtheironoftheother.Thereiseversomecursedsheepskinintheirstrongboxestoprovethattherichmanshouldbericherandthepoormanpoorer.ItwouldscarcepassinEnglandbuttheyarequietfolkoverthewater.’

TheEnglishinfantryconsistedofarchersandfootspearmen;thelatterweremostlyfromWales.Althoughthelongboworiginatedinthatcountry,itsooncrossedtheborderandfirstCheshiremenandthenarchersofothercountieswerearmedwithit;allthearchersinEdwardIII’sarmywereEnglishmen.EdwardIIIcreatedamountedarchercorpsin1334,butfootarcherswerealmost

indistinguishablefrommountedarchersoncethebattlebegan.Bothweresimilarlyarmedwithalongbow,swordanddagger,bothworebreastplatesorpaddedhauberksandasteelcap;spearmenweresimilarlyattiredexceptthattheyseldomworebreastplates.Thearcherscoulddischargethelongbowsixtimesaminuteataneffectiverangeof250yardswithanextreme

rangeof350yards.Frencharcherswerearmedwiththecrossbow,morepowerfulthanthelongbowbutfourarrowscouldbefiredinthetimeittooktodischargeonebolt.UsuallyusedbyGenoesemercenaries,itwasmoreinaccurateandhadashorterrange.

Littlewasheardofartilleryinfieldoperations,onlysurprisereactionbeing

claimedforthecannonthatEdwardcarefullynursedallthewaytoCrécy.Butinsiegeoperationsthepowerofthecannonwassteadilyincreasing,sothatinthelastyearsofthewarithadapredominatingeffectinsecuringthesurrenderofdefendedtownsandcastles.

Edward’sarmyhadregularratesofpay;thereisarecordofthePrinceofWales’s

retinue:

7banneretsat4s.aday(abanneretwasaknightentitledtocarryabanner–eachbanneretwasexpectedtofindanarcherforeachman-at-armsheprovided).

136knightsat2s.aday.

143esquires(rank-and-filemen-at-arms)at1s.aday.

900mountedarchersat6d.aday.

Footarchersseemtohavegotsumsrangingfrom2d.to4d.perday.

Chapter4

TheirWayofFightingTheageoftheknightinarmourwillalwayspossessacolourandglorybecauseofitscodeofhonourhallowedandreveredbytheupper

classesintheirattemptstorenderthemselvesworthyoftheirexceptionalprivileges.Butmuchoftheoutwarddisplayandtheclass-consciousconventionsonwhichsuchchivalryhadalwaysrestedweresweptawaybytheexigenciesofseriouswarfarewhentheHundredYearsWarbroughtnationalconflictbetweenFranceandEngland.Withsuchvastdisparitiesof

population–FrancehadovertenmillionandEnglandonlythreetofourmillion2–theEnglishleadershadtomakethebestuseofthematerialattheirdisposalandwerehighlysatisfiediftheirmethodsenabledthemtobeattheenemy.Thesecommanderswhomadesuchgooduseofarcheryasanationaltactichadnorealconceptionofthefactthatinterminatingthe

ascendancyinwarofthemailedhorsemantheywereputtinganendtothefeudalregimeandallthatitentailed.Regardingthemselvesastheveryflowerofchivalry,EdwardI,EdwardIIIandtheBlackPrincemighthavepausedintheireffortshadtheyrealisedthattheirsuccessfultacticsmeanttheendofso-calledchivalrouswarfare.Itcouldbethattheneedsofthemoment

preventedthemhavingsuchthoughts,justasthefullestimplicationsofHiroshimawerenotrealisedin1945.

Beforearcherybecameofsupremeimportanceinwarfarethereexistedalengthyandtacticallystagnantepochwhenthemail-cladfeudalhorsemanreignedsupreme.Becausethefeudalorganisationofsocietymadeeverymanofgentle

bloodafighting-man,butnotnecessarilyasoldier,afeudalarmypresentedanunbelievablecollectionofunsoldierlikequalities.Althougharrogance,stupidityandgreatcouragecolouredtheactivitiesofthesearmies,theirinabilitytoreplaceskillandexperiencemadetacticsandstrategyimpossible.Theknighthadnoconceptionthatdisciplineandtacticalskillwereasimportantascourage;

itwasalwayspossiblethatatsomeinopportuneandcriticalmomentabattlemightbeprecipitatedoracarefullylaidplanruinedbytheincrediblyfoolishbraveryofsomepettyknightwithlustforonlypersonalglory.Socialstatusratherthanprofessionalexperienceledtocommand,sothatthenoblewiththelargestfollowingwasalwayssuperiortotheskilledveteranwithonlyafewlancesto

lead.

Whenanumberoftenants-in-chief,allblindlyjealousofeachother,hadbeencollectedtogetherwithgreatdifficultytheyformedanunwieldy,unmanoeuvrablehostreadytomeltawayfromthestandardthemomenttheirshortperiodofwar-servicewasover.TheyrecognisednosuperiorbuttheKing,and,unlesshewerealeaderofuncommon

skill,hewasoftenpowerlesstocontrolthem,sothattheradicalviceofinsubordinationcontinuedunchecked.Theirveryformationencouragedthisinmanyways;confinedtoasinglepattern,theywereformedintothreegreatmassesorbattlesandthenlaunchedattheenemy;therecouldreallybenootherwaybecausethetroopswereneitherdisciplinednor

accustomedtoacttogethersothatcombinedmovementsofsmallbodieswereimpossible.

Keepingareserveinhandwasarefinementpractisedbyveryfewcommanders,partlybecauseitwouldhavebeenverydifficulttopersuadeafeudalchieftostayoutofthefrontlineofbattlesothatheincurredtheriskofmissingsomeofthehardfighting.Regardedasamodelof

militaryefficiencyifhecouldsithischargersteadilyandskilfullyhandleaswordandlance,nothingcouldrestrainhimwhentheenemycameinsight.Hisshieldwouldbeshiftedintoposition,thelancedroppedintorest,thespurplungedintothechargerandthemail-cladlinewouldponderouslyrollforward.Thunderingonastheygainedspeed,theyhadlittleregardforanythingthatmightlie

beforethem;asoftenasnottheformationdashedthemselvesagainstastonewallortumbledintoaditch;painfullyflounderedinabogorsurgedfutilelyaroundawallorpalisade.Iftheenemyweresimilartothemselvesthetwoforceswouldmeetwithafearfulshock,menandhorsestumblinginalldirections,andthenachaoticmêléewouldfollow,sometimeslastingforhours.

Thismeantthatmostengagementswerenothingmorethanahuge,sprawlingscuffleandscrambleofmenandhorsesoverapatchofbarelandorahillside.Sometimes,asifbygeneralagreement,bothpartieswouldlaboriouslywheeltotherear,haltforawhileastheirhorsesregainedbreath,andthenrushateachotheragainuntilonesidewasworstedandfledfromthe

field.Themostelementarymilitarytactics,suchaspreselectingabattleposition,orusingareservetotaketheenemyinrearorflank,wereconsideredexamplesofexceptionalmilitaryskill.Thecommendationoftheageboileddowntostrikingindividualfeatsofarmsratherthananyeffortsatrealleadership.

Greatbattlesdidnottake

placeveryoften,simplybecauseopposingarmiesoftencompletelylosteachotherbecausetheyneglectedtokeepintouchbyvedettesoroutpostsandpatrols.Itwasusuallytheexistenceofsometopographicalobjective,suchasaroad,fordorbridge,whichprecipitatedaconflict;withmapsnon-existentandgeographicalknowledgebothscantyandinaccurate,itwaseasyforarmiestostrayaway

andlosesightofeachother.Arecognisedmannerinwhichthislastcontingencywaspreventedlayintheopposinggeneralssolemnlysendingandacceptingchallengestomeetinbattleatagivenplaceandonadefinitedate.

Therewaslittlefortheinfantrytodo,noimportantpartforthemtoplay;theyaccompaniedthearmiesfor

nobetterpurposethantoperformthemenialcampdutiesandassistinthenumeroussiegesoftheperiod.Nowandthen,asasortofoverture,theywereusedtodemonstrateineffectuallyattheopeningofabattle,butiftheypresumedtoprolongthesedemonstrations,theirlords,affrontedbysuchpresumption,wouldendtheskirmishingbyridinginto

andovertheirlucklessfollowers.Thehalf-armedpeasantsandburgherswhohadunwillinglyjoinedthelevybecauseitwasthedutyofeveryable-bodiedmantodosowereincapableofcombiningtowithstandacavalrycharge;lackingadequateweaponsandwithoutdiscipline,theywereriddendownandcrushed.

Theonlyinfantrywho

commandedanyrespectwerethosebodieswhowerearmedwithmoreorlessuniformequipmentandweapons;thechiefcauseofthemilitaryunworthinessofinfantrygenerallycanbesaidtohavebeendueprimarilytothemiscellaneousnatureoftheirarmament.TheScottishlowlanders,withtheirlongspears,andtheSaracenauxiliaries,plyingtheircrossbows,stoodoutas

troopscapableofputtingupgoodperformancesonfootandwithoutallthebenefitsofhighbirth.Thefewinfantrysuccesseswhichoccurredtowardstheendofthefeudalperiodwereexceptionalandservedtoforeshadowtheneweraofco-ordinateddismountedwarfare.

Whenafeudalhostcameupagainstaforceoracommandercapableof

exercisingeventhemostsimpleandrudimentarytacticsonthefieldofbattletheyinvariablytookahiding.Witheachcommandermakinghisownspeedintotheattack,followedbyhissupporters,thefeudalforcearrivedatthesceneofbattleinsmallscatteredgroups.Thismeantthatthebattlewasmadeupofanumberofdetachedandunco-ordinatedcavalrycombatsanda

systematicenemycoulddefeateachofthesegroupsindetailsothatthesumtotalofthesmallroutsaddeduptoagreatdefeat.Inthiswayaskirmish,astreetfightorthebogging-downofagroupofheavilyarmedhorsemencouldoverthrowanentireforce.

Withsuchanunscientificmethodofwarfare,resemblingnothingmorethan

ahugetilting-match,itonlyneededonesidetobringintothefieldafactorthatwouldpreventtheiropponentsfromapproachingnearenoughtobreakalanceforthewholeconceptofthen-knownwarfaretobreakdown.ByintroducingauxiliariesliketheEnglisharcheragainstamilitarycastetoohideboundandblindtoalteritslosingmethodsthroughoutalmostthewholeofahundred-year

period,theEnglishcommanderscouldhardlyfailtobringtoearththeflowerofFrenchchivalry.Frenchchivalrywastoreceiveanearlyandstrikinglessonwhenthepeasant-archerfacedthehigh-bornknightatCrécyin1346.Itwasalessonthatwastobeunheeded,inspiteoffindinghimselfunabletoapproachthepositionfromwhichthedeadlyarrowreachedhim,

theknightstillclungtothetraditionwhichgavethemosthonourablenameinwartothemountedman.Thuswerecavalry,whosedayhadreallypassed,perpetuatedforanothercentury;asystemsointimatelyboundupwithmediaevallifeandcustomswouldtakemorethanasingledisaster,orthedozenotherstofollow,beforebeingirretrievablysmashed.

Chapter5

TheEnglishArcher

‘We’llalldrinktogetherTothegreygoosefeather,Andthelandwherethegreygooseflew.

Whatofthemen?ThemenwerebredinEngland,TheBowmen,theyeomen,Theladsofdaleandfell.Here’stoyouandtoyouTotheheartsthataretrue,Andthelandwherethetrueheartsdwell.’

MarchingSongoftheWhite

CompanyConanDoyle

ThewholehistoryofEnglishwarfarefromthemiddleofthetwelfthcenturytotheendofthefifteenthcenturyprovesthattheflowerofherinfantrywasthearchers.ThebowwasputinthehandofeveryEnglishboyattheageofsevenanditdidnotceasetofurnishhimwithsportand

occupationuntiltheyearshaddeprivedhisarmofstrengthandhiseyeofskill.FromtheConquestdowntothegeneralintroductionofthemusket,theuseandpracticeofthelongbowwereenforcedbysomeformorotherofEnglishlegislature.TheEnglisharcherwasnotonlyasingularmanofwar,healsopossessedasingularstatusunlikeanythingelseinContinentalEurope;itwasastatusthat

madehimthefightingmanhewas,capableofstandingtothedeathiforderedormakingasuddenflankattackonhisowninitiativewhenthesituationdemanded.Hewasnotapeasantboundtosomeonesuperiorinbirthandposition,hewasafreeman,ayeomanwhogavehisvaluablefightingservicesinreturnforacontractsettingouthisrateofpayandtermofservice.

Historyandfictiongivemanydescriptionsofthearcher;mostofthempicturehimasaRobinHood-likemandressedinLincolngreenandwearingahatofawell-knownshape,withafancyfeatherrisingfromitsside.InthepagesofhisCanterburyTalesGeoffreyChaucershowsushisarcher:

‘Andhewascladincote

andhoodofgrene;Asheefeofpecock-arrowesbrighteandkeeneUnderhisbelthebarfulthriftily;(Welcoudehedressehistakenyemanly;Hisarrowesdroupednoughtwithfethereslowe,)Andinhishandhebaramightybowe;Anot-heedhaddlehe,

withabrounvisage.Ofwodecraftwelcoudehealtheusage.Underhisarmhebaragaybracer,Andbyhissydeaswerdandabokeler,Andonthatothersydeagaydaggere,Harneisedwel,andsharpaspointofspere;ACristofreonhisbrestofsilvershene.Ahornhebar,the

baudrickwasofgrene.’

Lesscolourful,butofamorewarlikenature,isthedescriptionoftheEnglisharchergivenbyoneRalpheSmithe:

‘Captainsandofficersshouldbeskilfulofthatmostnobleweapon,andtoseethattheirsoldiersaccordingtotheirdraughtandstrength,

havegoodbows,wellnocked,wellstrynged,everiestryngewhippeintheirnock,andinthemiddlesrubbedwithwax;baserandshooting-glove;somesparestryngesasaforesaid.Everiemanoneshefeofarrowswithacaseofleather,defensibleagainsttherayne;andinthesamefoure-and-twentyarrows,whereofeightofthemshouldbelighterthantheresiduetogallorastonyetheenemywiththe

hail-shotoflightarrows.Leteveriemanhaveabrigandine,orlittlecoteofplate;askull[cap],orhufkin;amauloflead,fivefeetinlength;andapike,andthesamehangingbyhisside,withahookanddagger.Beingthusfurnished,teachthembytheirmasterstomarch,shooteandretyre,keepingtheirfacestotheenemy.Sometimeputthemingreatnowmbers,astobattellappertayneth,andthus

usethemoftentymestilltheybeperfecte;forthosemeninbattellorskirmishcannotbespared.’

Itseemsreasonabletoassume,becauseofthephysicaltrainingthattheirpracticeentailed,thatthearcherswerestrong,muscularmen;tall,sinewy,brown,clear-eyedandhard-visaged–middle-sizedortallmenofbigandrobustbuild,with

archingchestsandextraordinarybreadthofshoulder.Theoldersoldiersweregrizzledandlean,withfiercepuckeredfeaturesandshaggybristlingbrows,skintannedanddriedbytheweather.Theyoungermenhadfresh,Englishfaces,withbeardscombedoutandhaircurlingfromundertheirclose,steelhufkins.Theirprofessionwasproclaimedbytheyeworhazelstaveslung

overtheirshoulder,plainandserviceablewiththeoldermenbutgaudilypaintedandcarvedateitherendwhenbelongingtoyoungerarchers.Steelcaps,mailbrigandines,whitesurcoatswiththeredLionofSt.George,andswordorbattleaxeswingingfromtheirbeltscompletedtheequipment.Insomecasesthemurderousmauleorfive-footmalletwashungacrossthebow-stave,beingfastenedto

theirleathernshoulder-beltbyahookinthecentreofthehandle.Whentheywenttowar,sparebow-stavesweretaken,plusthreesparecordsallowedforeachbowandagreatstoreofarrow-heads.

Accordingtohisstrengthandheight,sothearcherequippedhimself.Thetallandmuscularmanofsixfeetandupwardsfoundthatapowerfulbowofsevenfeet

wasbestsuitedtohispurposeandhisarrowswereacloth-yard,besidesthehead.Hissmallercomradewoulduseasix-footbowandshorterarrows,reducingthemtothecorrectlengthiftheyweretoolongforhim,althoughitappearstohavebeenquiteusualforarcherstofixloosearrow-headstotheirownshafts.ItissaidthatatAgincourtthearmyofHenryVconsistedofsuch

tremendousarchersthatmostofthemdrewayard.Tallmen,withstrengthandlengthofarm,coulddrawtheclothyardshaft,othersadaptedthemselvestothearrowlengthstheycouldhandle.SirSamuelRushMeyrick,authorofanoldhistoryofarmsandarmour,wrote:

‘Withrespecttothesizeofthebow,thestringoughtto

betheheightoftheman,andthearrowhalfthelengthofthestring.Now,asfromthat,tothetopofthemiddlefinger,isequaltohalfhiswholeheight,itmustbeequalalsotothelengthofhisarrow;andthelefthand,therefore,beingclenchedroundthebow,willleavejustroomforthearrow-headbeyondit.Fromthisitwillappearthatamansixfeethighmustshootwitha

clothyardarrowandviceversa.’

Englisharcherscarriedintothefieldasheafoftwenty-fourbarbedarrows,buckledwithintheirgirdles.Aportionofthem,aboutsixoreight,werelonger,lighterandwingedwithnarrowerfeathersthantherest.Withtheseflightarrows,astheywerecalled,theycouldhitamarkatagreaterdistance

thanwiththeremainingheavysheafarrows.Theadvantagesoccasionallyderivedfromthissuperiorityofrange,whendirectedbyaskilfulleader,haveledtoveryimportantresultssuchasthatatTowton.Unfledgedarrowscannotflyfarandaregreatlyaffectedbythewind.Ascham,the‘IzaakWaltonofarchery’,says:‘Neitherwood,horn,metal,parchment,papernorcloth

butonlyafeatherisfitforashaft.’Theremusthavebeenagreatconsumptionofgoosefeathers;anarmyneededatleast20,000sheavesofarrows,requiringamillionandahalfgoosefeathers.Peacockfeatherswereusedaswellasthoseofthegreygoose:

‘Witheveriearroweanelllong,

Withpeacockewellydyght.’

Thearcherhadtofindastylewhichwasreasonablynaturalandwhichconsequentlycamefairlyautomatically;iftheEnglisharchersshotbyinstinctthenitwasintheknowledgeofhowmuchforcetousethatthisinstinctcamein.Butitwasnotreallyaninnateskill,itwasone

nurturedandfosteredbyyearsofpractice,beginningataboutseventonineyearsofage.Thentheladwouldholdoutaroundstickinhislefthand,armstiffandstraightfromtheshoulder;assilentandstillasasmallstatue,theladwouldholdoutthestickuntilhisarmwasasheavyaslead–inthiswaytheleftarmwastrainedtohaveasteadygraspofthebow.Whenhebecameolderandcouldbend

awar-bowsoastobeabletobringdownasquirrelatahundredpaces,thenaboywasreadytobeconsideredsuitabletobecomeanarcherintheKing’sarmy.Eventhenitwasstillnecessarytopractise–infact,itwascompulsory.

Duringtheiroff-dutyperiodstheyoungarcherswouldthrowasidetheircoatsofmailorleatherhauberks,

setdowntheirsteelskull-caps,andturnbacktheirjerkinstogivefreeplaytotheirbrawnychestsandarms.Standinginline,theywouldeachlooseashaftinturn,whiletheolder,experiencedbowmenloungedupanddownthelinewithcriticaleyesandwordsofroughpraiseorcurtcensureforeachmarksman.Nowandthentheycouldcryoutadvice:

‘Looseiteasy,steadyandyetsharp!’

‘Don’twinkwithoneeyeandlookwiththeother!Nay,lad!Youdon’tneedtohopanddanceafteryoushoot–thatwon’tspeeditonitsway!Standfirmandstraight,asGodmadeyou.Movenotthebow-armandsteadywiththedrawinghand.’

Thescarredandgrizzled

veteransknewthatitwasonethingtoshootatatarget-shield,butanotherthingwhentherewasamanbehindthatshield,ridingatyouwithawaveofswordorlance,andeyesglintingfrombehindaclosedvisor–thenitbecamealesseasymark!

Representationsoftheoldlongbowmenintheancientilluminatedmanuscriptsofthethirteenthtothefifteenth

centuriesidentifytheoldstanceandpracticewiththemodern.Apen-and-inkdrawingbyJohndeRous,abowmanaswellasacontemporarybiographeroftheEarlofWarwick,showsthenecessaryslightinclinationoftheheadandneck–this‘layingofthebodyintothebow’–thedrawingwithtwoandwiththreefingers,arecorrectlydelineated.Thisdrawingis

amongtheMSS.attheBritishMuseum.Asixteenth-centuryversesays:

‘WhothoughtitthenamanliesightandtrimToseeayouthofclean,compactedlimb,Whowithacomelygrace,inhislefthand,Holdinghisbow,didtakehissteadfaststand,Settinghisleftfoot

somewhatforthbefore,Hisarrowwithhisrighthandnockingsure,Notstooping,noryetstandingstraightupright,Then,withhislefthandlittle‘bovehissight,Stretchinghisarmout,withaneasystrength,Todrawanarrowofayardinlength.’

TheEnglishlongbowmen

mightwellhaveappearedtoaiminstinctivelybecauseitwasquicker,buttheyreallytookcarefulaim,usingtheirjudgmenttodeterminetheheightoftheiraim.Overthecourseofhundredsofyearsithasbeenproventhatthebestmannerofusingabowistousethesameforceforeveryshotregardlessofwhetherthetargetiscloseorfaraway.ThisisexactlywhattheEnglisharcherdid–heused

thefullpowerofhisboweverytime,neverinstinctivelyusingmoreorlessofitinordertoreachhismark.Thebowbeingheldperpendicularlytotheground,theirstancewassidewaysontotheirtarget;inthiswaythebestusecouldbemadeofthemusclesneededfordrawingawar-bowintosuchapositionthatthearrowinthebowlayundertheeye.Thisstancealsomeantthat

theycouldstandclosertogether,thusbetterconcentratingtheirvolleys,whichweremadeevenmoreeffectivebytherearranksbeingabletofireovertheheadsofthemeninfrontofthem.

Thebestarcherslookedcomfortableandfreefromawkwardness–agoodstancewasalwaysgracefulandneverugly–competent

archerylendsitselfadmirablytothestatuesqueposition.Withthebowheldoutbyonearmpointingtowardsthemarkortarget,theheadwasturnedinthesamedirectiononlyasfaraswascomfortable.Theotherhand,drawingthestringbackwiththearrow‘nocked’ontoit,wasbroughttosuchapositionunderoralongsidethechinthatthetailofthearrowwasatapointunder

theaimingeye.Tomakesurethatthearrowwasbroughtbacktothesamepointundertheeyeeverytime,thestringwouldtouchonepointontheface–onthechin,thelipsorthenose.Thechin,eitherrightinthemiddleoratsomespotontheside,wasthecommonest;thelipswerethemostsensitiveandmadeitpossibletodetectmoreeasilyanyslightvariationtoonesideoftheproperplace.The

drawing-handwas,atthesametime,broughtbackfirmlytoits‘anchor-point’(adefinite‘anchor-point’wasoftheutmostimportanceasitverylargelyinfluencedtheaccuracyoftheaimforelevation).Iftheknuckleatthebaseofthefirstfingercameupagainsttheangleofthejaw,analmostfoolproofanchor-pointwasobtained.

Afterreachingthefull-

drawpositiontherewasabriefpausebeforethearrowwassentonitsdeadlyway;duringwhichtheaimwasfinallytaken.Nowwasthetimewhenpractice,instinct,innateability,andalltheotherfactorsthatmadeonearcherbetterthananother,cameintoplay.Instinctively,thebowmancheckedalltheothervitalpointsinhisstance–hisbodilybalance,thepressureofthefingersofboth

hands,thepositionoftheelbows,theanchor-point,theangleofthebow,butespeciallythelengthofthedraw.

Themoreexpertthearcher,theshortertheperiodofholding;anditwasalwaysthesamelengthoftime–everyfractionofasecondoverhisnormalholdingperiod,withthebowheldatfulldraw,tooksomething

awayfromthecastofthebowandcausedthearrowtofallshort.Duringthewholeactofshooting,fromthebeginningofthedrawuntilafterthearrowwasloosed,thearcherheldhisbreath,withlungsjustnormallyfilled.Theactionofshootingwasnothurried,thesametimewastakenwitheacharrow;theEnglisharcheracquiredaregularrhythm.Hewouldrathercomedownand

startagainifhewerenotsatisfied–betterthatthantotakeachancewithwhatheknewtobeabadarrow.

Whenthewholebodywasundertensionatfull-draw,concentrationreacheditspeakastheslightfinalmovementofthebow-armwasmadetocompletetheaim.Ratherthanforcetheirarmstomovefractionallyintheirsockets,somearchers

wouldshifttheirbodyweightatrifleontotherearfoot.Allknewthatitwasbesttobringthebow-handuptotherequiredelevationjustbeforeoratthemomentthedrawwascompleted;inthiswayonlyaveryminuteadjustmentwasneededaftertheshaft-handhadbeenfinallyanchored.Everyarcherdevelopedsomelittlecharacteristicactionormovementthatdistinguished

himfromhisfellows;hesoughttosettledownintoastylewhichsuitedhimbest,becauseitwascomfortableandautomatic,bringingmaximumsuccess.

WhenHenryVaddressedhisarchersbeforeAgincourtheendeavouredtofirethembydwellingonthecrueltiesinstoreforthemshouldtheyfallintothehandsoftheFrench,who,hesaid,had

sworntoamputatetheirfirstthreefingerssothattheywouldnevermoreslaymanorhorse.ManyanEnglisharcher,capturedbyFrenchorScots,couldruefullyholduptwohandstoshowthatthethumbsandfirsttwofingershadbeentornawayfromeach.Hiscomradessetavengefulvalueonthem–twentyenemylivesforthethumbsandhalfascoreforthefingers.Fromthis,the

importanceofthearcher’sfingersisemphasised–everyarchersoughtfora‘sharploose’;acquiredbyanapparent,althoughnotactual,feelingofincreasingthepullofthefingersonthestringuntilitsuddenlyandinstantaneouslyslippedoffthefingerswithoutanysignofcreeping,oranyfeelthatthefingershadrelaxed.Mostofthefeelofdrawingshouldbeputintothefirstfinger;the

stringstartingquitecloseuptothefirstjointonthatfingerandslopingawayacrossthemiddleofthefirstjointofthesecondfinger,finishingupalmostatthetipofthethirdfinger,whichwillthenbepreventedfromdoingtoomuch.Avery‘sharploose’couldbegotinthisway,asthefirstfinger,thelazyone,wasunderbettercontrol.

Thefirstfingerwasthe

strongestbutthelaziest;thesecondwasalsostrongandnotnoticeablytemperamental,itwouldgenerallyfollowthefirstfinger;thethirdfingerwastheweakest,butitwasalsothemostwillingandcouldbehurtifitdidmorethanitspropershareofdrawing.

Theolderarchersendeavouredtoinstilintothebeginnerstheneedtolaythe

bodytothebow,todrawfromthethighandhipasmuchasfromthearm.Tolearntoshootwithadroppingshaftwasessential;anarrowwillgoacertaindistanceupintotheairbeforeitfallstowardsitsmark–whenanarrowhasitspointdirectlyonthetargettobehitthereisonlyonedistanceatwhichthearrowwillfallontothemarkitself.Thisis‘point-blank’rangeandforan

averagemandrawingabowof,say,forty-two-pounddraw-weight(underhalfthatoftheoldEnglisharcher)thatdistancewillbesomewherebetween80and100yards.Anadjustmenthadtobemadeintheaimforelevationwhenshootingatadistancelongerorshorterthanpoint-blankrange,bearinginmindthatthebowwasalwaysdrawntothesameextentsothatthesamepowerwasused

eachtime.Thiswasdonebyselectingapointatwhichtoaimeither,forshorterdistances,onthegroundshortofthetarget,or,forlongerdistances,inatreeorsomeothertallobjectaboveandbehindthetarget.Inthelattercase,thisoftenmeantthatthemarkwasobscuredbythebow-hand,butthelineofthearrowwasconstantlyunderobservation.

Anarcherwasoftencalledupontoshootstraightandfast;butoftenhehadtodealwithanenemyhidingbehindawalloranarbalastierwithhismantlet(awoodenshield)raised–theonlywayinwhichsuchprotectedmencouldbehitwastofireinsuchamannerthattheshaftfelluponthemstraightfromtheclouds.EvenasearlyasRichardI’ssiegeofMessina,thearchersdrovetheSicilians

fromthewallsinthismanner–‘fornomancouldlookoutofdoorsbuthewouldhaveanarrowinhiseyebeforehecouldshutit’.

Itisevidentfromthefactthattheyworenodefensivearmourthatthearchersweredesignedtobelightinfantry,swiftandmobile,skilfulanddeadlywiththeirweapons.ThenameofEdwardImusteverbememorableinhistory

fortheencouragementhegavetothelongbow.ButweseekinvainforthemanwhofoundedthetraditionthattheEnglish,whatevertheirweapon,shouldalwaysbegoodshots–theEnglisharcherwasreputedtobeabletodrawanddischargehisbowtwelvetimesinasingleminute,atarangeof250yards,andifheoncemissedhismaninthesetwelveshotshewasbutlightlyesteemed.

Hereitisdifficulttoseparatefactfromfiction;theoldchroniclersventuredawayfromaccuracywhendescribingthefeatsoftheEnglisharcher,thatishighlypossible–but,tocounterit,therearemanymodernarcherswhocanemulateandbestthereputedfeatsofRobinHoodandhismen!Forawearyandsickarmyoflessthan6,000mentodefeatover25,000FrenchatAgincourt

mustindicatethatthearcherscouldnotchwithashafteverycreviceandjointofaman-at-arms’harness,fromtheclaspofhisbascinettothehingeofhisgreave.Withthatinmind,canwecalmlydiscountthestoryoftheGenoancrossbowmanwhoraisedhisarmoverhismantletandshookhisfistattheEnglish,ahundredpacesfromhim?TwentyoftheEnglishbowmenimmediatelyloosed

shaftsathim,andwhenthemanwasafterwardsslain,itwasfoundthathehadtakeneighteenshaftsthroughhisforearm.Or,theaccountoftwoEnglisharchersfiringatthehempenanchor-cordofthecapturedEnglishcogChristopherheldinCalaisharbour–at200pacesthearchersinfourshotshadcuteverystrandofthecordsothattheboatwentontotherocks!

Wellauthenticatedfictionabouttheperiod,withcopioususeofthechroniclesofsuchasFroissart,cantellmuchabouttheperformancesofthesesemi-legendarycharacterswhosomouldedmediaevalEnglishhistory.OnecanreadinTheWhiteCompanybyA.ConanDoyleofacontestbetweenacrossbowmanofBrabantandanEnglisharcherwhosays:

‘Tomymind,thelongbowisabetterweaponthanthearbalest;Iwillventurearoverwithyou,ortrythelongbuttsorhoyles.’TheveteranselectsaScotchbow,recognisablebecausetheuppernockiswithoutandthelowerwithin–‘Agoodpieceofyew,wellnocked,wellstrung,wellwaxedandveryjoyfultothefeel.’Heisverycarefulaboutthearrowsthatheuses‘…Iloveanash

arrowpiercedwithcornel-woodforarovingshaft..ithasbeenmymindtochooseasaddle-backedfeatherforadeadshaftandaswine-backedforasmoothflier…’

Thecrossbowman,impatientatsuchslowandmethodicalactions,drewhismoulinetfromhisgirdleand,fixingittothewindlass,drawsbackthepowerfuldoublecorduntilitclicked

intothecatch.Thenfromhisquiverhedrewashortthickquarrel,whichheplacedwiththeutmostcareuponthegroove.Beforehecouldfireatthenominatedmark,alargegreystorkflappedheavilyintoviewwithaperegrinefalconpoisedoveritshead,awaitingitsopportunityofdartingdownonitsclumsyvictim.Whenthepairwereahundredpacesfromthemthecrossbowman

raisedhisweapontotheskyandtherecametheshort,deeptwangofhispowerfulstring.Hisboltstruckthestorkjustwhereitswingmeetsthebody,andthebirdwhirledaloftinalastconvulsiveflutterbeforefallingwoundedandflappingtotheearth.Attheinstantthattheboltstruckitsmark,theoldarcher,hithertostandinglistlesswitharrowonstring,benthisbowand

spedashaftthroughthebodyofthefalcon.Whippinganotherarrowfromhisgirdle,hesentitskimmingafewfeetfromtheearthtostrikeandtransfixthestorkforasecondtimebeforeitcouldtouchtheground.

Inthiswaythearcherprovedthatthelongbowcoulddowhatthecrossbowcouldnot,foreventhemostexpertarbalestiercouldnot

speedanothershaftskywardsbeforethebirdhadreachedtheground,asdidthearcher.

Inthenatureoftrick-shootingprobablyoflittleuseinactualwarfareistheshootingofanarrowsothatitcoversvastdistances–amileinthreeflightsisrecorded,asisalengthof630paces.Todothisthearcherwoulduseabowofexceptionalsizeandstrength;sittingdownupon

thegroundhewouldplacehistwofeetateitherendofthestave.Withanarrowfitted,hethenpulledthestringtowardshimwithbothhandsuntiltheheadoftheshaftwaslevelwiththewood.Thegreatbowwouldbreakandgroanandthecordvibratewiththetension;thearcherraisedhistwofeet,withthebow-staveontheirsoles,andhiscordtwangedwithadeeprichhumthatcouldbeheard

foraconsiderabledistanceasthearrowspedonitsway.

Duringthecontestbetweenthearcherandcrossbowmanthathasalreadybeenmentioned,bothfireatashieldmadeofinch-thickelmwithabull’shideoverit.Theboltfromthecrossbowisdrivendeeplyintothewood;thearchercarefullygreaseshisshaftandsendsittowardstheshield.Oninspection,the

shieldhasaroundclearholeinthewoodatthebackofit,showingthatthearrowhaspassedthroughit.

Englisharcherstriedtoavoidfightingwiththesunintheirfront,consideringthedazzlingsplendourofasummer’sdaytobeveryunfavourabletoshooting.AtCrécy,whenthesuddengleamofsunshineaftertherainburstforthbehindthe

English,itsbeams,besidesdazzlingtheeyesoftheenemy,flashedupontheirpolishedshieldsandcorseletswithalustresobrilliantthatthearchersdischargedtheirfirstflightofarrowswithmorethanusualcertaintyofaim.Windandweatherwilllikewiseexerciseacertaininfluenceuponeventhemostsuperblydirectedarrow;forshootinginboisterousweather,acomparatively

heavyarrowdoesbest.

Inadditiontobeingincomparablewithhismissileweapon,theEnglisharcherwouldfrequentlydiscardhisbowandfightonfootwithsword,axeormaul.Whenaknightwasseatedonahorseitwasalmostimpossibletogetanypowerintoaswingwithasword,sothathehadtostanduptodeliverhisblow.Standinginthestirrups,

heleftexposedtheoneunprotectedpartinhiswholearmouredbody–hisseat.Thiswasthetargetofthenimblearchersandtheyseldommissedwiththeirkeenswordsastheydodgedonlightfeetinandoutofthehorseandfootmêlée.

WellmightSirJohnFortescuesay:

‘Themightoftherealmeof

Englandstandythuponarchers.’

Chapter6

HisLongbow

‘Whatofthebow?ThebowwasmadeinEngland,Oftruewood,ofyewwood,ThewoodofEnglish

bows;FormenwhoarefreeLovetheoldyew-treeAndthelandwheretheyew-treegrows.’

MarchingSongoftheWhiteCompany

GonanDoyle

Apartfromsomeroughunfinishedstavesinthe

TowerofLondonrecovered,in1841,fromthewreckoftheMaryRosesunkin1545,andtheremainsofanearlybowdugupatBerkhamstedCastle,thoughttohavedatedfromthesiegeof1217,andnowintheBritishMuseum–thereareprobablynosurvivingspecimensofthetensofthousandsoflongbowsmadeduringtheMiddleAges.

Thereislittlereasonforanyofthemtobepreserved;itwasaweaponofthecommonman,keptinthecorneroflowlycottagesandthenonlyiffitforuse.Thewar-bowwasnotadecorationtobehungonthewallsofcastles,manorsandgreathouses,alongwiththeswords,shieldsandlancesofancestralknights.Theoldbowhadnothingsufficientlyartisticaboutitforittoform

anattractiveornamentforthewallafteritsusefullifewasover.Ifusedlongenough,everygoodboweventuallybrokeordevelopedfaultsthatmadeituselessforanythingexceptfirewood–noinferiorweaponcouldberetainedbytheEnglisharcherbecausehisverylifedependeduponitsefficiency.

Itcannotbeclaimedthatthelongbowcontributed

towardsthefoundationoftheBritishEmpire;butitmaywellhavegonealongwaytowardsdiscouragingothercountriesandpowersfromattemptingtoaddEnglandtotheirempires.Itwas,infact,simplyaprimitiveformofartillery,playingthesamepartthenasnow–softeninguptheenemytoallowtheinfantrytogettogripsunderthemostadvantageousconditions.Thereare

numerousinstancesofarchersbeingusedinmostintelligentfashiontocoverthemovementofothertroops–a‘combinedoperation’atthelandingofEnglishmen-at-armsatCadzand,in1346,enabledthemtogetcomfortablyashorewhilstthedefenderswerepinneddownbyhailsofarrowsfrommassedarchers.Intheautumnof1342RobertofArtoiswasbesiegingVannes,

thensecondcityofBrittany;afterspendingthefirstfewdaysinmakingpreparationsfortheassaultD’Artoisdelivereditearlyonemorning.Thearchersputdownwhatwouldnowbecalleda‘standingbarrage’ontothebattlements–sofierceandaccuratethat,accordingtoFroissart,thebattlementsweresoonclearedandnotanenemydaredshowhishead.Coveredbythisfire,themen-

at-armsadvancedtotheassault;butthetownactuallyfellatnightwhenafeintattackdrewdefendersfromthewallstothegates,thuspermittingsmallpartiesofEnglishtoscalethewallsandattackfromwithin.

Inthesummerof1344theEarlofDerbywasattackingthetownofBergeracinGascony,usingthefleetontheriverDordogneina

combinedland-and-waterattackonaportionofthewallclosetotheriver.Vesselswerefilledwitharchers,who,assoonasabreachhadbeenmadeinthewall,keptupsuchaheavyfirethatthegarrisondidnotdareventureintotheopentorepairit.OthersengagedinalongduelwithGenoesecrossbowmeninthetowntodrawtheirfirefromthebreach.Therangesatwhichtheseoperations

tookplacearenotknown,butthelongbowhadaneffectiverangeof200–240yards;Shakespearesays290yards(HenryIV,Part2,ActIII,Sceneii).EdwardVI’s‘Journal’statesthattheKing’sarcherscouldcompletelypierceaboardoneinchthick.

TheskillanddeadlinessoftheEnglisharcherwerenotamatterofchance;thelaw

prescribedthebow-weightswhichwereproperforyouthsofvariousages,becausetheweaponwaslittleusewithoutspecialtraining.BishopLatimerwrote:‘Myfatherwasdiligentinteachingmetoshootwiththebow;hetaughtmetodraw,tolaymybodytothebow,nottodrawwiththestrengthofthearmasothernationsdo,butwiththestrengthofthebody.Ihadmybowsboughtmeaccordingto

myageandstrength;asIincreasedinthesemybowsweremadebiggerandbigger.’Withsomuchpracticeandlegislaturetoensurethatitwascarriedout,itissmallwonderthattheyeomenofEnglandcouldpullawar-bowof100lb.ormorewitheaseandskill.Incidentally,thecontractpriceofabowin1341was–unpainted,is.;painted,1s.6d.;asheafoftwenty-four

arrowscost15.2d.andthearchersreceivedpayamountingto3d.perday.

Thewar-bowwasaboutsixfeetinlengthandusuallypulled100lb.;thestrengthofthebowwascalculatedbythepowerwherebyitrestoresitselftoitsnaturalposition,accordingtothedistancefromwhichitisremoved;herethephysicalstrengthofthearcheristhedeciding

factorintheeffectiverange.Itwasusuallyself-nocking;thatis,thenocksforthestringattopandbottomwereintegralpartsofthebowitself.Fancierbowshadhornorivorynocksfastenedtotheendsofthebowlimbs.Incross-sectionthelongbowlookedlikealetter‘D’lyingonitsback;thebellyofthebowfacedtheshooter,formedtheroundofthe‘D’,whilsttheback,facingthe

target,wasflat.Althoughfromastandpointofdesignthelongbowwaswastefulofbothwoodandenergy,theEnglishuseditwithoutthatfactbeingknown,nordoesitappeartohavedetractedfromitsefficacy.

IntothemakingofagoodEnglishlongbowwentagreatdealoffinecraftsmanship–ithadtobetaperedcorrectly,withmuchpatienceand

experience,fromthemiddletowardseachendsothatitwasbroughttoanevencurveatfulldraw.Allknotsandirregularitiesinthegrainhadtobecarefullywatchedand‘raised’orskilfullyfollowedtoeliminateweakspots.Exceptintheveryrarecaseofaperfectstave,thefinishedarticlewasaknobblylengthofwoodlackinginbeauty.Therewerenocunninglycarvedhornnocksonthe

ends,merelysimplegroovescutintothewooditselftotaketheloopsofthebowstring;therewasnovelvetorleatherpaddedgripatthecentre;nomother-of-pearlarrow-plateletintothesideofthestavewheretheshaftrestedagainstit,sothatthearrowwaspreventedfromwearingagrooveasitpassed.Thecrossbowwasanintricateandcomplicatedmechanismwithmuchmetal

workaboutit–butthelongbowwasaplain,ratheruglystick.Itwasalmostascrudeinappearanceasawoodenclubthatcouldbecutfromanytreeorhedgerow,inspiteofthecarefulworkmanshipthatwentintoit.Infinitelygreaterartistrywentintothefashioningofarrow-heads;thereareplentyofspecimenstobeseeninmuseumsbutfewcompleteshaftsremain.

TheEnglisharcherwasaccustomedtonoothersortofbowthanthatstyled‘self’orformedofasinglepiece.Whensummonedondomesticmilitaryservice,thearchers,exceptthoselivingonCrownlands,camearmedintothefield;iftheywereengagedonforeignexpeditions,thenecessaryequipmentwasprovidedatpubliccost.Thebowsthemselveswereofmany

woods.ThechroniclesseemwrongininvariablylistingbowsasbeingmadeofEnglishyew;althoughthebestwoodwasundoubtedlyyew,itcamefromtreessoughtinallthemountainouspartsofSpain,Portugal,ItalyandGermany.AtonetimeSpainhadsuppliedEnglandwithmanyoftheroughbowstavesofyew–butSpainherselfhadsufferedraidsbyEnglishbowmenunderthe

BlackPrince,whichsoaffrontedSpanishpridethatthelegendssaythatallyewtreeswerecutdownaftertheinvasionandallowedtogrownomoreforfeartheEnglishwouldcomeagain,plyingbowsofSpanishyew!AcomparativelysmallnumberofbowsweremadeofEnglishyewbecauselittleofitgrewinEngland,andthatmostlyinchurchyardsorotherenclosedplaceswhere

cattlecouldnotreachitspoisonousleaves.Englishyewwastooquick-grownandcoarse-grainedtomakeareallygoodbow;itwassoknottyanddefectivethatnopartcouldbereliedupon,exceptthatportionoftheheartprotectedbytheexteriorstratumofsapwood.Otherwoodswerealsoused,probablyforcompulsorypracticepurposes,amongthemwych-elm,ashand

hazel,buttheslow-grownmountainyewis,tothisday,thesupremewoodforthelongbowoftraditionalEnglishpattern.

Inmakingayewself-bowtheentirebuttofacleantree,insideaswellasoutside,canbeused,providedthatthestavesarenotsawnbutcleftfromtheplank.Oneoldauthorityclaimsthatthebestisthatnearesttheoutsideof

thelog,consistingofpracticallyallthelight-colouredsapwoodimmediatelyunderthebarkandonlyasmuchofthedarkerheartwoodasmaybeneeded.Thiscombinationofsapwoodandheart-woodinyewprovidesthetwoessentialproperties–thesap-woodisresistanttostretchandisthereforesuitablefortheback(theconvexsidewhenthebowisbent);and

theheartwoodresistscompressionandis,forthatreason,perfectforthebellyofthebow.Infact,theheartwoodwillnotstretchatallifbentthe‘wrong’way,butburstsimmediately.Becauseofthis,abrokenstringusuallymeantabrokenbowinthecaseofayewbow,becausethebowflewbackuncheckedbythestringtoapointbeyonditsnaturalpositionofrest.

Ascham,thepatronofthelongbow,wrote:‘Thebestcolourofabowiswhenthebackandbellyinworkingaremuchalike;foroft-timesinwearing,itproveslikevirginwaxorgold.’Inotherwords,itbecamesilky,smoothandtookafinepolish.

Sincetheoldwar-bowsweremadeinonepiecefromendtoend,theremightwellbeconsiderablechangesin

thepropertiesofthewoodinsuchasix-footlength–thethicknessofthesapwoodanddirectionofthegrainmightvary,togetherwiththeincidenceofknotsandpins.Thismeantthatverygreatskillhadtobeexercisedinshapingthelimbstoobtainequalbendinginboth.Itseemslikelythattherewastremendousdifficultyinfindinglongstavesfitforfirst-classbowsinthe

numbersrequired;theobviousinequalitiesintheseoldbowsgivingthemaveryshortlifeofusefulworkandlittlechanceofsurvivaltothepresentday.AsEnglandalonewasquiteunabletomeetthesupplyofbow-stavesdemanded,itwasnecessarytoimportthem;thisoftenmeantthattheycameinatpriceswhichputthemoutofreachoftheordinarycommonman.Tocombat

this,thegovernmentofthedayhituponacleverschemeorexpedienttorenderthemasinexpensiveaspossible.

Sincealltimberpossessesahardertextureandafinergrainwhengrowninawarmclimatethanwhenrearedinonelessgentle,thetradersandmerchantsofLombardywerecompelledtodeliveracertainquantityofforeignyewwitheverycaskofGreek

andItalianwineadmittedintotheLondoncustom-house.EdwardIV,withwhomthislaworiginated,fixedthenumberofbow-stavesatfour,butRichardIII,hissuccessor,increasedthemtotenforeachbutt.Themerchantswouldhaveyewtrees,alreadyloppedandtrimmed,conveyedtotheports,wheretheyselectedenough,ataroughguess,toequalthewineonboardandmadethem

usefulasdunnageamongthecasks.Bow-staveswerealsoimportedforcash;underRichardIIIalawwaspassedwhichcomplainedofthemendacityoftheLombardtraders,whohadcausedinflationintheprice.Formerly100staveshadbrought£2,butduetothetraders’machinationsthepricehadrisento£8.Itwastocounterpriceincreasesoriginallythatthewoodand

winelawwaspassed.

Theoldauthority,Ascham,speakingofthequalityofbows,said:‘Agoodbowisknownbytheproof.Ifyoucometoashopandseeonethatissmall,long,heavyandstrong,lyingstraightandnotwindingormarredwithknots,buythatbowonmywarrant.Theshort-grainedbowisforthemostpartbrittle.Everybowismadeof

theboughorplantofatree.Theformeriscommonlyveryknotty,small,weakandwillsoonfollowthestring.Thelatterprovethmanytimeswell,ifitbeofagoodcleangrowth;and,ifthepithisgood,itwillplyandbendbeforeitbreaks.Letthestavesbegoodandevenchosen,andafterwardswroughtasthegrainofthewoodleadethaman,orelsethebowmustbreak,andthat

soon,inshivers.Thismustbeconsideredintheroughwood.Youmustnotstickforagroatortwomorethananothermanwouldgiveforagoodbow;forsuchaonetwicepaidforisbetterthananilloneoncebroken.Thusashootermustbegin,notatthemakingofhisbowlikeabowyer,butatthebuyingofhisbowlikeanarcher.Beforehetrusthisbow,lethimtakeitintothefieldsandshoot

withdead,heavyshafts.Lookwhereitcomethmost,andprovideforthatplace,lestitpinchandsofrete.Thuswhenyouhaveshothim,andperceivegoodwoodinhim,youmusttakehimtoagoodworkman,whichshallcuthimshorteranddresshimfitter,makehimcomeroundcompasseverywhere.’

Bowstringsoftheeraweremadeofagoodgradeofflax

orlinenand,whenstrung,wereimpregnatedwithbeeswaxsoastorepelrainanddew.Thebowmanwouldwatchhisstringcarefullyandifitshowedsignsoffraying,especiallyattheloops,hescrappeditbeforeitbroke.Withagoodyewbow,abrokenstringoftenmeantabrokenbow.Sparestringswerealwayscarefullybrokeninatpractice–anewstringnevershotatfirstinthesame

wayastheoldone;archerswererequiredtocarrytwosparebowstrings.

Mostarcherscarriedtwenty-fourarrowsattheirside,intheirbeltorgirdle–inbattletheyweretakenfromthegirdleandplacedhead-firstinthegroundimmediatelyinfrontofthearcher’sposition,withineasyreachofhishand.Thearrowswereofvaryinglengthsbut

generallytheyweredescribedas‘clothyardshafts’;theywerefittedwithabarbandpointofiron,fledgedwithfeathersofgooseorpeacock.Anarrow-headfound,manyyearsafterthebattle,onthefieldofAgincourtshowedthatitwasmadespeciallytopiercearmour;theferrulebywhichtheheadwasoriginallyattachedtothewoodwasstillperfect,butitsdiameterprovedthattheshaftcould

nothavemeasuredmorethantwenty-eight,or,atthemost,thirty,inches.

InanancientActofParliamentitisstated:‘Trespedesfaciuntulnam’–(Threefeetmakeanell)–thisestablishesanidentitywiththeclothier’syardatthemostgloriousperiodinthehistoryofancientarchery.Onnoothersuppositioncantheindiscriminateuseof‘yard’

and‘ell’byhistorianswhentalkingofarrowsbejustified.AsaFlemishellmeasuredtwenty-seveninches,andamodernEnglishellforty-fiveinches,itwouldseemthatanarrowmightwellhavebeenlessthananactualyardinlength.

Thearrow-headsusedinthisgreatperiodweretippedwithlittleiron‘piles’nobroaderthantheshaftsupon

whichtheywereset.Theyweresmallheadswithabodkin-point,likeasmallcold-chisel,squareordiamondinsection,abouttwoincheslongandabouthalfaninchsquareatthewidestpoint,taperingtoasharppoint;itwasasolidchunkofironwithfourbarbsfittedtotheshaftbyashortsocket.Againstthistinyheadandtheenormous‘muzzle-velocity’behindit,chain-mailwasno

protectionanditcouldevenburstthroughplate-armourwhenasquarehitwasobtained.Butplate-armourwasmorelikelythannottodeflecttheshaft,hencethereasonforitsrapiddevelopmentafterCrécyhadimpresseduponanastoundedEuropethattheEnglishbowmanwasanewpowerwithwhichtoreckon.

Theeffectivenessofthese

arrowsisaccentuatedwhenoneconsidersthemuchlightermodernhuntingarrow,broad-headedandshotfromabowofperhaps65lb.weight;suchanarrowisquitecapableofcuttingitswayrightthroughadeerandwilleasilypenetrateathousandsheetsofpaperasusedintelephonedirectories.Whenfittedwithablunt,flat-endedcylindricalsteelhead,havingthediameteroftheshaftofthe

arrow,itreadilypenetratesaninchofpineboard.

PartIITheTacticsareForged

Chapter7

FalkirksetsthePattern–1298EdwardI,beingthemanhewas,wholeheartedlyencouragedtheuseofthe

longbow,havingseenforhimselfhoweffectiveitcouldbewhenproperlyhandled;itspotentialitieshadbeenbroughttohisnoticebysomeoftheextremelyablesoldierswhohadfoughtforbothsidesduringthecivilwarsinthe1260’s.HeusedthetraditionalenmityoftheScotsfortheEnglishtoprovidearrowfodderforthelongbowintheexperimentinghandsoftheEnglisharchers.

TheseearlyAnglo-ScotsbattlesseemtohavemadenoimpressionupontheseresponsibleformilitaryaffairsinFrance.Whenthenowwell-triedtechniqueswereusedintheearlybattlesoftheHundredYearsWartheyseemtohavetakentheFrenchcompletelybysurprise.

FollowingtheirvictoryovertheEnglishatStirling

Bridgeon13thSeptember1297thetriumphantScotssoravagedtheEnglishbordercountiesthattheenragedEdwardwasforcedtoconcludeahastytreatywiththeKingofFranceandrushhome.HereachedEnglandinmid-March1298;instantlyhesummonedthebaronsandtheircaptainstomeethimatYorkontheFeastofPentecost.Thearmyassembled.InJuneEdward

ledhisforcesintoScotlandbytheeasternborderswiththeideaofmarchingintothewesterncountiesandcrushingtherebellionoftheScots,ashetermedtheaffair.

ThearmyhereviewedatRoxburghconsistedofEnglish,WelshandIrishinfantry,withapowerfulbodyofmailed,mountedandwell-disciplinedcavalry,theveteransofhisFrenchwars;

inadditionhehadwithhimamountedcorpsofGascons.Theyprobablynumbered10,000footandabout2,500horses.ToopposethemWilliamWallace,theScotsleader,collectedaforcelargelycomposedofarmedpeasantryorganisedasspearmenandarmedwithpikessomeelevenfeetinlength.HealsohadagroupofarchersfromtheEttrickForestandaforceofabout

500cavalryunderJohnComyn,sonoftheLordofBadenoch.TheywereconsiderablylessinnumberthantheEnglisharmy,buttheyhadgreatconfidenceintheirleader,whohadpositionedtheminaverystrongsitetoawaitbattle.

ThattheScotswereformidableopponentsisborneoutbytheverydiscerningopinionofthe

archerinConanDoyle’sbook,TheWhiteCompany:

‘“IhaveheardthattheScotsaregoodmenofwar,”saidHordleJohn.

‘“ForaxemenandforspearmenIhavenotseentheirmatch,”thearcheranswered.“Theycantravel,too,withbagofmealandgrid-ironslungtotheirsword-belt,sothatitisillto

followthem.Therearescantcropsandfewbeevesintheborderland,whereamanmustreaphisgrainwithsickleinonefistandbrownbillintheother.Ontheotherhand,theyarethesorriestarchersthatIhaveeverseen,andcannotsomuchasaimwiththearbalest,tosaynoughtofthelongbow.Again,theyaremostlypoorfolk,eventhenoblesamongthem,sothattherearefew

whocanbuyasgoodabrigandineofchainmailasthatwhichIamwearing,anditisillforthemtostandupagainstourownknights,whocarrythepriceoffiveScotchfarmsupontheirchestsandshoulders.Manforman,withequalweapons,theyareasworthyandvaliantmenascouldbefoundinthewholeofChristendom.”’

Theirpositionwasfronted

byDarnrigMoss,amarshthroughwhichnocavalrycouldpass;theflankshadbeenskilfullyprotectedbyfield-worksofwoodpalisadesdrivendeepintotheearthandropedtogether.HeretheScotsspearmenwereformedintofourgreatmasses,knownasschiltrons,ofcircularformandreadytofaceoutwardsinanydirection.Thespearmen,whenreadyforaction,wouldleveltheirlongpikesfromthe

hiptorepelcavalry;theimmediatefrontrankswouldkneelontherightknee,againstwhichthebuttofthespearwasplaced;thusabristlingwallofsharpspear-pointspresenteditselfinwhateverdirectionthecavalrymightchoosetoattack.BetweeneachoftheschiltronswasplacedabandoftheEttrickarchers,whilstthecavalryremainedcloseathandinreserve.

OnthemorningofthebattleEdwardhadtobepainfullyassistedinmountinghishorse;duringthepreviousnight,whilstsleepingwithhismenonthebareheathalongsidetheirchargers,hehadbeentroddenonbythehorse,sothatthreeribswerebroken.Patchedupbythesurgeons,helaboriouslybutresolutelymountedandshowedhimselftohistroops.Heorderedthebannerstobe

unfurled,thetrumpetstosound,andthearmyrolledforwardtowardstheforestofFalkirk.OnreachingthesummitoftheheightsofCallendar,thewholeEnglisharmyhalted;attheirfeetlaythefertilecarseofFalkirk,andthevastoakforestknownastheTorwoodstretchedawaytowherethetowersandtownofStirlingroseinthesunshine.TheriverForthflowedlikeathreadofblue

andsilverbetweenforestsinallthegloriousfoliageofsummer.Intheimmediateforeground,midwaybetweenFalkirkandtheriverofCarron,theweaponsoftheScotsarmygleamedandtwinkledinthesun’srays.

TheEnglisharmycelebratedMass,conductedbytheBishopofDurhamcladinfullarmourwithaswordbyhissideandashieldslung

athisback.Thearraythatsurroundedthemilitantchurchmanwasimpressive–thebannersborethearmsofEdward…gules,threelionspassantregardant;andthoseofSt.EdwardtheConfessor–acrossfleurybetweenfivemartletsor.Thetunicswornoverthemailshirtswereelaboratelypaintedandblazoned;thosecuriousornamentscalledailetteswerewornontheknights’

shoulders.Thebarrel-shapedhelmetsweresurmountedbytheircrests;skull-caps,sphericalandconical,werewornbytheinfantry;thelanceshadlittleemblazonedbannershangingfromtheirheads.TheScots’bannersshowedtheScottishlionrampant,andthesilvercrossofSt.Andrew;Wallacehimselfworeahelmetsurmountedwithadragoncrest.

Then,ashadbeenordered,theEnglisharmyadvancedinthreecolumnsofhorsemen,withthearchersdisposedbetweenthem.ThefirstcolumnwasledbytheEarlMarshal;thesecondbythefightingBishopofDurhamandthethirdbyEdwardinperson.Themediaevalknightseldomtookthetroubletoexaminethegroundoverwhichhewastofight,consequentlythefirst

column,ridingfuriouslyforward,dashedpell-mellintothemarsh.Theheavilyarmouredmenandhorsesflounderedwetlyinthemorass,EnglishandGasconalike,whilsttheScotsarcherspouredarrowsintothemandcausedconsiderablecasualties.Therearmostranksofthecolumn,seeingthedanger,swervedtotheirlefttofindfirmerground,then,closingtheirfiles,

crashedintotheScotsformations.Wallacelookedaroundhimandcriedloudly:

‘Now!Ihaifbrochtyetothering–hopgifyecan!’

TheunwaveringbarrierofoutstretchedspearsinthehandsofsturdyandresoluteScotsbroughttheknightsofthefirstcolumntoashudderinghalt,sothattheymilled,cavortedandplunged

acrossthefrontofthepositionastheytriedtoforcetheirwaythrough,reachingouttostrikeatthedismountedScotsbeforethem.Seeingtheerrorofthefirstcolumn,theBishopofDurham’ssecondgroupavoidedthemarshandwheeledtotherightsothattheythreatenedtheScots’leftflank.ThesmallbodyofScotscavalryeyedwithsomemisgivingstheapproachof

thisvastlysuperiormountedforceandwavered,thenafewturnedandfled,panicsetinandthewholeforcefledfromthefieldwithoutstrikingablow;adisasterlaterreputedtohavebeenduetothetreacheryoftheirleader,Comyn.

Notwithstandingthis,theScotsinfantryremainedsteadyandunbroken,presentingathreateningand

ominouslyunwaveringfront.TheexperiencedBishopsawthatthiswastheWelshhedgehogalloveragainandrealisedthatitwouldbeprudenttowaituntilthearcherscameupwiththeKing’sdivision.HehaltedhisforceandtheysatlookingatthegrimScotsformation;afterafewminutesRadultBassetdeDrayton,foratimetheEnglishgovernorofEdinburghCastle,scornfully

bellowed:

‘Sticktothymass,thouLordBishop!Weshallconductthemilitaryoperationsofthisday!’

TheBishopbridled–brandishinghissword,hecried:

‘Onthen,forthisdayweareallboundtodoourdutyasgoodsoldiers!’

Spurringhishorse,heledhiscolumnponderouslytowardstheenemy,tofallheavilyontheScotsleftwhilsttheremnantsoftheEarlMarshal’scolumnassailedtheirright.TheScottishpikemenstoodfirm,shouldertoshoulder;againcamethemilling,scufflingandplungingofinjuredhorsesasknightsbumpedandgotintoeachother’swaybutwithoutforcingtheposition

atanypoint.TheEnglishhorsemendrewback,theirhorsesbreathingheavily.Theygatheredthemselvesandchargedagain…andagain…andagain…buttheystillhadnotbrokenthroughthelevelledpikeswhentheKingcameup,leadingtheinfantryandtheremainderofthecavalryaroundtheendofthemarsh.Hetookinthesituationataglance;broughthisarchers

forwardsothattheywerewithinpoint-blankrangeoftheScotsmasses,amanoeuvremadepossiblebecausetheEttrickarcherswiththeirleader,theyoungKnightofBonhill,hadallbeenkilledorhadfledwhenriddendownbytheEnglishcavalry.

AttheKing’sorders,thearchersconcentratedtheirrainofarrowsonparticularly

stubbornpointsofScotsresistance;ahailofclothyardshaftspouredunceasinglyintotheunarmouredranksoftheScots,mercilesslybringingthemcrashingtotheground.Verysoonthe‘woodofspears’begantowaver,tobecomethinnerandlessthreateningasmanaftermandroppedtothegroundwithanarrowprojectingfromhisunprotectedbody.Desertedbytheircavalryandtheirown

archersdestroyed,theScotsinfantrylevelledtheirpikesoverabreastworkoftheirowndeadanddyingastheymadedesperateattemptstoholdtheirground.Buttheirnumberswerethinningfastandtheywerebecomingunsteady;theirmoralewaswaveringastheylostheartatthehopelessprospectoffightingagainstthehissingdeaththatcameatthemfrombeyondtheirreach.Hereand

thereamancreptawayfromtheformations,soonthetricklebecameastreamanddisorderbecameevident.

Seeingthatthemomentwasripe,Edwardthrewinthecavalryofhisowndivision;theythunderedacrossthetorngroundinasuddencharge,todashthroughthegapingranksofScotspikemenandtolumberthroughthescatteredrankslayingaboutthemwith

lance,swordandaxe.Onceinsidethepikes,therewasnothingtostoptheknights;theywallowedinadreadfulslaughteroftheirlighter-armedenemy.Fightingbravely,wieldinghisgreattwo-handedsword,Wallacesluggedhiswayfromthefieldaccompaniedbyahandfuloffaithfulfollowers.Hisarmywasshatteredandofthosewhoescapedtheshamblesmanywere

drownedcrossingtheriverCarroninheadlongflighttothenorth.

TothedefeatedScotstherewastheminuteconsolationthatbeforebeingvanquishedtheyhadcomewithinsightofvictory;themonumentalstubbornnessoftheschiltronshadprovedamatchforcavalrychargesfarmoreviolentthananythingseenintheWelshwars.Inspiteof

thefactthatarcherssupplementedbycavalryhadprovedthattheycouldbeatsuchtactics,theformationtriedoutbytheWelshandperfectedbyWallacewastobethebasicmethodofinfantryfightinguptotheearlynineteenthcenturyatWaterloo,outlastingtheheavy-armedcavalryandlongsurvivingtheintroductionoffirearms.

Falkirkwasthefirstengagementofanyrealsizeorimportanceinwhicharchers,properlysupplementedbycavalry,playedaleadingpart.SostrikingwasthedemonstrationofthedevastatingeffectofthelongbowthatnoEnglishcommandercouldfailtobeimpressedortoseethetacticallessonthathadbeensetoutbeforehim.

Chapter8

Bannockburn–1314TheBattleofBannockburnhasfiguredsomuchinlegendandstorythatitisdifficulttodisentanglewhatactuallytookplace;stillmoredifficult

todiscoveriswhereittookplace.Manyantiquarianshavelosttheirtempersoveritstrueacreage,buttheactualsiteseemstohavebeenwithintheangleofBannockburnandtheriverForth,justtothesouth-eastofStirling,intheparishofSt.Ninians.Thedetailsofthis–’themostlamentabledefeatwhichanEnglisharmyeversuffered’–aresimilarlyblurred,butoutofthe

confusionarisestheclaimthatitis…‘theonlypitchedbattleinrecordedmediaevalhistoryinwhichinfantrytotallyandoverwhelminglydefeatedcavalry’.

Inthesummerof1314KingEdwardII–thevacillatingsonofaninspiringfather–invadedScotland.RobertBrucewithdrewtotheForth,knowingthatEdwardwouldtirehistroopsand

strainhiscommissariatincrossingthewastedlandstothesouth.StirlingCastle,commandingtheonlybridgeovertheriver,wasbeingbesiegedbytheScotsandEdwardwasdeterminedtorelieveit.Hehadtomovequicklybecause,byanarrangementcommoninmediaevalwarfare,thedefendershadagreedtosurrenderifnoreliefarrivedbymidsummer’sday.

BrucegavealotofthoughttohisselectionofapositiononwhichtogivebattletothenumericallysuperiorEnglish.Hehadtobearinmindhisgreatdeficiencyofcavalry,thosefewhehad,bothinnumbersandaccoutrements,beingtotallyunfittedtocopewiththeEnglishmen-at-arms.BothfromhisownexperienceandthatofWallace,hewasawarethatabodyofScotsinfantry,when

armedwiththeirlengthypikesandjudiciouslyposted,couldeffectivelyresistallchargesofcavalry.ThepieceofgroundthatBruceselectedwasthenknownastheNewPark,partlyopenandpartlyencumberedwithtrees;ononesideitwasprotectedbyamorass,theNewmilnBog,thepassageofwhichheknewtobedifficultanddangerous.Inhisrearlayalittlevalleyabovewhichrosealong

greenridge,nowknownastheGilliesHill,forthereuponwereallhiscamp-followersandbaggage.

Brucereceivedtidingsonthe22ndofJune1314thattheEnglishwereadvancingfromEdinburgh.Heimmediatelymarchedhismen,about8,000inall,fromtheTorwoodtothepositionsthathehadassignedtothemlessthantwodaysbefore.He

formedtheminfourcolumnsofdivisions,apartfromeachotheryetnearenoughtokeepintouch.TherightcolumnwascommandedbyhisbrotherEdward;theleftbyDouglasandtheyoungStewardofScotland;thecentrebyThomasRandolph,theveteranEarlofMoray;andthereserveorfourthcolumnwascommandedbyBrucehimself.Hehadasmallbodyofcavalry,under

SirRobertKeith,theMareschalofScotland;tothemheassignedtheimportantandspecificdutyofattackingand,ifpossible,dispersingtheEnglisharchers.

TheScotsdispositionshadbeenmadetomeetanattackalongtheoldRomanroadwhichranfromFalkirktoStirling;thismeantthatBruce’sthreecolumnswere

facingsouth-east,thedirectionbywhichheexpectedtheEnglishtoapproach.TheScotswereinalineextendingfromthebrook,or‘burn’,calledtheBannock,tothevillageofSt.Ninian.Therightwingwasprotectedbymeansofpitsdugwherethegroundwasfirm,aboutthreefeetdeepwithastakeineach,lightlycoveredwithsodsandbranches.Ironcalthrops–

triangularmetalpiecesconstructedinsuchamannerthatapointsticksthreateninglyupwardswhilsttheotherpointsrestontheground–werestrewnoverareaswherecavalrymightbeexpectedtocharge,sothattheirhorseswouldbelamedbythesharppoints.

Edward’sarmymovedthroughoutthemorningandearlyafternoonof23rdJune,

beingalreadywearywhentheycameintotheScots’sightastheydebouchedfromthevastwoodwhichthenstretchedawaytowardsFalkirk.TheJunesunshinefellbrightlyontheirburnishedarms,innumerablewhitebannerswereflutteringintheslightbreezeandtheparticolouredpennonsoftheknightsfloatedabovetheglitteringcolumnslikeavividsea.Edwardobviously

consideredthathisfirstobjectivewastocontactStirlingCastleinforce,sothathecouldreleaseitscommander,SirRobertMowbray,fromhispromiseofsurrender.Thatdone,thegarrisoncouldthen,withoutdishonour,makeasortieontheScottishleftwing.Toaccomplishthetask,Edwardsentforwardaforceofabout500cavalryunderSirRobertClifford;theymadeagreat

circuitbythelowgroundsborderingontheForthandhadactuallypassedtheScots’leftbeforeBrucedetectedtheglitteroftheirspearsandarmourarisingthroughthelonglineofdustthatrollednorthwardinthedirectionofStirling.ItisnotclearwhethertheEnglishforcecameupagainsttheScotsdefencesorwhetherBrucesentoutastrongpartytocounterthem;butitdoes

seemapparentthatthecavalrywererepelledbytheScottishspearmenandsentreelingbackincompletedisorder,horsesgallopinginalldirectionswithemptysaddles.

Whilstthisaffairtookplace,theEnglishvanguardwerestillsteadilyadvancing,butyetsodistantthatBruce,whohadnotmountedhisbattle-charger,wasstillriding

alonghislinemountedonasmallhackney,toseethatallwereintheirplaces.Hecarriedabattleaxeinhishand,andworeagoldencrownuponhishelmetthusshowingtoallthathewastheKing.FromtheEnglishvanguardtherecamegalloping‘awychtknichtandhardy’namedSirHenrydeBohun,whobravelyconceivedtheideaofterminatingthestrifeatonce

andcoveringhimselfwithhonour.Couchinghislance,herodefuriouslyattheKing.

Armedatallpointsandmoreheavilymounted,theencounterwasmostunequalbutBrucedidnotdeclineit,androdeforwardtomeethiminfullcareer.Justastheywereabouttocloseheswervedhishackneyround,andasdeBohun’slancepassedharmlessly,heclove

hisheadandhelmetintwainwithoneblowofhisbattle-axe,andlaidhimdeadathisfeet.Theweaponwasshiveredbytheviolenceofthestroke;andtothosewhoblamedhimforhistemerity,Brucerepliedsimply:

‘Ihavebrokenmygoodbattle-axe.’

Easilydiscouraged,Edwardnowdecidedtotryto

outflanktheScots,turningtheirpositionundercoverofdarkness.SotheEnglishspentthenightof23rd/24thJunefollowingthecourseofthelittleriverBannock,whichjoinstheForthafewmilesbelowStirling,andcrossingitinthemarshflatsbetweenBannockburnvillageandCrookbridge.Inthefourteenthcenturythisareawasextremelywetandmarshy,makingitavery

difficultpassageforheavycavalry;the20,000heavilyarmedmenofEdward’sarmyspentallnightlaboriouslycrossingthestream.ThesunrisesearlyonmidsummerdayinScotlandanddaybreakfoundtheEnglishhostadisorganisedmassmillingaboutonthemarshyflatsbelowSt.Ninian’sChurch.ThemainEnglishbodywasacrossthestreambutnotyetformedupforbattle;onlythe

vanguardundertheDukeofGloucesterhadmanagedtogetintoanysortoforder.

Theyweregivennotimetoorganise;Brucesawthatthiswastheoneoccasioninathousandwhenhispikemencould,inattack,bemorethanamatchforEdward’scavalry.Rapidlyfacinghisarmytothenewfront,helaunchedthemdowntheslightslopeinechelonofschiltrons.Inthe

whitelightoftheearlymorningthestillflounderingEnglishcavalrysuddenlybecameawareofthephalanxesofpikesthreateninglyinmotionandbearingdownuponthem.Beforetheycouldgatherthemselves,thefootmencrashedheavilyintothewallowingmassofmenandhorses;thegreatclashofmenandarmsatthefirstshockwassaidtohavebeenheard

oversomedistance.Theattackhadadevastatingeffect,manyofthecavalrywereimmediatelyunhorsedtorollhelplesslyontheground,whiletheirhorses,stabbedandmaddenedwithwounds,plunged,rearedandbolted,tospreadconfusiontotherear.

Warnedbythenoise,someoftheEnglisharchersnimblyranforwardtoapositionon

therightflankoftheaffray,gettingtheirunarmouredpersonsoutoftroubleandalsocausingcasualtiesinthemassedScotsranks.Forashorttimetheyfiredunchecked,theirarrowscarvingtheusualdeadlygapsinthehithertosteadyScotsranks.SadexperiencehadalreadywarnedtheScotsthatthismightoccur;themountedforceunderSirRobertKeith,thathadbeenreservedforthis

verypurposebyBruce,cameswiftlyroundthefringesofthemorassandthunderedintothelightlycladarchers.Lackingspearsorotherlongweaponsandwithoutanyheavysupport,thearcherswereimmediatelyoverthrownastheyhuddledtogether;soontheyhadbeencutdownordispersedinalldirections,furtheraddingtothedisorderthatwasnowturningtheEnglisharmyintoan

undisciplinedrabble.Seeingwhathadhappened,otherEnglisharchersfearedtomovetotheflanksandtriedtomaketheirpresencefeltbyfiringfromtherear,buttheirflightsofarrows,dischargedovertheheadsoftheirowntroopsagainsttargetsoutoftheirsight,didlittledamagetotheScotsandprobablyfarmoretothestrugglingEnglishcavalry.

BattleofBannockburn24thJune1314

ThebattledevelopedintoaconfusedmêléebetweenBruce’sspearmenandtheEnglishmen-at-arms;thehugemassesofhorseandfootstoodlockedtogether.TheEnglishcavalrytrieddesperatelytoextricatethemselvesbutwerequite

unabletofindsufficientspacetodrawoutandchargebackin.FreshknightscomingupfromEdward’smainbodycouldonlymakepartialandineffectivechargesinsmallbodies,effortswhichfailedutterlytobreakdownthelineofpikes,whichcauseddreadfulcasualtiestothecavalry.Theairwasfilledwiththedinofwar,theclangofarms,theshoutingofwarcries;horsesran

masterless,bannersalternatelyroseandsankwhilethegroundranwithbloodamidtheshredsofarmour,brokenspears,pennonsandrichtrappingstornandsoiledwithbloodandmuddyclay.

TheScotswerepressinghardonthewaveringmassesoftheEnglish,whoserearranksfounditimpossibletogetupandintothefray;they

stoodhelplesswhilsttheircomradesweremowndown.ThentheEnglishlinebegantogiveway,tofalter;thegapsbecamelargerastheexhaustedanddispiritedmenlookedwildlyaboutthemandwavered.Suddenly,likeadambeforeatidalwave,itbrokecompletely.Themenwhohadnotfallenonthepikesturnedandfledindisorder.Thepanicwascontagious,affectingthose

behindthemwhohadnotevenhadtheopportunityofliftingtheirarmtomakeawarlikestroke;theystaredhopelesslyatthefleeingfrontranksandthenturnedtoflywiththem,runningfortheirlivesuntilthedefeatbecamearout.BehindthemlaythemarshybanksoftheBannockburnandthebroadreachesoftheriverForth–theyhadnoeasyroadtofreedom.Soon,thenarrow

ravineoftheburnwasliterallychokedandbridgedoverbytheslain;theypiledupattheobstacleitpresenteduntil,coupledwiththedifficultnatureoftheground,whichheldupthefugitivehorsemen,theScottishspearmenwereuponthem.Many,interror,dashedtheirmountsintotheriverForthwheretheydrownedmiserably.

Leavingtheremnantsofhisarmytotheirfate,EdwardeludedcapturebytakingacircuitousroutewhichledhimpastStirlingCastle;hereheaskedforshelter,buttheGovernorrefusedtoadmithimandshortlyafterwardssurrenderedthecastleashehadpromised.ThedefeatedKingstruggledonuntilhereachedthecastleofDunbar,wherehewashospitablyreceivedbytheEarlof

March.ComparedwiththeslightlossesoftheScots,theEnglisharmyhadlostanenormousnumberofmen.Thelessonstandingoutforalltolearnwasthatcavalry,nomatterhowbraveordetermined,cannotdefeatsteadypikemen,unlessthehorsemenaresupportedbyarchers,who,intheirturn,areworthlesswithoutthebackingofheavytroops.Bannockburnwasan

exceptionalreversetotheusualandfastdevelopingsuccessfulmethodsoftheEnglish,butitwasabattlelostbyunskilful,almostinsane,generalshipratherthanbyfailingtousethetacticsthathadbroughtvictoryatFalkirk.

Chapter9

HalidonHill–1333WiththenotableexceptionofBannockburn,forthetwocenturiesthatfollowedtheBattleofFalkirk,itscharacteristicswerealmost

monotonouslyrepeatedwheneverScotsandEnglishmetinbattle.OnlyinsmallerforaysdidtheScotsleaders,inthesamewayastheWelshbeforethem,managetoevadeanddrawtheenemyintotheirunknownanddifficultcountrysothattheirunmountedspearmencouldbringdisastertotheheavilyarmouredEnglishknight.Withthesealmostinsignificantexceptions,the

battlesofHalidonHill,Neville’sCross,HomildonandFloddenwereallvariationsonthesametheme.Thesteadybutslow-movingmassesoftheScottishinfantryfellasacrificetotheirownpersistentbraveryastheystaggeredforwardinvainattemptstoreachthewell-chosenpositionlinedbyarcher-flankedmen-at-arms.TheEnglishbowmanmightwellboastthathecarried

twelveScotslivesathisgirdle;hehadbuttolaunchhisshaftintotheeasytargetpresentedbythegreatsurgingmassofpikemenanditwascertaintododreadfulexecution.

In1333KingEdwardIIIofEnglanddecidedtoaidEdwardBaliolinhisattempttowresttheCrownofScotlandfromtheyoungKingDavidII,aminorwho

ruledwiththeaidofaRegent.ThecaptureandreductionofthetownofBerwickwasEdward’sfirstobjective;withapowerfularmyhelaidsiegetothetown,investingitbylandandsea.FollowingtheslaughterofanumberofScotshostagesbeforethewallsofthetown,theGovernor,SirWilliamKeith,gaveoneoftheconditionalsurrenderpromisescharacteristicofthe

time.Heagreedunconditionallytosurrenderbeforethehourofvespersonthe19thofJulyunlesstheScots,inthemeantime,couldreinforcethegarrisonwith200men-at-arms,ordefeattheEnglishinapitchedbattle.Topreventthelossofthisimportantfrontiertown,theScottisharmy,undertheRegent,crossedtheTweedonthe18thofJulyandencampedatDunsePark,a

fewmilesnorthofBerwick.

TheScotsleader–ArchibaldDouglas,LordofGalloway–wasabravemanbutanimprudentleader.HehadheardbutfailedtoobservethedyingadviceofKingRobert:‘…thefateofthekingdomshouldnever,ifpossible,dependuponthedoubtfulissueofageneralengagement.’Douglasdeterminedonjustsucha

courseofaction,apparentlyconfidentthatbothheandhisarmywouldbevictorious.HefoundtheEnglishstronglypositionedonthecrestofaneminencecalledHalidonHill,situatedtothewestwardofthetownofBerwick.LittleisknownofthespecificnatureoftheEnglishpositionortheirdispositions,savethatBaliolcommandedoneofthewingsandthatamarshyhollowlayinfrontoftheir

line.

ThefirstofthefourcolumnsintowhichtheScottisharmywasdividedwasledbyJohn,EarlofMoray,assistedbyJohnandSimonFraserofOliverCastle;thesecondbytheStewardofScotland,aboyofsixteenyearsbutassistedbyhisuncle,SirJamesStewart;thethirdwasledbyDouglashimself,havingwithhimthe

EarlofCarrick,andthefourthcolumn,inreserve,wasledbyHugh,EarlofRoss.ThenumericalstrengthoftheScotsarmyisvariouslyrecordedbythehistorians.ItisbelievedtohavebeenlargerthantheEnglish,andtheContinuatorofHemingford,acontemporarychronicler,givesitas14,655fightingmen.Theseconsistedof55knights,1,100mountedmen-at-arms,and13,500

lightlyarmedfootsoldiers.

Itwasnoononthe19thofJuly1333whenthisforcemovedforwardtodecidethefateofBerwick,andpossiblyScotland.Theyreceivedanearlyset-backwhentheycameuptotheEnglishposition,findingthatitwaspostedinsuchawayastobeimpossibletoattackwithcavalry.ThewholeoftheScottishknightsandmen-at-

armsthereforedismounted,senttheirhorsestotherearwiththeirpagesandpreparedtofightonfoot.Theorderwasgiventoadvanceandtheforceponderouslylurchedforward;uptheslopeofHalidonHilltheyplodded,headsdownandshelteredbytheirupraisedforwardshoulder.NeverthelesstheywereseverelygalledbythefiercefireoftheEnglisharchers.Inspiteofthis,they

managedtoreachthemarsh,spreadingbeforetheEnglishpositionwithoutlosingtheirorder,butherethedisastersofthedaybegan.Thesoft,boggygroundexacteditstollupontheheavilycladmen,impedingthemandslowingthemdownsothatthestrongerpressedforwardandtheweakerlaggedbackandtheranksbecamebroken.Allthetime,withoutcessation,thearcherspouredintheir

volleysfromthecrestofthehill;theyfiredwithcertainaimandfataleffectatsuchcloserange.Anancientwriter,quotedbyTytler,says:‘Thesearrowsflewasthickasmotesinthesunbeam.’

ThestrugglingScotsbegantofallintheirdozens,scoresandthenhundreds;butthestill-strongsurvivorsbattledtheirwaythroughthemarshtostrugglelaboriouslyand

wearilyforward.Theirlongpikesheldinfrontofthem,levelledpointsunwavering,theygainedencouragementfromthenow-nearnessoftheEnglish.Musteringtheirstrength,theymadeafuriousuphillcharge.Theimpactwasnoisyandbreathtaking,sofuriouswasitthattheEnglishlinemomentarilywaveredandsteppedback.Itwas,however,onlyasiftheyhadsteppedbackinadmirationof

thestrengthandcourageoftheScots,whomtheynowfoundtobebreathlessanddisorderedbytheirclimbandstrugglethroughthemarshsothattheirfightingwasbutbrieflyfierceandspasmodic.Theill-fatedandill-ledScotswereunabletosustaintheirinitialimpetusandinashortandsharpstrugglewereremorselesslybornebackinaslowpageantofdesperatelystrugglingmen,tobefinally

forcedbackintothedeadlyembraceofthecloyingmarsh.

TheEarlofRossledthereservetoattackthewingoftheEnglisharmyledbyBaliol,buthewassoonkilledandtheattackpeteredout.Fightinginthevan,Douglasreceivedamortalwoundandwascaptured,togetherwiththeEarlsofSutherlandandMonteith.TheScotsnow

werebeginningtogivewayonallsides;tomakemattersworse,thepagesatthefootofthehill,seeingthedaygoingagainsttheirmasters,panickedandfledwiththehorses;thewearyknightsandmen-at-armsnowhadnomeansofescapeastheyweretoospenttorunfarintheirarmour.Thismeantthatveryfewofthenoblesormen-at-armsescapedinthebloodypursuitthatfollowed;itonly

endedwhen4,000ormoreScotslaydeadontheslopesofHalidonHillandinthefieldsaroundit.EnglishhistoriansofthedayclaimthattheEnglishlostonlyoneknight,oneesquireandtwelvefootsoldiers.

‘Norwillthisappearincredible,’saidLordHailes,‘whenitisrememberedthattheEnglishranksremainedunbrokenandthattheir

archers,atasecuredistance,incessantlyannoyedtheScottishinfantry.’

ThetownandcastleofBerwicksurrenderedonthe20thofMay,accordingtotheagreement.

AfterthedusthaddieddownatBannockburn,nineteenyearsbefore,itwasrealisedthatitneedneverhavebeensuchadreadful

defeat;thattheEnglishpossessedthetacticalcombinationtodestroytheadvanceoftheScottishspearmen.IntheyearsbetweenBannockburnandCrécytherewasadecisivedifference,adifferenceablyexploitedatHalidonHill.Itwasatacticthatutilisedtheoldmethodofreceivingtheenemy’sattackbydismountedmen-at-armsdrawnuptoexploitthe

advantagesofmassanddensity,coupledwiththeinnovationofhavingarchersdrawnupontheflankstoinflictmaximumdamageontheadvancingenemybeforehecouldcometogrips.Asearlyas1322,AndrewHarcia,fightingforEdwardII,hadusedarchersanddismountedmen-at-armswhendisputingthepassageoftheriverUrewithThomasofLancasterandtheEarlof

Hereford.TenyearslaterEdwardBaliol,invadingScotlandtoclaimthethrone,stoodonthedefenceonDupplinMoor;theshootingofhisarchersfromtheflanksenabledhisdismountedcentretowintheday.HalidonHill,in1333,gaveEdwardIIItheopportunityofpractisingthesametacticsbutwithgreaterelaboration;theKingwassoldierenoughtoknowwhathehadathis

disposal.

Themeanshadbeendevisedtooverthrowtheschiltrons–iftheScottishspearmenstoodfirmtheyweredecimatedbyarcheryuntiltheEnglishmen-at-armscameintotheassault.

IftheScotsattackedtheywerebeatenbydismountedmen-at-arms,flankedbyarchers.Intheseearlyyears

ofEdwardIIItheessentialmilitaryconditionsofsuccessintheHundredYearsWar,bothintacticsandinorganisation,hadalreadybeenprepared.

Chapter10

TheArcheratSea:Sluys–1340TheEnglishvictoriesovertheScotsseemtohavemadenoimpressionwhatsoeverupon

thoseresponsibleformilitaryaffairsinFrance.AsthoughtogivetheFrenchalastchanceofassessingthenewEnglishtacticsbyparadingbeforetheminvictorythearchers,thebackboneofthesuccessfulmethods,theopeningnotesofthelongAnglo-Frenchconflictrangoutfirstoverwater.PhilipofFrancewaswellawareofEdward’sdesignsonhisthroneand,aspartofhis

preparations,hegatheredtogetheralargefleetofNormanandGenoeseships-of-war.TheseheassembledinSluysharbour,fromwheretheycouldemergetocutcommunicationswiththeEnglishfleetwhentheymadeforAntwerporportsofFlanders.

Hearingofthis,Edwardcollectedfromportsbothinthenorthandsouthofhis

kingdomafleettofacetheFrench;numbersonbothsidesaregreatlyatvarianceinthedifferentchronicles,somegoingsofarastostatethattheFrenchhad400vesselstotheEnglish260sail–atleasttheproportionatesizesareprobablycorrect!EdwardinpersoncommandedtheEnglishfleet,whichwasfoughtby4,000men-at-armsand12,000archers–largenumbersof

menforthetime.TheEnglishappearedoffSluysonthe24thofJune1340;theyenteredtheharbourataboutnoonwhenthetidewashigh,toseetheFrenchshipsinfourlines,boundandclampedtogetherwithropesandchainstoformfourgiganticfloatingplatforms.Seabattles,beingcontestedbylandarmies,hadtohavebattlefields.

Edwarddisplayedthatgeniusfortheartofwarwhichalwayscharacterisedhim,givingthenecessaryordersandforminghislinesasifhehadbeenbredtothesea.TheEnglishshipsformedintotwolines,thefirstconsistingofthelargestandstoutestshipstobearthebruntoftheencounter,eachalternateshipbeingfilledwitharchers,supportedbymen-at-arms.Thesecondline

wasalmostareserve,tobedrawnuponifnecessary.TheEnglishline-upwasliterallya‘Crécy-formation’onthehighseas.

EachEnglishvesselclampeditselfbygrappling-ironstoitsoppositeFrenchnumber,untiltheharbourresembledavastfloatingraftoffightingships.Atsuchcloserangethearchershad‘sittingtargets’andtheir

arrowswhirredinadeadlysleetamongthemassedranksontheFrenchdecks.Thebowmenwereshootingatarangewhichwassoshortastoenableaclothyardshafttopiercethroughmailcoatsortransfixashield,evenifitwereaninchthick.Whentheyclosedatfirst,theEnglishcouldseetheFrenchships’deckscrowdedwithmassedfigures,wavingarms,exultantfaces;inafew

minutesithadbeenreplacedwithablood-soakedshambles,withbodiespiledthree-deepuponeachother,thelivingcoweringbehindthedeadtoshelterthemselvesfromthesuddenstorm-blastofdeath.Withtheenemydeadpiledhigh,theEnglishmen-at-armswarilyclamberedacrossthegapbetweenthevesselsandontotheFrenchdecks,tominglewiththeenemysoclosely

thatitwasimpossibleforthearcherstodrawstringtohelpthem.Itwasawildchaoswhereaxeandswordroseandfell,daggerandpikelungedandpiercedhome;EnglishmanandFrenchmanstaggeredandslippedondeckscumberedwithbodiesandslipperywithblood.Theclangofblows,thecriesofthestricken,theshortdeepshoutsofthemen-at-armsandthearchers,whohad

droppedtheirbowsandenteredthemêléewithswordsandmauls,rosetogetherinadeafeningtumult.Remorselessly,theEnglishmen-at-armscarriedontheslaughterbegunbythearchers,slowlybutdecidedlytheypushedtheiropponentsacrossthetreacherousdecks,stepbystep,untiltheyplummetedintotheseabelow–tosinklikestonesintheirarmour.Othersrushedwith

wildscreamsandcurses,divingunderthesails,crouchingbehindbooms,huddlingintocornerslikerabbitswhentheferretsareuponthem,ashelplessandashopeless.Theyweresterndays,andtheordinarysoldier,toopoorforaransom,hadnoprospectofmercyuponthebattlefield,evenwhenitwasatsea.

Onlytherearsquadronof

twenty-fourFrenchshipsescaped,theremainderbeingcapturedordestroyed.Edwardpersonallyclaimedthat30,000Frenchhadbeenkilled,butamorereasonableestimatewouldbesomethinglike10,000or12,000;theEnglishlostabout4,000andonegreatship,agalleyfromHull,wassunkwithallhandsbyashowerofstones,asomewhatsingularbroadsidebutcommoninthosedays.

Edwardkeptatseaforthreedayswithallhisbannersflying,toputhisvictorybeyondalldispute.ItisrecordedthatonlyonemaninFrancedaredtellKingPhiliptheterriblestoryofthelossofhisfleet–thecourtbuffoon,whoexercisedthetraditionallicencegiventothefool.ComingintotheKing’spresenceinanapparentpassion,heexclaimed:‘Cowardly

Englishmen!Dastardly,faint-heartedEnglishmen!’Philipenquiredwhyhesocalledthem.‘Because,’repliedthejester,‘theydurstnotleapoutoftheirshipsintothesea,asthebraveFrenchmendid!’

‘ThenameofEdwardIII,’saysSirHarryNicolas,‘ismoreidentifiedwiththenavalgloryofEnglandthanofanyotherofhersovereigns;forthoughthesagaciousAlfred

andthechivalrousRichardcommandedfleetsanddefeatedtheenemyatsea,Edwardgainedinhisownpersontwosignalvictories,fightingononeoccasionuntilhisshipactuallysankunderhim,andwasrewardedbyhissubjectswiththeproudesttitleeverconferredonaBritishmonarch–”KingoftheSea”.’

ThevictoryatSluysseems

tohavesoraisedtheardouroftheEnglishparliamentthattheywereeagerfortheprosecutionofthewarandgaveEdwardeverypossibleaid.

AnotherforetasteofwhatwastocomeoccurredwhenEdwardsentSirWalterMannywithasmallforcetoraidtheFlemishislandofCadzand;thiswasareprisalforaFrenchraidon

PortsmouthandtheSouthCoast.Thereisquiteamodernflavouraboutthissmallactioninwhichthearcherswereusedas‘artillery’tocoveraninfantrylanding.Froissartwrites:‘Thearcherswereorderedtodrawtheirbowsstiffandstronggoandsetuptheirshouts;uponwhichthosewhoguardedthehavenwereforcedtoretire,whethertheywouldornot,forthefirst

dischargedidgreatmischief,andmanyweremaimedorhurt.’Landingundercoverofthearrow-barrage,theinfantrythenformedupinlinewiththearchersmassedintwobastionsattheendsoftheline.Thislater-to-become-familiarformationachievedasignalsuccessandthearchershadusheredinthelong,longwar.

Chapter11

Morlaix–1342ThelongbowhadasyetbeenemployedprincipallyindefensivewarfareandagainstanenemyinferiorincavalrytotheEnglish.Butwhen

EdwardIIIledhisinvadingforceintoFrancetheconditionsofwarwereentirelychangedfortheEnglish.Nowtheywereupagainstacountrytobeinvariablysuperiorinthenumbersoftheirhorsemen,sowhilethetacticsofthearcherweretoremaindefensive,theyalsohadtobevariedtomeetthenewthreat.Buttheyeomanwithhislongbowwassoontofindthat

thechargingsquadronpresentedanevenbettermarkforhisshaftthanthestationarymassofinfantryformedbytheScotsschiltron.AtthebeginningoftheHundredYearsWar,intheearly1340’s,theContinentalworldhadnotyetlearnedthatitwasalmosthopelessforcavalrytotrytoforce,inafrontalattack,apositiondefendedbymen-at-armssupportedontheirflankby

archers.

TheFrenchhadlearnednothingfromwhathadalreadytranspiredinScotlandandatSluysandCadzand;infacttheylearnednothingfromthebattlesthatweretofollowandwerestillmakingthesamemistakeseightyyearslater!Whenthenowwell-triedtechniquewasusedinabattlenearMorlaixin1342,afewyearsbefore

Crécy,itseemstohavetakentheFrenchcompletelybysurprise,asitdidashortspaceoffouryearslateronthefatalfieldofCrécy.

MorlaixwasthefirstpitchedlandbattleoftheHundredYearsWar;itprovedthatBannockburnandHalidonHillhadtaughttheEnglishsomething.InfactHalidonHillformedtheprototypeforMorlaixandall

theothergreatbattlesofthewar–exceptthelast.TheEarlofNorthampton,withanarmyofabout3,000,wasbesiegingMorlaixinSeptember1342;hewassuddenlythreatenedbyarelievingarmyofbetween15,000and20,000underCharlesdeBlois.RealisingthathemustnotpermithisarmytobecaughtbetweenCharlesontheonesideandthetownontheother,

Northamptonmarchedouttofindasuitablepositioninwhichhecouldacceptbattle.Hewaslookingforaridgeorhillwhichwouldallowofapositionwithaforwardslopegivingalongviewtothefront,preferablystridingtheroaduponwhichtheenemywasexpectedtoapproach.Ifhehadawoodinhisrear,thenitwasideal,forthepositioncouldnotbeeffectivelyflankedbycavalry

andthewoodwasausefulbaggage-park.

OntheroadtoLanmeur,aboutfourmilesfromMorlaix,hefoundwhathesought–apositionastridetheroadonthebeginningofagentleslopeintoadipabout300yardsinfront,withawoodimmediatelyinrearoftheposition.TheEnglishline,about600yardsinlength,wasabout50yardsinfrontof

thiswood,withatrenchdugabout100yardsfromthewood.Takingalessonfromthe‘pots’oftheScotsatBannockburn,theEnglishcoveredthetrenchwithgrasssothatitservedasabooby-trapfortheenemyhorsemen.TheEnglishmen-at-armsweredismountedandinthecentreoftheline,withthearchersstationedontheflanks.TheCountofBloisdrewuphisarmyinthree

hugecolumns,onebehindtheotherwithaspacebetweeneach;theleadingcolumn,formedoflocallevies,beingdismounted.

TheFrenchadvancedstraightdownthehill,intotheslightdipanduptheothersidetowardsthewaitingEnglish.Assoonastheywerewithinrange,thecolumnwassentreelingbackdownthehillbyahailofarrows;they

didnotevenreachthehiddentrench.Thesecondcolumn,ofmountedmen,werelaunchedattheEnglish;theyrodeforwardcolourfully,impetuouslyandunsuspectingly,toplungeintothehiddentrenchinatangledconfusionofhorsesandmen.Heretheywerebedevilledanddistractedbyarrowsastheytriedtosortthemselvesoutandgetbackintosomesortoforder;buttheattack

hadlostitsmomentum,ithadcometoahalt.Withtheexceptionofabout200horsemenwhodidgoforwardandreachtheEnglishline,tobekilledorcaptured,thesecondattackdribbledback.

Nowapauseensued,whilsttheFrenchlickedtheirwoundsandconsideredtheirnextcourseofaction.Northamptonprayedthattheywouldretreat,buttohis

dismaytheyshowednosignsofthisandhecouldseetheirthirdcolumn,biggerthanhiswholearmy,drawnupontheridgefacinghim.TheEnglishcommanderknewthathewasstillinperilalthoughhehadalreadyrepulsedtwocolumnseachgreaterthanhisownsmallforce.Moreworrying,hisarchersweredesperatelyshortofarrowsandhadnofurthersourceofsupply.Thethirdcolumnshowedsignsof

movement,itbeganponderouslytolurchforward.TheEnglishmurmuredinapprehension–theycouldseethatthebatteredandalmostfilled-intrenchwouldbeoflittleaidtothemonthisoccasion.Moreover,theFrenchmasswaslargeenoughtoextendbeyondtheEnglishflanksandsothreatenthepositionfromthesides.

Northamptoncourageously

decideduponamanoeuvrealmostunprecedentedfortheera:hewithdrewhisforceinorderbackintotheshelterofthewoodsothattheyformedahedgehogordefensivelinealongtheedgesofthetrees,facingineachdirection.ReservingtheirscantyammunitionuntiltheFrenchcameclose,theEnglishmanagedtopreventthemfrompenetratingtheirnewpositionatanypoint.

Marksmanshipwastheorderofthedayandthedroningofmassedarrowswasreplacedbysingle‘whirrs’asindividualshaftsfoundtheirmarksand,withacrash,aFrenchman-at-armswouldcollapsefromhisstartledhorse.

Nightwasapproaching,andtheCountdeBlois,discouragedandwithhismendesertingonallsides,began

towithdrawslowlybacktoLanmeur.Seeingthis,Northamptongatheredtogetherhissmallbandand,inadefensiveformation,leftthewoodtoreturntothesiegeofMorlaix.Hehadthegreatsatisfactionofknowingthathehadachievedhispurposeofsettingtoflighttherelievingarmy,althoughitoutnumberedhimbyfourorfivetoone.But,morethanthat,hehadperpetuated,

knowinglyitmustbeassumed,futuretacticsfromthelessonslearnedatBannockburnandHalidonHill–themen-at-armsfightingdismounted,thetrenchinfrontforminganobstacle(amarshatHalidon);thedefensivepositiononaridge,theskilfuluseofthearcher’sfire-powerinco-operationwithsupportingheavytroops.Allthesefactorsco-ordinatedtodefeat

themountedattack,togethermakingnotableabattleclaimedbythosewhofoughtinthemalltohavebeenevenmoredesperatelycontestedthanHalidonHill,CrécyorPoitiers.

ThedefeatedCharlesdeBloisisagainencounteredinJune1346,when,withaforcegreatlysuperiorinnumbers,hecameupwithSirThomasDagworth’ssmallarmyatSt.

PoldeLéon,north-westofMorlaix,on9thJune1346.AsatMorlaixfouryearspreviouslythefirstattackofCharleswasrepulsed,thenhissecondlinecameintooverlapthetinyEnglishforceonthreesides.TheEnglishheldtheirgroundandpouredinsuchdeadlyhailsofarrowsthattheFrenchweresentreelingback;afteralittleofthistheyfledfromthefield.Thereisnorecordthat

Charleswasdismayedbythedisastrousrepetition,thefurtherexhibitionofthepoweroftheEnglishlongbowcomingjustintimetoaddtothemoraleandprestigeofthearchersatCrécy.

SiegeofMortagne.FromChroniqued’Angleterre(c.167-87)byJeanWavrin.

EdwardIII,Electrotypefromthegiltcoppertombeffigy(c.1377–80)afterthewax

funeraleffigyinWestminsterAbbey.NationalPortrait

Gallery.

EffigyoftheBlackPrince(d.1376),ChapelofSt.Thomas

Becket,CanterburyCathedral.Thelimbsare

enclosedinplatearmour;thesurcoatdisplaysthefleur-de-lisofFranceandthelionsof

England.

EntwistlePhotographicServices

RichardBeauchamp,EarlofWarwick(d.1439).FromhismonumentintheLady

Chapel,St.Mary’sChurch,Warwick.

JohnLordMontacutewhofoughtatCrécy.FromhismonumentinthenaveofSalisburyCathedral.

Ralph,Neville,EarlofWestmorland,whofoughtat

Agincourt.FromhismonumentinStaindropChurch,Durham.

HenryV.Artistunknown.NationalPortraitGallery

TheDeanandChapterofWestminster

TiltinghelmetbytraditionwornbyHenryVat

Agincourt,flankedbyhissaddleandshield,boughtfortheKing’sfuneralin1422.FromtheChantryChapel,WestminsterAbbey.

WallaceCollection

Abascinet–theheadpiece,parexcellence,ofthe

HundredYearsWar–shownwithandwithoutitsvisor.Thepointedapextothe

helmetwasdesignedtoofferaglancingsurfacetoablow.

YewbowfoundduringtheexcavationsatBerkhamsted.Itisfourfeetlonganddatesbacktothetimeofthe

HundredYearsWar.BritishMuseum

ThisGothicarmour(c.1475–85)showsa‘barded’horse.

WallaceCollection

SirLauranceOlivier’sconceptoftheEnglish

archersatAgincourt.AscenefromtheTwoCitiesfilm

HenryV.

CopyrightTheRankOrganisation

CaptainJackChurechillshootsforGreatBritaininthr

WorldArcheryChampioniships,Oslo,August1939.Lessthanayearlaterheusedthelong-bowin

actionagainstheGermans.

PartIIITheYearsof

Victory

Chapter12

Crécy–1346AbriefnoteinrecordsoftheperiodindicatesthatEdwardIIIwashighlyencouragedbysuchsuccessesasMorlaixandthathewasanticipatingmorebattlesinFrance.In1342heorderedthatevery

sheriffmustprovide500whitebow-stavesand500bundlesofarrowsforthecomingbattles.ThenextyeartheorderwasrepeatedwiththeadditionaldemandthattheSheriffofGloucesterwasnotonlyrequiredtoprovide500whitebowstavesbutalsothesamenumberofpaintedstaves.Inthesummerof1346EdwardhadmarchedhisarmyfromtheCherbourgPeninsulaalmosttoParis,

crossingtheSeineatPoissyandmarchingtowardsAmienstomakecontactwithhisFlemishallies.ButhefoundKingPhilipwithalargearmyintheAmiensarea,andtheyfrustratedallEdward’sattemptstotakehisarmyacrosstheriverSomme.Finally,byofferinglargerewardstoprisoners,oneGobinAgachewaspersuadedtotellhimofapracticalfordatBlanchetaque(TheWhite

Spot).Hereamancouldcrosstheriver,atlowtide,withthewateronlyuptohiskneesinspiteofthefordbeingnearly2,000yardslong.

ItwasessentialthattheEnglisharmyshouldgainthefarbank;theirsituationhadsuddenlybecomecritical–bootswerewornout,breadwasscarceandthemenweresufferingfromeatingtheunripewaysidefruit.Their

horsesweregettingfewerinnumberandmanyknightswerereducedtoridingclumsycapturedfarmanimals.EdwardhadnoideaoftheprogressofhisFlemishalliesandhewasoutoftouchwiththefleet.TheFrencharmywasvastlysuperiortotheEnglishforcenumerically,andEdwardknewthathecouldeasilylosetheentirewarinasinglebattleofafewhours’

duration.

Theyreachedthefordatdawn,whenthetidewasonlyjuststartingtoebb;theyhadfourlongandanxioushourstowaitbeforethefordbecamecrossable.Theyhadmarchedinsinglecolumn,Warwickleadingtheadvance-guardwithaforceofarchers,thenmen-at-arms,followedbybaggageand,rearmost,theKing’sdivision.

Thecolumnclosedupuntiltheentirearmywasconcentratedonthesouthbank,immediatelyoppositetheford.Itissaidtohavebeenteno’clockbeforethefirstman–HughDespenser–ledthevanguardofarchersintotheglisteningwatertobeginwhatappearedtobeanuneventfulprogressovertheone-and-a-half-milecauseway.Whentheycamewithinahundredyardsofthe

shoretheyweregreetedwithanunexpectedshowerofcrossbowbolts–Philiphadpostedaforceofabout3,500men-at-armsandinfantry,withaforceofGenoesecrossbowmen,toholdtheford.

Takenbysurpriseandwithoutcoverorprotection,theEnglishweremassedinaneasytargetfortheGenoesecrossbows;theytooka

numberofcasualtiesastheytriedtodeployandreturnthefire.Thewaterwasstillwaist-deep,makingitdifficulttowieldthelongbowsefficiently,besideswettingthebowstrings.Botharchersandcavalrystumbledandfellintothechurned-upwaterastheywerehit;someslippedoffthecausewayintothedeeperriveroneitherside.Thiscausewaywaswideenoughforsomeelevenmen

tostandabreast,sothearcherspackedinwhilsttheremainderfiredovertheheadsofthefrontrank.Quickly,thelongbowassumeditshabitualascendancyoverthecrossbowandtheGenoesefirebegantoslacken.Seeingthis,Warwickgavethesignalforthemen-at-armstoadvance;thehorsemenplungedandsplashedthroughandpastthearchers,who

edgedtothesidesofthecausewaytoletthemthrough.TheEnglishhorseweremetbysomeoftheFrenchcavalrywhohadplungedfromthebanktodisputethepassageandaconfused,splashingconflictofshortdurationtookplaceintheshallowwater,endingwiththeFrenchretiringinconfusiontothebank.TheEnglishmen-at-armsfollowedclosebehindthem,

thearcherscoveringtheiradvancewithasteadybarrageofhissingarrows.TheFrenchquicklyshowedthattheywantednoneofthisandtookflight,leavingbehindthemalmost2,000casualties.

Attheotherendofthecauseway,thelastoftheEnglishmenandwagonswereenteringthenowrapidlydeepeningwater.SuddenlytheFrenchadvance-guard,

undertheKingofBohemia,camedashingupandtherewasashort,sharpengagementbetweenthemandtheEnglishrearguard.Therewereafewcasualtiesandsomewagonswerecaptured,butthebulkofthem,bearingtheirpreciouscargoofarrows,escapedandweretrundlingtheirway,axle-deep,acrosstheriver.TheFrenchmadenoattempttopursue,allowingthe

Englishtoescape–EdwardhadsucceededincrossingtheriverSommeandcouldnowseekhisFlemishalliesandprepareapositioninwhichtoreceivetheFrenchattack.

TheEnglisharmymarchedtotheedgeofaforestaboutninemilesnorth-eastofBlanchetaqueand,onthedayfollowingthecrossing,werehaltedonthebanksofthelittleriverMaye,beyond

whichlayavillagecalledCrécy-en-Ponthieu.InthisareaEdwardfoundasuitablepositiontoofferbattle:hechoseawindmill-crownedridgeimmediatelytothenorth-eastofthevillage,fromwhichitextendedforabout2,000yardstothehamletofWadicourt.Infrontofthepositionwasadepression,latertobecalledtheValléeauxClercs(ValleyoftheClerks),rangingfromabout

onehundredfeetindepthontherighttonothingontheleft.Theslopeinfrontoftherightflankofthepositionwasaboutoneintwelveandalmostimperceptibleontheleft;thevillageandtheriverMayeprotectedtherightflankagainstcavalryattack,buttheleft(andmuchweakerflank)hadonlythesmallhamletofWadicourtasprotection,withopencountrybeyond.Afewhundredyards

behindthecentreoftheridge.wasasmallwood,theBoisdeCrécy-Grange.

Numerically,theEnglisharmyisthoughttohavebeenbetween12,000and13,000strong,beingpositionedinthreedistinctdivisions.ThatoftheBlackPrince,consistingof800dismountedmen-at-armsflankedoneithersidebyatotalof2,000archersandabout1,000

Welshspearmen,wasplacedwelldowntheslopewithin300yardsofthevalleybottom.OnthePrince’sleftandsomewhatdrawnbacksothattheywereslightlyhigheruptheslope,laytherearguardundertheexperiencedEarlofNorthampton;itwassmallerthanthefirstdivision,consistingofabout500men-at-armsand1,200archersformedupinthesame

manner.TherightofthisdivisionrestedonthePrince’sleftanditsleftflankwasprotectedbyWadi-court.Thethirddivision,thatoftheKing,consistedof700men-at-arms,2,000archersandperhaps1,000Welshspearmen,andwereformedontheplateauinfrontofthewoodofCrécy-Grange,behindthebattleofthePrinceofWales.Thebaggagewasparkedinawagon-leaguer

backingontothewood;itsinteriorbeingoccupiedbythehorsesandgarrisonedbythepages.Edwardintendedtofightwithhismen-at-armsdismounted,ashadbeendonebyNorthamptonatMorlaixafewyearspreviously.TheBlackPrincehadaschiefofficerstheEarlsofWarwickandOxford,andhewasunderthepersonalprotectionofGodfreyHarcourt.

Themen-at-armsweredeployedintolinebythemarshalsandthenasolidwedgeofarchersformedupontheflanksofeachofthedivisions.Knownas‘herces’3thesewedgeswereformedbythebodyofarchersinchingforwarddiagonally,pivotingontheflankoftheirownmen-at-arms;wherethetwocontiguouslinesofarchersmet,anapexwasformed.In

thiswayabastion-likeformationwascreatedintheintervalsbetweenthedivisions;obviousadvantagesbeingthatthefrontofthemen-at-armsandtheflanksofthearmycouldbeenfiladedbyarrowfire.Thearchersdugsmallholesinfrontoftheirpositionandplantedaplentifulsupplyofarrowsintheground;theirusualsupplyoftwenty-fourorforty-eightarrowsbeingsupplemented

fromthewagons.Whentheywereexhausted,thearcherhadthreechoices:

1.Hecouldawaitthearrivalofafreshsupplyfromthewagons.

2.Hecoulddashforwardduringalullandpickuparrowsfiredattheenemythathadmissedtheirmarkandwerelyingontheground.ThiswasdoneatPoitiers.

3.Hecouldabandonhisbowandjoininthemêléewithhissword,ashedidatAgincourt.Beingunencumberedwitharmour,thearchersweremorenimbleandmosteffectiveinhand-to-handfighting.Theywereprobablyhefty,muscularmen,asonlyastrongmancouldeffectivelywieldalongbow.

Themen-at-armswere

armour-clad;wearingavisoredbascinet,thecrestedhelmetwasusedonlyinthelists.Thecasingofthebodyinjointedarmourwasnownearlycomplete,andtheadoptionofbreastandbackplatesenabledtheknightstodispensewiththeancienthauberkofrings.Theuseofplate-armourwasadecidedimprovementfromaprotectionpointofview;itwasalsopossiblylighterthan

chainmailwithitsaccompanyinggarments.Themagnificentjupon,emblazonedwiththewearer’sarms,andthesplendidknightlygirdlewerebothtestimoniesofthewarlikeage.Greaves,orjambs(steelboots)andsolleretstocoverthefeethadbeenintroduced;thebacksofthegauntletswerefurnishedwithoverlappingplates,armedwithknobsorspikesofiron.

Wheneverymaninthearmywasinhisallottedposition,theKingrodeslowlydownthelineonawhitepalfrey;hestudiedthedispositionswithanexperiencedeyeandtalkedtothemen,givingthemwordsofcheerandencouragement.Itwasmiddaywhenhecametotheendoftheline,andtherewasstillnosignoftheFrench.Edwardgaveordersforthementofalloutand

eat,positionstobeinstantlyresumedatthesoundofthetrumpet.Themenremovedtheirhelms,thearcherslaidtheirbowscarefullyalongsidetheirarrows,sothattheymarkedtheirplaces.Whenthefoodwasconsumed,themenlaydownandrestedorstoodingroupstalking,eyesconstantlystrayinginthedirectionfromwhichtheenemywasexpectedtocome.Fouro’clockcame;still

withoutanywarningcryfromthelookoutatthetopofthewindmill.Theskysuddenlydarkenedandabriefbutfiercerainstormfelluponthem;thearchersrushedtoprotecttheirpreciousbowstrings,eachmanquicklyunstringinghisbowandcoilingupthestringinsidehishat.Thestormpassedoverandthebowswerere-strung;theclearair,freshwiththescentoftherain,hummed

withthemumblinghubbubofthousandsofdeepmalevoices.

Abovethenoisecameasuddensharpcryfromthewindmill,whichhadbeenearlierpickedasapostofcommandbyEdwardbecauseoftheclearviewitgaveofthewholeposition.TheKingrushedtoverifythatitdidindeedbetokentheapproachoftheenemy;satisfied,he

gavethesignalandthetrumpetssounded.Thegroupsbrokeupanddispersed;discardedarmourandhelmswerehastilydonned;everyonestoodtotheirallottedpostingrimandconfidentsilence;theyknewthateverythingwasready,thatnothinghadbeenoverlooked.Thearchershadcheckedtheirdistancesandwereconsciousthattheirshaftscouldreachthebottom

ofthevalley,buttheywereorderedtoholdtheirfireuntiltheenemywerewithineffectiverange.Then,witheverymanmotionlessandalleyesfixedforward,thevanoftheFrencharmyhoveinsight,descendingthegentleslopeintothevalleyoftheMaye.Theirarmourgleamed,andlancepennonsfluttered;atfirsttheyseemedaformidablehostbut,astheymovednearerandwithevery

steptheytookclearlyseenfromtheEnglishposition,theylostmuchoftheirthreatinthehourittookthemtogetwithinstrikingdistance.

TheFrencharmyhadapproachedthebattlefieldfromMarcheville,sothattheyhadtoturnsharplylefttofacetheEnglishposition.Thesuddenchangeinthedirectionofmarchbroughtaninevitabledisorderandthe

usuallyraggedmarchdisciplineoftheFrenchsadlyaccentuatedthesituation.Itwasamixedarmy,formedoftheKing’sregulartroops;foreignnotabilitieswiththeircontingents;GermanmercenariesandtheGenoesecrossbowmen,whohadalreadytastedthepowerofEnglisharrows.Allweremassedtogetherwithadisorderly,stragglingcrowdofprovinciallevies.

Contingentsjostledeachother,unitsbumpedandbecameinextricablymixed;thearmywasalmostoutofhandevenbeforeashothadbeenfired.TestimonytothisconfusionarethevaryingreportsonthesizeanddispositionoftheFrencharmy;itsnumbersarereportedtohavebeenasmanyas145,000or100,000,itsdivisionsfromthreetotwelve.Itseemsfromthe

moresoberreportsandchroniclesthattheywereaboutthreetimesasstrongastheEnglisharmy–consistingofabout40,000menformedinthreedivisions.Thefirstdivisionconsistedofabout6,000GenoesecrossbowmenunderAntonioDoriaandCarloGrimaldi;thesecondwasledbytheCountd’Alençon,brothertotheKing,withthreecrownedheadsservingunderhis

banner–JohnofLuxemburg,theblindKingofBohemia;theKingoftheRomans,hisson,andtheKingofMajorca,ThethirddivisionwasunderCodemardeFaye.

BattleofCrécy26thAugust1346

KingPhilipwasundecidedastohisbestcourseofaction.HehadbeentakenbysurpriseatthesuddensightoftheEnglishdrawnupinbattlearray.Histroopswereweariedbythemarch,hungryandinconsiderabledisorder;itseemedsensibletowait

untilthemorningbeforeattacking.Hegavetheordertohalt.Whentheorderreachedthevanguard,theimpulsiveFrenchknightsattheheadofthecolumnbelievedthattheyweretobedeprivedofthehonourofopeningthebattle,astheycouldseethatsomeofthetroopsintherearwerestilladvancing.Sotheypushedforwardimpatiently,feelingconfidentthattheirsuperior

numericalstrengthwouldtriumph.Seeingthemmoveforward,themainbodypersistedinfollowingthemuntilthewholearmyarrivedsoclosetotheEnglishpositionthatabattlebecameunavoidable.Inpushingforward,theFrenchknightsforciblypropelledbeforethemtheGenoesemercenarieswhoformedtheadvance-guard.TheheavilyaccoutredItalians,wearyafter

amarchofsixleaguesbearingtheirweightyweapons,drenchedanddraggled,consciousthattheywerevirtuallydisarmedbecauseofthewetnessoftheirbowstrings,shuffledwearilyintotheirstationsalongtheFrenchfront.Seeingthishesitationandnowbeingcommittedtofight,theKingcried:

‘MaketheGenoesegoin

frontandbeginthebattle,inthenameofGodandSt.Denis!’

Themercenariesmutteredandcomplainedtotheirconstables:

‘Webenotwellorderedtofightthisday;webenotinthecasetodoanygreatdeedofarms,andhavemoreneedofrest.’

Theconstables,intheirturn,complainedthattheirmenwerebeingunfairlytreated.TheCountd’Alençonwasscornful:

‘Truly,amaniswellateasetobechargedwiththesekindofrascals,whoarefaintandfailusnowwhenmostatneed!’

Stungbyhiswords,theGenoesemercenaries

attemptedtodeployandmarchagainsttheEnglishpositionloomingaheadofthem.Itwasadifficultprocedureforsuchalargebodyofalreadydisorderedmen,nowbeingrudelyhustledintheirrearbythearrogantFrenchknights.Inspiteoftheeffortsoftheseexperiencedprofessionalsoldiers,theirlinebecamehopelesslyraggedandoutofdressing,sothattheyhadto

behaltedtoreformthreetimesinlessthanamileofshamblingprogress.IntherearoftheEnglishposition,thesunemergedbrilliantly,toshinefullintheeyesoftheenemyandtopresentconditionssaidtobeidealforthearchers,nowominouslytestingtheirbows.

SlowlytheGenoesecontinuedtheiradvance;theirprogressacrossthevalley

beingmarkedwithwhoops,shoutsandarm-wavingasthoughtobolsteruptheirflaggingspirits.Theyhalted,gavethreeorderedloudcriesandthencommencedtoascendthegentleslopeleadinguptotheEnglishposition.Theboltstheyhaltedtodischargeoccasionallyallfellshort,therecentrainhavingsadlyrelaxedthestringsoftheirclumsyweapons;theirfingers

fumbledastheywentthroughthecumbrousprocessofwindinguptheirarbalesta,theireyesfixedontheunmovinglinetotheirfront.Whentheycametowithin150yardsoftheEnglisharcherstheirforwardmovementwaveredinthefaceoftheirsilent,immobilefoe;theysetupmoreshoutsandwhoopsinthehopeofshakingthatcalm.

AheadoftheGenoeseasharpwordofcommandrangout;inresponsetheEnglisharchers,asoneman,steppedforwardapacetodrawtheirbowstringstotheirears.Suddenlythebrightsunlightwasshutoffbyblackswarmsofarrows,theairfulloftheirhissing.TheclothyardshaftsquiveredinthefacesandbodiesoftheItalianmercenaries,thedischargestrikingtheircloselyknit

linesindevastatingfashion.Theyreeledandstaggered,fallingintoevengreaterdisorderastheyrecoiledfromthecontinuousshowerofwailingarrows.

Theirdiscomfortwasincreasedbyaseriesofbelchesofflame,withroaringnoiseslikethunderclaps,followedbythehissingprogressofheavyballsofironandstonewhichtore

throughtheranksofthecrossbowmentoprostratemenandstampedehorsesintheranksbehindthem.ItwasEdward’s‘secretweapon’–crudeirontubesthathadbeenlaboriouslyborneacrossFranceinthebottomoftheammunitionwagonstotaketheirplaceasthefirstcannontobefiredinopenwarfare.SurprisingastheirappearancemusthavebeentotheFrench,thesecrudeandnoisy

innovationstotheartofwardonotseemtohavehadasmuchphysicalormoraleeffectupontheFrenchasmighthavebeenexpected.ThechroniclersallcontinuetoreportthisbattleinthetermsofdevastatingresultsofEnglisharcheryratherthanthosecausedbyroughstoneandironballs,eachofwhichweighedperhaps1½to2lb.andweresentontheirwaywithsuchaspectaculargush

offlameandsmoke.

Theunfortunate,belabouredGenoesenowhad,crowdingforwardontheirheels,theeliteofthenobilityofFrance,allspoilingforafightandresentfulthattheforeignmercenarieshaddonethemoutofthehonourofopeningthebattle.Liketheirleader,Countd’Alençon,theywerereadytosuspectthecrossbowmenoftreachery;

hadtheItaliansnotbaulkedatgoingforwardinthefirstplace?Thehot-headedd’Alençonprovidedthespark,cryingloudly:

‘Slaymethoserascals!Theydobuthinderandtroubleuswithoutreason!’

Clappingspursintohishorse’sflanks,hedrovehischargerintothemidstoftheGenoese,closelyfollowedby

hismen-at-arms,shoutingandcursingastheyrodeandtrampledunderfootthemercenaries.BesetfrombothsidesandunabletogetcloseenoughtotheEnglishtoreturntheirfire,thecrossbowmenfuriouslydischargedtheirboltsattheirnewadversaries,sothatsmallinternecinefightsaddedtotheconfusion.TheheavilyarmouredFrenchknightswerenottobewithstood;

theyrelentlesslybatteredtheirwayforwardtowardsthePrinceofWales’sdivision,leavingbehindthematrailoftheirownarrow-piercedknightsandhorsesflounderingamongthecrossbowmentheyhadriddendown.

InthemeantimethedivisionsintherearhadalsobrushedpastthelucklessGenoeseanddeployedinto

positionuntilacontinuouslinewasformedroughlyequalinlengthandparalleltotheEnglishposition.Thenbegantheseriesoffruitlesschargesofheavilycladhorsemenlumberinguphillagainstshowersofarrowsremorselesslyplaguingthem;thegreatstallions,madfromthepainofthekeen,barbedshafts,brokefromallcontrol.Theypushed,reared,swervedandplunged,strikingand

lashingouthideously.Soonthegroundwasheapedwiththebodiesofmenandhorses.Themen-at-armsforcedtheirreluctantsteedsforward,strugglingonwithheadsbowed;thehorses,belabouredwithlengthyandfiercemediaevalspurs,werenoisilyshuffledtowardsthedismounted,armouredformationsinfrontofthem,whilstbeingassailedbyashort-rangecrossfireof

arrowsfromtheirflanks.Asinalmosteverybattle,themainassaultoftheFrenchwasdirectedagainstthedismountedmen-at-armsratherthanagainstthearchers;asituationduemainlytothefactthattheywere‘channelled’thatwayintheireffortstogetawayfromthehissingarrows.TheCountd’Alençonandhisremainingknightshadreachedandengagedinhand-to-hand

fightingthebattleofthePrinceofWales,whilstothershadclosedwithNorthampton’sdivision.ThesewerenotconcertedeffortsbutratherirregularandspasmodicsurgesthatdidnotcausetheEnglishlinetoyieldasinglefoot.

Frenchcasualtiesroserapidly.Thegroundwasheapedhighwiththebodiesofmenandhorses.The

WelshandIrishfootsoldiersnowbegantocreepforward,bearingtheirgreatsharpknives.Thesemen,cladinthickleatherjerkins,nimbleoffootandaccustomedtoalifeofactivity,mingledfearlesslyamongtheconfusedmassesoffightingmen,creepingbeneaththehorses’bellies,standingupwhentheygotachancetostabhorsesandmen.Theyslewbystabsandgashes

throughthejointsinthearmourthoseFrenchmen-at-arms,whorolledhelplesslyliketurtlesupturnedamidthepress.

ThenumericalsuperiorityoftheFrenchenabledthemtopersistintheirefforts,unsuccessfulastheyappearedtobeuptothen.Wheneveramanfell,anotherlurchedforwardtotakehisplacefromtheapparentlyinexhaustible

supplyoftheFrencharmy.InthismannerthepressureontheEnglishlineincreased,particularlyontheright,whereGodfreyHarcourtbegantofeelanxiousforthesafetyofhisroyalcharge.Inperson,heranclumsilyacrosstothenearestunitofNorthampton’sdivision–thatcommandedbytheEarlofArundel–andbeggedhimtoputinacounter-attack,sostrikingintheflankthose

enemyassailingthePrince’sdivision.HarcourtthensentamessengertotheKing,askingforreinforcements.Fromhiscommand-posthighinthewindmill,theKingcouldseethatArundel’scounter-attackwastakingeffect;thatitwasnotyettheopportunemomenttothrowinhispreciousreserve.Withouttakinghiseyesfromthesurging,heavingbattlespreadoutbeforehimlikeacolourful

carpet,hesaid:

‘Lettheboywinhisspurs,’wavinghishandindismissalashespoke.TheexperiencedsoldierandKingwasrightinhisjudgment.Whenthemessengerarrivedback,thePrinceandhismen-at-armsweresittingamongthedead,restingafterbeatingofftheattack.Infrontoftheirpositionweremorethan1,500deadFrenchmen-at-

arms.

Inwaveafterwave,notcontinuouslyandwithvaryingintervals,theFrenchchivalrybravelyandcharacteristicallythunderedclumsilyuptotheEnglishposition,withoutevereffectingapenetrationbeforebeingbeatenback.InthepausestheEnglisharcherswouldleavetheirlines,runforwardtosearchforarrows

amongthedead.Theydidnotwastetimetryingtopullthemfromthebodiesofthedead,knowingthatthebarbedarrow-headcouldonlyberemovedfromsoftfleshbymajorfeatsofsurgeryorextensivecrudecarpentry.

Theold,blindKingofBohemiasatrestlesslychafingonhischarger,hearingallaroundhimthenoiseofthebattle.He

repeatedlyaskedafteritsprogressandthensaid:

‘Sirs,yearemymen,myfriendsandcompanions.IrequireyetoleadmesofarforwardthatImaystrikeonestrokewithmysword.’

Twoknightsbuckledthereinsoftheirbridlestothoseofhishorse,lesttheyshouldlosehiminthepress,andthethreechargedforward

together.InthecentreofthemtheoldKingheldhissightlessheadhighasthoughsniffingthescentofbattle.Thetrioreachedthefighting,guidedtheirwrenchinghorsesforwarduntiltheywerebroughtuptoastandstillbythepress.Theagedmonarchswungastrokewithhissword,struckagain–sometimesatthinair,sometimesfeelingsolidresistancethatjarredhisarm.

Theyfoughtvaliantlybutperhapsventuredtoofarforward,tobefoundnextday,stilltetheredtotheirKing,aboutwhomtheylaydead.

Therearmostmen,carriedforwardbytheirownmomentum,surgedontothetopoftheforemost,towedgethewholeintoahelpless,chokingmass.Stillthepitilessarrowshissedintothe

pressandtheentireFrenchfightinglinebecameaconfusedwelterofstrugglinganimals,maimedcrossbowmenandfallenmen-at-arms,who,crippledbytheweightoftheirarmour,layaneasypreytothelong,keenknivesoftheWelsh.ItisreportedthatatleastfifteenattackswereputinbytheFrench,whodidnotrealisein1346andstilldidnotcomprehendnearly100years

lateratAgincourt,thattoforceafineofbowmensupportedbymen-at-armswithafrontalattackwasanalmosthopelesstaskforcavalry.Thereislittlethatcanbemoredisconcertingtochargingcavalrythanaflightofarrows,layinglownotonlymanyoftheridersbutalsocausingdisorderbysettingthewoundedhorsesplungingandrearingsoastosadlychecktheimpetusof

thecharge.Then,asthechargenearedtheEnglishposition,thewoundstomanandhorsebecamemorenumerous,thedisorderincreased,thepaceprogressivelyslackeneduntilatlastthechargecametoastandstill,waveredandthenwithdrew.

Thefightwentonafterdarknesshadfallen,underarisingmoon,untillateinthe

eveningitpeteredouttogivewaytoanuneasysemi-silencebrokenonlybythegroansofthewounded.PhilipofFrance,withonlythreescoreknightsremaining,wasunwillingtobelievethatallwaslost;hewaspreventedfrompersonallyleadingyetanotherchargebytherestraininghandonhishorse’sbridleofSirJohnofHeynault,whosaid:

‘Sire,departwhilethereisyettime.Losenotyourselfwillingly.Ifthisfieldislost,youshallrecoveritagainanotherseason.’

TheEnglishhadwonthedaywithoutstirringafootfromtheirposition;theenemyhadconvenientlycometothemtobekilled.MorethanathirdofhisnumberlaydeadbeforetheunbrokenEnglishlines,the

majoritylaidlowbyclothyardshafts.Weariedwithslaughterandsatiatedwithvictory,theEnglishlaydownandslept,supperless,wheretheyhadfought.TheIrishandWelshinfantrywereoutinfullforce,combingthebattlefieldandgivingnoquarterastheyfinishedoffthosewhohadfallenbutstilllived.Therewasnoattemptmadetopursuethevanquished,whomelted

awaysilentlyintothenight,eachmanretreatinginwhateverdirectionhefanciedbecausetherewerefewlefttogivecommandsororders.KingPhiliphadlosthisownbrother,theCountd’Alençon;hisbrother-in-law,JohnofBohemia,andhisnephew,theCountofBlois,besidesacleansweepofhisgenerals.TheflowerofthechivalryofFrancehadbeenwipedout,morethan1,500ofthem,ina

totalcasualtylistofover10,000.Therestofthearmy,thealliesfromBohemia,HainaultandFlanders,dispersedandreturnedtotheirhomes.InafewhoursPhilip,themostpowerfulmonarchinWesternEurope,hadlostanarmy.

Thenextmorning,Sunday,the27thofAugust,arrivedwithathickfog,asthoughmercifullytoblanketthegrim

scene–thevalleyblackwiththebodiesofmenandhorses.Edwardsenthisclerksouttomakeatallyofthedead,and,tothisday,thesceneoftheirlaboursisknownastheValleyoftheClerks.

Beforeleavingthesceneitmightbeopportunetoconsiderwhyanoverwhelmingvictoryshouldhavebeengainedbyaforcesomuchsmallerinnumbers

thantheirenemy.Crécyprovedthatthearcher,whensupportedbydismountedmen-at-arms,couldbeatoffthemostdeterminedcavalrycharges.ThiswasnotnewstoEdward;hehadlearnedmuchfromHalidonHill,Morlaixandothersmallerbattles,butprobablyevenhewassurprisedatthewayinwhichthebattlehad,forhim,beensopurelydefensive.Thisisborneoutbythefactthathe

hadresistedusinghisreserve,eventoaidhisson;thatheheldthemfirmlyunderhishand,intendingtolaunchtheminagreat,finalcounter-attack,acourseofactionmadeunnecessarybythedesperateandsenselessbraveryoftheFrenchknights,wholearnednothingofwhatwashappeningfromthosewhohadchargedbeforethemandpersistedinfollowingtheonlycreedtheyknew.Inthe

endthisresultedintheflowerofFrenchchivalrylyingdeadwitharrowsbristlingfromtheirbodiesorawaitingthebloodyknivesoftheWelshandIrish.

ThereinlayalessonthattheFrenchneverlearned,refusingintheirclass-pridetorecognisethattheirdefeatwasatthehandsofdespisedpeasants.Forgenerationstheypersistedinthedelusion

thatthedefeatwasduetothestabilityofdismountedEnglishmen-at-arms.Inpartthiswastrue,becausethenewlysuccessfulEnglishtacticalschemedependeduponmen-at-armsfightingdismountedandinmutualsupportofthearchers.Undoubtedly,thequalitiesofthetwoarmieshadagreatbearingontheresultofthebattle;ontheonehandtheEnglishwerewelltrained,

wellled,welldisciplinedandwellarmed.TheFrench,ontheotherhand,wereahastilycollectedforcefromdifferentcountries,notparticularlywelltrainedandnounitknowingmuchaboutitsneighbours.Asaresultitlackedcohesion,neithertrustingnorrespectingeachother,sothat,asanarmy,itwasboundtodisintegratewhenexposedtoorderedblows.

Inthisdayandageitmightseemincredulousthatsuchasuccessionoffruitlesschargesshouldhavebeenmadewheneachonewasobviouslybeingdecimated.SuchastatementmustbeconsideredinthelightofthehappeningsatWaterloonearly500yearslater,whenthecreamofNapoléon’scavalrywerewipedoutinasuccessionoffruitlessuphillchargesagainstsquaresof

Britishinfantrymen,descendantsofthearchersofCrécy;or,eventothepresentday,withinlivingmemoryarethevastandbloodyonslaughtsmadeonpreparedpositionsbyinfantryduringthewarof1914–18.

TheBattleofCrécymarksastepintheprogressofthemilitaryart,intheage-longcontestbetweenmountedanddismountedmen,between

missileandpersonalweaponsandintheemergenceofathirdarm:artillery.Itwasabattlethatshouldhavetaughtastrikinglessontofeudalchivalry,buttheoldtraditionhallowingthemountedknightasthemosthonourablenameinwarfarewasstrongenoughtobeperpetuatedforanothercentury;themethodsthatreallydiedonthe26thofAugust1346werestilltobebreathingin1415andeven

later.Itwouldtakemorethanonesuchdisastertodestroyasystemsointimatelyboundupwithmediaevallifeandideas.

AsanironicalepitaphtotheFrenchknight,itmightwellbesaidthathischivalrouscodewouldhavebeenhorrifiedattheverythoughtofshirkingadirectfrontalattackagainstanumericallyinferiorenemy!

Chapter13

Neville’sCross–1346FollowinghisdefeatatCrécyandthemelting-awayofhisarmy,PhilipofFrancefoundhimselfsorelypressedbytheinvadingarmyofEdwardIII.

HesoughttorelievethispressurebyurgentlyentreatingDavidII,KingofScotland,toinvadeEnglandinthehopeofdrawingEdwardbacktodefendhisrealm.Davidsuccumbedtothelureand,inOctober1346,hemarchedhisarmyovertheborderandintoEngland,beingassuredthatEdwardandhischiefcommanderswereabsentsothat‘…herearenonetoopposeour

progresssavechurchmenandbaseartisans’.HecrossedtheTyneatRyton,abovethetownofNewcastle,andadvancedintoDurhamtoencamp,onthe16thofOctober,atBeaurepair(BearPark),abouttwomilesnorth-westofthecityofDurham.

Withinthecityitself,theutmostconsternationprevailed;itappearedtobeatthemercyoftheinvaders.

ButthingswerenotasbadastheyappearedandtheScotsweretobeopposedbyaforcethatwascollectingwithallspeedandconsiderablezeal.Thisarmy,wellarmedandnumberingabout16,000men-at-arms,archersandinfantry,wasledbythenorthernbarons–Ralph,BaronNevilleofRaby;Henry,BaronPercyofAlnwick;Musgrove,Scrope,Hastingsandtheubiquitous

EdwardBaliol.

TheEnglishforceadvancedslowlyandcautiouslyeastwards;nearthevillageofFerryHilltheymetandscatteredaraidingpartyofabout500menunderSirWilliamDouglas.Thelatter,flyingfromthefieldandleavingmorethan200ofhisforcedead,arrivedbreathlessatBeaurepairtowarnDavidthattheEnglishhadformed

anarmyandwereadvancingtomeethim.StillmovingslowlybytheRedHillsonthewestofthecityofDurham,theEnglishwerecominguptothegroundonwhichtheforthcomingbattlewasdestinedtobefought.Thebattlefieldlaywestandwestbynorthofthecathedral;itwasalevelridge,sincecutupintofieldsandpartlybuiltover;northwardstherewasasharpslope

formingakindoftroughintowhichaspurjutsout–hereaboutsthegroundwascoveredthicklybyShawWood.Inthetroughandwoodyrecesseswasalittlepear-shapedhillockknownastheMaiden’sBower,onthetopofwhichtheclergyfromthecityclusteredtoprayaroundtheholyrelicofSt.Cuthbert.

DavidformedtheScots

armyintothreedivisions.ThefirstwasledbythehighStewardofScotland,thesecondbytheEarlofMorayandSirWilliamDouglasofLiddesdale(thennamed‘TheFlowerofChivalry’),andthethirddivision,consistingofselecttroopsandapartyofFrenchauxiliaries,wasledbytheKinginperson.

TheEnglishweredisposedsothatLordPercyledthe

vanguardwhich,inthebattle,becametherightwingandwasopposedtotheScotsleftwingundertheHighSteward.ThemainbodywascommandedbyLordNevilleand,ascentre,inthebattlejoinedissuewiththeScottishmainbodyandcentreunderKingDavid.TheEnglishrearguard(theleftwing)underRokeby,wasinconflictwiththeScottishrightwingledbytheEarlofMoray.The

EnglishalsohadprovidedforthatwhichtheScotshadnot–apowerfulreserveofpickedcavalry–mailedhorsemen,underthecommandofEdwardBaliol.

Stillmovingslowly,theEnglishadvancedanddeployedforaction;theScotslefttheirpositiononDurhamMoorandmovedforwardtomeetthem.SirJohnGraham,rememberinghowaquick

cavalrymovementagainstthearchersatBannockburnhaddecidedtheday,askedleavetoattackthem.‘GivemebutonehundredhorseandIshalldispersethem,’hedeclared.KingDavidrefusedand,atnineo’clockinthemorning,orderedageneralattack.

TheScotsadvancewassorelyimpededbywallsandhedges,behindeachofwhichwerestationedEnglish

archers,whosearrowsgalledandplayedtheusualhavocwiththeadvancingScots.Flyingasthickashail,thedestructivevolleys,atlongrange,pouredintotheenemysothattheirspearmenfellthicklywithouthavingbeenabletoinflictasingleinjuryupontheEnglish.Graham,furiousatthislossofmenandsensibleenoughtorealisethatarchersat‘longbowls’hadaterribleadvantageovermen

armedwithsword,axeandspear,tookmattersintohisownhandsandstruckthefirstblow.Attheheadofhisownpersonalfollowers,herodestraightforthearchers,chargingdownonthemsoquicklythathislittlebandactuallybrokethroughinoneplaceanddispersedthearchersthere.Atshortrange,Graham’shorsewasshotdownandwaswounded,buthemanagedtoregainthe

Scotslines.

TheHighSteward,quicklygraspingthesituation,orderedhismentochargethepartlydisorderedEnglishrightwing.Momentarilyfreedfromthenaggingarrows,theScotscameonwithsuchimpetuousfurythatbysheerweightofswordandbattle-axetheyhurledtheEnglishcolumnbackinconfusionagainstthatofLord

Percy,whosewingwasthenindangerofrout.Atthismomentofcrisisthevalueofpossessingacavalryreserveunderacapablecommanderbecameapparent–Baliol,withgreatspirit,chargedtheScottishtroopsthreateningPercy.NotonlywastheScotsattackontherightwingrepulsed,butthatrepulsewasconvertedintoacompleteroutandwithinabriefspacethedivisionoftheHigh

Stewardwereabunchoffugitives.TheHighStewarddesperatelyworkedtore-formandreorganisehistroops,whowereentangledamonghedgesandditches,againbeingdecimatedbythefireofthenowsteadyEnglisharchers.

Thebattlebetweenthecentreshadbeenproceedingonalmostequalterms.Ataglance,Balioltookinthe

situation;refusingtosuccumbtothetemptationofpursuingthebeatenHighSteward’sdivision,hewheeledhismenandflungthemintoachargeontheleftflankoftheScottishKing’sdivision.Theleftflankofthisformation,throughtheflightoftheleftwing,wasleftpracticallydefencelessandBaliol’smoveprovedalmostcompletelydisastroustotheScots.Theircentre,attacked

infrontbyNeville(whosemenhadpouredthroughgapsintheenclosurestochargetheScotsinasomewhatconfusedbutneverthelessdesperatemanner)andontheleftflankbyBaliol’scavalry,begantowaverandslowlygiveway.Theconflictwascarriedonrelentlesslyforsometime,theEnglishandtheScotshackingawayateachother,thearchersfiringatwhatevertargetspresented

themselvesandthenlayingonwiththeirswords.InspiteoftheKing,surroundedbyhisnobles,fightingbravely,hisdivisionbegantobreakup,thefugitivestakingofftowardstheright,whereRokebywasvaliantlydoingmorethanholdhisown.ButherethemenoftheScotsrightdivision,hamperedbythenatureoftheground,couldnotretreat;caughtinenclosuresandbetween

hedges,theywereslainwithoutmercyanddiedinheaps.

OnallsidestheScotshadnowcompletelygivenway,buttheirKing,byhisexhortationsandexample,repeatedlybroughtmassesofthembacktothefray.Itwasinvainandatlast,almostaprecursorofFlodden,theremainingknightsformedthemselvesinaringaround

theirmonarchandstoodatbay.Inspiteoftheirgallantdefence,atnoontheroyalbannerwasseentobebeatendown;seeingitfall,theremnantsoftheScottisharmyinallpartsofthefieldfledindespair.Acknowledgingthatallwaslost,theeightyorsoknightsremainingaroundDavidsurrenderedand,atlast,theKinghimselfwastaken.Hisswordwasbrokeninhishandandhewassaidto

havehadatleasttwoseverebodywounds,butproud,fieryandintheprimeoflife,Daviddisdainedcaptivityandtriedtoprovokehiscaptor,SirJohnCopeland,tokillhim.Althoughhesmashedhismailedgauntletintothatknight’sface,hisactiondidnotbringthedeathhedesiredandDavidII,KingofScotland,wasconveyedintriumphthroughEnglandtotheTowerofLondon.

TheEnglishlossesarenotknown,althoughinsuchafiercelycontestedbattletheymusthavebeensevere.TheScotsundoubtedlylostthemore.Itissaidthat,outof30,000men,nearlyhalfperishedonthespotandmanymoreinthesubsequentpursuit.

Andsotheyear1346becameayearofvictories;theTowerofLondondidnot

seemtohavesufficientroomstoaccommodateallitsroyalandnobleprisonersofwar.Englandwasayoungnation,onlyrecentlyunitedandjustfindingherfeet;thevictoriousexploitsofhersoldiers,whichhadgiventhemafearsomereputationinanamazinglyshortspaceoftime,hadarousedaspiritofnationalprideandconsciousnessnevertobelost.Bymethodsderived

fromhisgrandfather,EdwardIIIhadblendedwithskillandexperiencetacticalmethodsthatweretobeforgedinthefiresofsuccessatHalidonHill,Morlaix,Crécy,Neville’sCrossandmanysubsequentvictories.Tocarryoutthesemethods,Edwardhadathisdisposalmenofthehighestclass–men-at-armswhowerethepickofthecountry,andarcherswhohadbroughttheircrafttoapeak

ofperfectionbylongpractice.TherearenumerousFrenchwritingsandchroniclesthattestifytothefearsomeanddeadlyimpressionthatthesearchershadmadeuponcontinentalsoldiery.ItwasindeedatimeofnationalrejoicingthatthelustyEnglishinfanthadlearnedtowalkandwasnowlayingabouthimsothathispresencewastobeknownthroughhispowerofarmsformany

centuries.

Chapter14

Mauron–1352SocolourfulandvitalarethevictoriesofCrécyin1346andatPoitiersin1356thattheinterveningyearsoftheHundredYearsWartendto

assumeinterest-lackingqualitiessofarasbattlesandengagementsareconcerned.Thisisdue,inpart,totheBlackDeathin1348causingsomanydeathsinEnglandthatitbecamedifficulttoreinforcethemanyEnglishgarrisonsinFrance,sothattherewasaninevitablelullinactivities.Therewasalsoatruceofsortssignedin1347whichobviouslywouldhavepreventedmajorconflicts,for

ashorttimeanyway.

Inspiteofthis,itistruetosaythatthroughoutthisperiodinquestiontherewasalmostconstantfightingtakingplaceinPicardy,inBrittanyandinGascony.NordidFranceceasetotrytoassuageherpridebyrecapturingCalais,thatfesteringwoundkeptopenbyEnglandforsolong.In1350,therewasanothernavalbattle

foughtoffWinchelsea,whenfiftysmallEnglishshipsbearingEdwardandthecreamofhiscommanderstotallydefeated–inthebestSluysmanner–aSpanishfleetofforty-fourmuchlargerandmorepowerfulshipsofwar.TheQueen,withherladies,satuponthecliffslookingdownatthebattleasifithadbeenajoustoratourney.Itwasasightworthseeing,forallthebestin

Englandwasoutonthewaterthatday–theywentforthinlittleshipsandcamebackingreatgalleys.OfthetallshipsofSpain,morethantwoscoreflewthecrossofSt.Georgebeforethesunhadset.

Whileitiscertainthatthoselandengagementsthattookplacewerefoughtinthesamepatternasthosethathadprecededthem(remindingoneofanotherwarbetween

thetwocountriestobefoughtsomefivehundredyearslater,whencircumstancescausedtheDukeofWellingtontoremarkthattheFrenchcontinuedtoattackincolumnandtheBritishtodefeattheminline!),thereisevidencethattheFrenchweretryingtodiscovertheweakpointsinthisfrighteninglysuccessfulEnglishtacticalmethod.Inthesummerof1349,EnglishandGasconallies,underthe

CaptaldeBuch,wereinvolvedinasmallbattleatLunalongeinPoitouwithaFrenchforceunderJeandeLisle.Bygoingroundtotherearoftheposition,theFrenchcapturedtheEnglishhorsesthathadbeenhalteredtherewhentheEnglishmen-at-armsdismountedasusualandtookupbattleformations.Havingshownsuchasparkofcommonsense,theelatedFrench,stillmounted,then

attackedtheEnglishpositionfromthefrontinthesameoldmannerandweretotallydefeated,theircommanderbeingcaptured!

Inthespringof1351aFrencharmyunderthecommandoftwomarshalsofFrance–GuydeNesle(Sired’Offrement)andArnaudd’Endreghem–drovebacktheweakEnglishgarrisonsintheprovinceofPoitouand

laidsiegetoSaintes.SeeingthattheFrenchKingevidentlyintendedtorecapturetheprovince,EdwardsentSirJohnBeauchamptocombatthethreat.Beauchamp’sarmyadvancednorthandtheFrenchcametomeetthem,thetwoarmiesapproachingeachothernearSt.Georges-la-Valade.Intheirusualmanner,theEnglishdismountedandformedline

ofbattle,theirhorsesbeingsenttotherearunderguardofpages.OnthisoccasiontheFrenchdidthesame,butretainedtwomountedbodies,oneoneachwing.Onfoot,liketheirenemies,theFrenchnowattackedfrontallyandwerebeatenback,sufferingamostdecisivedefeatandlosing600men,includingthetwomarshalswith140esquiresandgentlemen.Therearenodetailsavailable

ofthisbattle,althoughitindicatesthat,indesperation,theFrenchwereendeavouringtocountertheEnglishtacticsbysimilarlydismounting.Theireffortsborenofruitbecausetheyobviouslyfailedtoappreciatethefullimplicationsofthemove.

MarshaldeNesle,havingbeenransomedafterhiscaptureatSt.Georges-la-

Valade,ledaFrenchinvasionofBrittanyinearlyAugust1352,hisultimateobjectivebeingBrest.RennesfelltotheFrenchandtheEnglishcommander,SirWilliamBentley,decidedtoadvancenorthwardstowardstheBrestroadinordertomeettheenemy.Hedecideduponthiscourseofactionalthoughheknewhimselftobeheavilyoutnumbered,anindicationoftheconfidencewithwhichthe

Englishcommandersapproachedthebusinessinhand.

Bynoononthe14thofAugustbotharmieswereapproachingthesmalltownofMauronfromdifferentdirections;anencounterseemedcertain.ThedustcloudsrisinginthenortheastindicatedtoSirWilliamBentleythattheenemywereapproaching.Atoncehis

trainingandexperiencecameintoplayandhebegantoseekapositionwherehecoulddefensivelyfacetheenemyinthetraditionalEnglishdismountedmanner.Hewasfortunatethatsuchasiteexistedinhisvicinity–itwasnotidealbutgoodenoughtobetakenupwithreasonableconfidence.

ThetownofMauronwassituatedonaridge,from

whichaspurraneastwardswithasloperunningdowntoasmallrivulet,onthefarsideofwhichthegroundslopedupwardsingentlefashion,excepttothenorth-east,whereitbecameverysteep.TheEnglishformeduponthecommandinggroundofthespur,theircentremidwaybetweenanarrowbeltoftreesthatranacrossthetopofthespurandtherivulet;theirrightrestedonasmall

chateauwheretheslopewasmostgentle;therewassteeper,almostprecipitous,groundneartheRennesroadandinfrontoftheirleftflank.Foraforceofonlyabout3,000menitwasalongfrontage–nearly700yards–and,asatAgincourtinlateryears,theylackedsufficientmentoformareserve.Thecountryaroundwasopenandlackedhedges,ditchesorwoods;immediatelyinfront

oftheEnglishpositionlayaprofusionofrank,longundergrowthinfullsummerflower.

TheformationadoptedbytheEnglishwastheoneinvariablysuccessfulinthewar–men-at-armsinthecentre,andarchersin‘herces’orbastions,ontheflanks.Thecentreofthelinewasabout200yardsfromthebeltoftreesandtheflankscurved

backslightlytowardsthem,thusconformingtothecontoursoftheground.ThismeantthatthearcherscouldnotcoverthewholeoftheEnglishfrontagewiththeirfire.

Ontheoppositesideofthevalley,infullviewoftheEnglish,GuydeNesledeployedhisarmy;theyquiteobviouslyoutnumberedtheEnglishconsiderably.Hesent

acrossaheraldwithtermsforawithdrawal,termswhichwerescornfullyrejectedbySirWilliamBentley.SotheFrenchcarriedondismounting,NesleevidentlyretainingconfidenceinthemethodthathadbroughthimdefeatwhenlasthehadmettheEnglish,althoughheretainedamountedbodyofabout700men,undercommandoftheCountHangest,whoweretooperate

ontheleftwing.Thisbodybegantheactionatfouro’clock,whentheycameintobriskcontactwiththeEnglisharchersontherightflank,whoimmediatelygavewayandfled!Thisnotonlymeantthatthemen-at-armsontheirlefthadnocoveringfire,butitalsoexposedtheirrightflank,sothey,intheirturn,hadtofallbackuptheslopeuntiltheyreachedthebeltoftrees.

Thearchersontheleft,withnomountedattacktofacebecauseofthesteepergroundtotheirfront,stoodtheirgroundandusedtheirweaponstosuchgoodeffectthattheFrenchmen-at-armsdidnotevenreachthembutbrokeandfledunderthehailofarrows,scatteringpell-melldowntheslope.Thismeantthattherightflankoftheircentrecolumnlayexposed.Thencameanexampleofthe

greatinitiativeandoffensivespiritthathallmarkedtheEnglisharchersthroughouttheHundredYearsWar–theleftwingbowmendroppedtheirbows,drewtheirswordsandchargednimblydownthehillaftertheretreatingFrenchmen-at-arms.SomeofthemswungtotherightandattackedtheexposedflankoftheFrenchcentrecolumn,causingdisorderandpanic.

TheEnglishmen-at-armsontherightwing,whohadformedadefensivelinealongtheedgeofthebeltoftrees,hadbroughttoapartialhalttheFrenchhorsemenwhowerepursuingthefleeingarchers.Now,encouragedbytheEnglishsuccessontheleft,theytookheartand,fightingfiercelyeveryinchoftheway,graduallyadvancedtopushtheiropponentsdowntheslopebeforethem.Now

openlyretreating,theFrenchwereforcedbackuntiltheyreachedthebottomofthevalley;astheylumberedlaboriouslybackinthehotsummersun,theywerecaughtinamurderouscrossfireofEnglisharrowsandsufferedheavily.ThefleeingFrenchrightwingreachedthebottomofthevalleytofindthemselvesconfrontedwithsteep,rearingslopesthatformedtheonly

routetosafety.Franticallytheytriedtoclawtheirarmouredwayuptheseslopes.Likestrickenbeetles,theirmovementsbecameprogressivelysloweruntil,almostmotionlessexceptforfeeblemovementsoftheirarms,theywereshotdownunmercifullyfromshortrange.

WiththeexceptionofHangestandhiscavalry,the

Frencharmyhaddissolvedlikeapieceoficeleftinthehotsun.Theirleaderdeadalongwithmostofhisseniorcaptains,therestfledinalldirections,intentonsavingthemselves,leavingmorethan2,000deadonthefield.

YetanothervictoryhadbeengainedbytheEnglisharcherinthecontinuousseriesofcontestsbetweenhimselfandtheFrenchmen-

at-arms,asuccessmarredonlybytheexceptionalflightoftheright-flankbowmen.Thereasonsforthisflightcanonlylieintherealmsofconjecture–itmighthavebeenthatHangest’scavalrywereofvastlyexceptionalqualityor,morelikely,thatthearchersthemselveswereofalowerstandardthanusual.ThehugedeathrolloftheBlackDeathhadmeantthattheverybottomofthe

barrelhadhadtobescrapedtoreinforcetheEnglisharmiesinFrance.ItmustbetakenintoaccountthatHangesthimself,theFrenchcavalryleader,hadshownhimselftobeareasonablyablecommanderinthemannerinwhichhehadledhismenoverfavourablegroundtowardstheEnglishrightflank.BysuchamovehehadpreventedmorethanhalftheEnglisharchersfrom

bringingfiretobearuponhisapproachingcavalry–thisisassumingthattheywereinthe‘herce’formation.SufficienttosaythatBentleyhadthirtyofthearchersexecutedforcowardiceonthefollowingday!

AsalinkbetweenthebattlesofCrécyandPoitiers,theaffairatMauronformsaveryinterestingconnectioninthatitconfirmedthe

superiorityoftheEnglisharcherinafrontalattack.ItalsooddlyforeshadowedPoitiers,toacertainextent,inthatitcontainedamountedflankattackandadownhillcounterattack–bothsuccessfulineachcase.

Chapter15

Poitiers–1356TheBattleofPoitiers(spelt‘Peyters’bytheBlackPrince)wasthesecondofthegreattrinityofmemorablevictories,ofwhichCrécywas

thefirstandAgincourtthethird.Althoughitsdetailsaresomewhatcontroversial,itisfairtoclaimthatitiseasilythemostinterestingandinstructiveofthemallfromamilitarypointofview.KingEdwardhadleftBordeauxonthe6thofJuly1356,withtheintentionofcarryingfireandswordintotheenemy’sdomains,endeavouringtomeetanddestroytheFrencharmyintheprocessand,

finally,tojoinhandssomewhereonthelineoftheriverLoirewithhisbrother,theDukeofLancaster.But,byearlySeptember,thetrysthadfailedtomaterialiseandtheBlackPrincehadKingJohnofFranceonhisheelswithamuchlargerarmythanhisown.Nevertheless,hesoughtbattlewiththeFrenchbecausehecorrectlyreasonedthatonlybydispersingthenumericallysuperiorFrench

armycouldhegetbacktoBordeauxwiththesubstantialbootycollectedduringtheraidhehadmadeintotheheartofFrance.Hewasalsoawareofthehighstateofhisarmy’smoraleaftertenyearsofsuperiorityinFrance;heknewthattheyhadunboundedconfidenceinhim,infacttheyheldhiminholyawe;inreturnhehadnolessfaithinthem.

OnthenightofSaturday,17thofSeptember,theFrencharmyencampedjustoutsidethewallsofPoitiers;theEnglisharmylaythreemilestothewest,intheforestnearthelittlevillageofChabotrie.Mostofthefollowingdaywasspentinfruitlessdiscussionsbetweenemissariesofthetwoarmies,duringatruceperiodengineeredbytheCardinaldePérigord.Thetermsproposed

byKingJohnweretoohumiliatingforthePrincetoaccept;hefellbackonthepleathathewasnotauthorisedbyhisfathertosoarrangeatruce.Withnothingconcluded,darknessfellandbotharmieslayontheirarmswithinbowshotofeachother.DuringthisnighttheEnglishheldawarcounciltodecideuponacourseofactionshouldKingJohndeclineindefinitelytoattackthem.

Suchacoursewouldinevitablymeanthattheycouldbestarvedintosurrenderinafewdays,whilsttheFrencharmysteadilyincreasedinsizeasfreshreinforcementsarrived.PrinceEdward,althoughwishingforbattle,hadseriouslytoconsidertheadvisabilityofslippingaway,and,infact,movedthebooty-wagonsduringthenightovertheNouaillebridge.

Fromearliestdawnthecampwasalivewiththeneighingofhorsesandtheclankofarmourbeingdonned.Inhispavilion,theBlackPrincehimselfwasbeingarrayedforbattle;overhisheadwasdrawntheshirtofchainmail,reinforcedwithbreastplateandbackplatewithshoulder-andarm-guardsofburnishedsteelplates.Nexthedonnedwaist-pieceandloin-guard,and

thigh-pieces,knee-guards,greavesandshoesofjointedmail–thewholeaningeniouslyfittedcombinationofchainmailandsteelplates.Later,whenactionwasimminent,thegreatvisoredhelmwouldbeplacedoverhishead,withacoifofflexiblemailtoprotecttheneck,andtheirongauntletswouldbedrawnuponthehands.Piecebypiecethejointedplateswere

fixedtoshoulder,elbow,hip,kneeandinstep,soastopermitofthegreatestfreedomofmovementpossible;andallwassecurelymadefastwithbuckles,locksandrivets.Overallwasdrawnajuponorsleevelesstunicofcloth,emblazonedwiththeheraldicinsigniaoftheBlackPrince.

Onthemorningofthe19th,aftertheendofthetruce

at7.30,therestofthewagonsandtheirescortbegantomoveoff.FromtheirvantagepointontheNorthRidge,theFrenchvanguardspottedthemovementand,fearingthattheEnglishweregoingtoescape,thetwomarshalscommandingtheforcedecidedtoattackatonce.

TheEnglishpositionhadbeencarefullyselectedonaridgefacingtowardsPoitiers;

italsocoveredtheroadorroadsbywhichtheultimateretirementtoBordeauxwouldhavetobecarriedout–boththeseroadsarestillinexistence.Thereweretworidges,theforemostlying400yardstothenorth-westofMaupertuis,calledtheNorthRidge,therearonebeing400yardssouthofitandoccupiedbytheEnglisharmyforaboutathousandyards.Itwasanuncultivatedhill-top,thick

withscrubandundergrowthboundedbyahedge,thelowerleft-handendofwhichfellawaytoamarshthatrandowntojointheMoissonriver;theupperorright-handendrestedonopengroundontopoftheplateauandwasstrengthenedbyaleaguermadeupofthewagons.Thereweretwogapsinthehedge,wherethetracksranthroughit,theuppergapbeingleftopenandthelower

barricadedwithstakesinterlacedwithvinebranches.BetweenthisridgeandtheNorthRidge,occupiedbytheFrench,laycultivatedlandpartlyvinesandpartlyfallow.AtthehighestpointoftheEnglishridgeweretwotalltreesprobablymarkingtheapproximatesituationoftheBlackPrince’scommandpost,fromwhereagoodviewofthewholepositionandtheFrenchlineofattackcouldbe

obtained.Behindthepositionthegroundslopedupgentlyforsome500yardstoalargewood,theNouailleWood,whichinturndippeddowntothevalleyoftheMoisson,100feetbelow.

BattleofPoitiers19thSeptember1356

TheEnglisharmywasabout6,000strong,composedof3,000men-at-arms,2,000archersand1,000sergeants;theforcewaspositionedalongorclosetothehedge.Salisbury’sdivisionwasontheright,Warwick’sontheleft.Thearchers,dismounted,

wereforthemostpartdrawnupinthefamiliarCrécyformation–ontheflanksoftheirrespectivedivisions,inwedgesslightlyinadvanceofthemen-at-arms.ThePrince’sdivisionwereinreserveinrear,andhealsokeptbackasmallbodyofmountedmen.

TheFrencharmywasabout20,000strong,formedinfourbodies;inthevan

weretwosmallcontingentsofmountedmen-at-arms–about250each–underthecommandofthetwomarshals,ClermontandAudrehem.TheleadingdivisionwasunderthecommandoftheDukeofNormandy,theDauphin;thencamethatofhisuncle,theDukeofOrléans;and,lastofall,thatoftheKing,whohadgivenconsiderablethoughttothemannerinwhichhis

troopsweretogointothebattle.HehadresolvedtofollowthesuccessfulexpedientofKingEdwardatCrécy,andtriedbytheFrenchwithoutsuccessatSt.Georges-la-ValadeandMauron.Hewasgoingtodismounthismen-at-arms,theirhorsesbeingleftinthecityofPoitiers.Forconvenienceinmarchingtheyhadremovedtheirspursandcutoffthelongtoesoftheir

ridingboots;theyhadalsoshortenedtheirlancestoaboutfivefeetforclose-quarterfighting.

Itwasatransitionalperiodsofarasarmourwasconcerned;mailwasgraduallybeingreplacedbyplate-armour.TheBlackPrinceworeplateexceptforhismailgorget,buttheordinaryknightworeabiggerproportionofmail,esquires

hadevenlessplatethantheknights.Overthebreastplateorhauberkwaswornaspectacularlyemblazonedandloose-fittingsurcoat,bearingthearmsoftheknightwhoworeit;thisgavearecognisedrallyingpointforhisfollowersduringanycrisisoremergencyinthebattle.Asthestrengthofarmourincreased,sotheneedfortheshielddiminished–itssizedecreaseduntilitwas

eventuallydiscarded.Thearchers,bothfootandmounted,woreasteelcapandbreastplateorapaddedhauberk.Spearmenweresimilarlyattired,exceptthattheyrarelyeverworeabreastplate.

Althoughtakingtheprecautionofsendinghisbooty-wagonsoffinadvance,theBlackPrincewasinvitingbattlenowthatthearmistice

hadended.ThestirringwithintheFrenchlinesastheynotedthemovementofhistransporttoldthePrincethathisgauntlethadbeentakenup.Hepassedalongthelinesoftroops,makinganinspiringaddressthatsubordinatecommanderswerecarefullyorderedtopassontothosemenwhocouldnotactuallyhearit;thenhemadeasecondspeechtohisarchers.Hismenturnedtheirfaces

towardstheenemy.Theywerereadyforthemandconfidentthatvictorywouldbetheirs,asithadbeenatCrécytenyearsbefore.

ThetwomarshalsledthesmallmountedFrenchvanforwardtotheattackbydivergentpaths,threadingtheirwaythroughthevineyardsothattheybecameaseriesofsmallcolumnseachpursuingitsowntrack.

Clermont’scolumntendedtobunchleftwardsontheNouailleroad,whilstAudrehemfollowedtheGuédel’Hommetrack,eachpathbringingthetwocolumnsupagainstthetwingapsthroughwhichtherespectivetracksbreachedthehedge.Audrehem’smenfoundthemselvesfacingamannedbarricadethathelduptheiradvance,sothattheirleaderimpatientlythrusthimself

forward.Beingmountedonabetterhorsethanhisfollowers,hesucceededineitherjumpingorforcinghimselfthroughthebarricade;unfortunatelynoonefollowedhiminsupportsothathewasquicklycapturedanddisarmed.Clermont’scolumncameuptotheunguardedgapontheNouailleroad;theirleadingfilespassedthroughitandthenponderouslyswungright

tosupportAudrehem.Itwasawell-devisedmanoeuvrethatwasonlyfrustratedbyquickthinkingonthepartofSalisbury.Immediatelyweighingupthesituation,hemovedhislinequicklyforwardrightuptothehedge,thusclosingthegapandpreventingaflankattackonWarwick’sdivision.Thefightingthatnowensuedwassevereandsomeofthecavalryactuallymanagedto

breakthroughthecentre,butwereeventuallybroughtdown.

SeeingtheapproachoftheFrenchcavalry,theEnglisharchersontheleftofthepositionintelligentlymovedstillfurtherleftwards,intothemarsh.Inthewaterloggedgroundtheywerecomparativelysafefromtheheavilycladhorsemen,and,undisturbed,wereableto

keepupagallingshowerofarrowsintotheFrenchflanks.ThemoveintothemarshtookplaceasadirectresultofanorderfromtheEarlofOxford,whorandownfromthePrince’scommand-posttodirectthearcherstochangetheirposition.HehadnoticedthattheEnglisharrowswerericochetingofftheFrenchbreastplatesastheridersadvanceddirectlytowardsthearchers;thenewposition

enabledthemtofireobliquelyattheunprotectedhindquartersofthehorsesratherthanatthearmouredriders.

Theslopebecamelitteredwithdeadandwoundedmenandhorsesrollingovereachotherinheaps;onesurvivor,deMézerarysaying:‘…theEnglishmen’sbeardedarrowsmadethehorsesmad.’Recognisingthatonlythe

vanguardhadbeenengaged,theEnglishwererigidlyrestrainedfrompursuitwhenthesurvivorsbrokeandfled.

NowthebattlewastakenupbytheDauphin’sdivision,whoadvancedonfoot,theirshortenedbutstillclumsylancesprojectinginfrontofthemastheyslowlywaddledforward.Theywerefarfromhappyatwhatlaybeforethem,theirmoralehaving

beendetrimentallyaffectedbywhattheyhadjustseenhappentothemountedvanguard.Thesituationwasworsenedbytheconfusionanddisorderthatrippledthroughtheircloselypackedranksasthepanic-strickenhorsescrashedthroughthemintheirlumberingpassagetotherear,awayfromthebitingarrowsthattormentedthem.Itwasliterallyachargeofmadanimals,themost

terribleofallcharges;anditcausedthegreatestconfusionintheirranks.

TheEnglisharchersfiredasquicklyastheycould,keepingtheautumnskyblackwiththeirshaftsandcausingthebelabouredFrenchmen-at-armstolurchforward,headsdown,fallingoverthebodiesofthosewhofellbeforethem.Stilltheycameon,movingeverforwardina

courageousmanner,butcouragedoesnotalwayswinbattlesanditwasnottodosointhiscase.TheEnglishfirebegantoslackenasthearchersranoutofarrows;encouragedbythisnoticeablediminutionintherainofdeath,theFrenchmen-at-armstrampedforwardevenmoreresolutelytowardsthewaitingEnglish.Astheenemynearedtheirposition,thedismountedEnglishmen-

at-armsmovedforwardtothefrontofthenowbatteredandpartlyflattenedhedge,togivethemselvesmorespacetoswingtheirswordsinthemêléethatwasabouttocome.

Withshouts,battle-criesandtheclashofsteel,thetwoforcesmetandafiercehand-to-handstruggletookplace.Itsurgedbackandforth,brokeintoinnumerablepersonal

duelsandebbedtoandfro,givingpromiseofvictoryfirsttooneside,thentheother.Warwick’sportionofthelinewasparticularlystrainedandthePrincereinforceditwiththebulkofhisowndivision,keepingasmallmountedreserveinhand.Atlast,withbothsidesexhaustedandhardlyabletolifttheirheavyarms,theDauphin’smenwaveredandbegantodrawoff,butstillfightingvaliantly

andingoodorder.

Thehard-breathingEnglishstoodback,leaningheavilyontheirweapons;theyweretootiredforanyspontaneousexpressionsoftriumphbuttheyheavedsighsofreliefatwhattheybelievedtobethevictoriousendofthebattle.Thearchersscamperedforwardtoretrievearrowsthattheyhadalreadydischargedandwhich

carpetedthegroundinfrontofthem.Waterwasbroughtandwoundsweredressed,damagedweaponschangedforwholeones,afairselectionbeingpossiblefromthoselyingaroundabandonedbydeadandwoundedofbothsides.TheEnglishsavouredthelengtheninglull,takingtimetolookaroundthem;theyfailedtorealisethattherewerestilltwoFrenchcolumnssofaruncommitted,

atleastoneofwhichwasdoublethestrengthoftheentireEnglisharmy.Thisimpressionwassomarkedthatanumberofmen-at-armswereactuallysentoffinpursuitoftheDauphin’sretreatingmen.

TheoriginalplanoftheKingofFrancewasforthenextstageofthebattletobetakenupbythecolumnoftheyoungDukeofOrléans;butit

hadcompletelydispersedandwasfleeinginscatteredgroupstowardsChauvigny.Thedisastrouseffectsofthetwodistinctandseparategroupsofsurvivorsfrompreviousattacksfleeing,weaponlessanddistraught,throughtheirranks,causedapanicthattheirtwenty-one-year-oldcommanderwascompletelyunabletostem.

ForsomereasontheKing’s

columnwasbeingheldfarbackbehindthefighting,sothattheDauphin’sforcehadbeendispersedbeforeJohnevenknewthattheyhadbeenengaged.Hewasnowawarethatonlyhis10,000menremained,andhehadominousdoubtsastowhethertheycouldcopewitheventhe6,000orsobattle-wearyEnglishwhoremainedsecureintheirpositionontheridge.Themostprudentmove

wouldhavebeenastrategicalwithdrawalbuttherewereconsiderationsofchivalrytobetakenintoaccountand,asatypicalexampleofFrenchthinkingoftheday,high-mindeddreamsprevailedoverdiscretion.KingJohngavetheordertoadvance;slowly,stifflythecolumnrolledforwardtotheattack,lumberingarduouslytothetopoftheNorthRidgefacingtheEnglishposition.

Theserriedranksofthelarge,glitteringmasstoppedtheridgeingoodorder,bannersfluttering,weaponsgleaming;apparentlyunaffectedbywhathadgonebefore,theymovedpurposefullytotheattack.Whentheformidablespectaclewasunrolledbeforetheireyes,thewearyEnglishgapedinastonishment;theirpreviouselationsuddenlydisappearedandwasreplaced

byexhaustionandapprehension.Dismayedcursesandgrumblesroseonallsides.Manylookedwildlyaroundasthoughseekinganavenueofescape;losinghishead,oneofthePrince’sstaffcriedout:

‘Alas!Wearebeaten!’

Hismasterlookedathimcontemptuouslyandthenturnedaway.Raisinghishead

sothatallaroundhimcouldhear,thePrincestinginglyreplied:

‘Thouliest!Thouknave!IfthousayestthatwecanbeconqueredaslongasIlive!’

Nevertheless,itwasadecisivemomentinthelifeoftheBlackPrince.HedidnotknowofthedefectionoftheDukeofOrléans’columnandwasuncertainwhetherornot

itwasbackingupthisgreat,freshforcethatwassteadilylumberingtowardsthem.Hehadtomakearapiddecision;shouldhesacrificesomeofhisfootsoldiersandthewagons,besatisfiedwiththedamagehehaddoneuptonow,andwithdraw?Orshouldherepeattheactionthathadalreadytakenplacetwiceandstandonthedefensiveandletthemthrowthemselvesagainsthistired

men?No,hedidnotfancythat,realisingthat,forthemoment,hismoralsuperiorityhaddepartedandherecalledatacticalpointthathehadearliernoticed–thathisdefensivepositionwaslesseffectiveagainstdismountedmenthanagainstcavalry.

ThePrince’sactivebrainseizedontheoneandonlycoursethatwouldrestorehis

army’smorale–hewouldattack!Hereasonedswiftlytohimself–theFrenchwereoutintheopen,onthemoveanddismounted,andtheylackedarchers–allfactorsthataddeduptoamarkedinabilitytodefendthemselvesagainstamountedattack.ThePrinceblessedtheinspirationthathadcausedhimtokeephishorsesathandandorderspurstoberetainedbyhismen-at-arms.IfthePrince

hadanydoubtsabouthisplan,theywererapidlydispersedwhenSirJohnChandos,oneofhisablestcommanders,hastenedtohissideandurgentlyspoke:

‘Sir,rideforward,thedaysisyours!LetusassailtheKingofFrance,forwithhimliesallthestrengthoftheenterprise.

WellIknowhisvalourwill

notpermithimtoflee,therefore,pleaseGodandSaintGeorge,heshallremainwithus!’

Onallsides,commandersroaredoutorderstomount;themen-at-arms,theirpreviousexhaustionforgottenin-thenewexcitement,gatheredthemselvestogetherandstruggledintothesaddle,wheretheyslumpedawaitingthenextorder.Becoming

impatientthroughthedelaythatfollowed,theirhorsesrestlesslyliftedtheirfeetandnudgedintoeachother,whilsttheirridersglancedtobothsidesseekingthereasonforthepause.ThePrincewasarrangingadiversionintheformofaflankattackbythesmallmountedreservehestillheld,freshandready,undertheGasconleader,CaptaldeBuch.Hecarefullyinstructedthemtoleavethepositionby

thenorthernendoftheNouaillewood,swingleftandapproachtheNorthRidgeunobserved,sothattheyhittheFrenchleftflankastheircolumntrudgedforward.ThePrincereturnedtotheheadofhismen,glancedallaroundhim,noddedwithsatisfactionandraisedhisswordhighabovehishead.Tothestandard-bearershecried:‘Advance,banners!InthenameofGodandSt.

George!’WiththePrinceandChandosinfront,thenowmountedmen-at-armsrolled,downtheslopetowardsthedipthatlaybetweenthemandtheNorthRidge,graduallygatheringmomentumastheywent.Havingexhaustedtheirarrows,themountedarchersdrewtheirswordsandgrimlytackedthemselvesontotheflanksandrearofthenowchargingmass.TheadvancingFrenchdivision,

seeingthesuddenavalancheofmenandhorsescascadingdowntowardsthem,backedbythethunderofhoovesandtheshoutsofbattle-cries,involuntarilystopped,sothattherearrankspileduponthoseinfront.Forsomeitprovedtoomuch;aconsiderablenumberoftheFrenchmen-at-armsintherearandontheflankstookadvantageoftheirpositiontoturnandrun,shamblingfrom

thefieldasfastastheirheavyarmourallowed.Beforetheremaindercouldassumeanysortofdefensivepositionorformation,changetheirranksorpresentamoreunitedfront,theEnglishhorsemenwereuponthem.Theycrashedhomeintothewallofyielding,livingbodieswithafierceshockthattumbledmenofbothsides,togetherwithhorses,totheground.

Nowensuedahardandbloodyconflict;themountedEnglishwerestilloutnumberedbutmanagedtoforcetheirwayforwardyardbyyard.Itwastheclosestofclose-quarterfightingwheretheshortdaggerwasmoredeadlythanthefive-footlancethatcouldnotbeplungedhome,ortheswordthatlackedspaceinwhichtobewielded.

Thiswasthetimewhenconflictsoundedandlookedpossiblymoredeadlythanitactuallywas,ifoneisonlytoconsiderthosemen-at-armsactuallykilledbyopposingmen-at-arms.Inthosecasestheactualkillingwasseldomgreatbutmanywereunhorsedorthrowntotheground,wheretheylayhelplessuntilassistedtoriseagain;inhotweathermanyweresuffocatedorchokedin

bloodiftheirvisorswerenotunclasped.Thoseamongthemwhoperishedbysword-cutorlance-thrustwerefewincomparisontotheslaughtermadewhentheyfoundanopeninginaformationofinfantry,orcameuponunsupportedarcherswithouthavingtotaketoomanyarrows.

Themêléesurgedbackandforth,thegroundbecame

slipperyandbloody,mentumblednoisily,tobetrampledintoshapelesshulksbeneaththeshufflingfeetandhoovesofthecombatants;onallsidestheairwasfullofthetumultofbattle.

UndersuchconditionsitwasnotsurprisingthatnoonesawtheapproachofCaptaldeBuch’ssmallbodyofcavalryastheycameinontheFrenchleftflank.Theycrashedinto

thisunsuspectingpartoftheKing’sdivisionwithashockresult,bothphysicallyandmorally,farinexcessoftheirsizeandnumbers.Resolutelytheycommencedtohacktheirwayintothemêlée.FortheFrenchitwasthelaststraw;theirgreatcolumn,attackedontwosides,begantocrumblelikeasandcastleundertheonslaughtofremorselesswaves.Progressively,itslowly

disintegratedasmenstole,stumbledandlurchedfromthefield,seekingsafetyandwildlygazingineverydirectionforsanctuary.ThemorefaithfulfollowersoftheKingofFrancefoughtbravelyaroundhim;theBlackPrinceandhiscommanderskepttheirmensteadilyonhand,concentratingtheireffortsonthisconfusedmultitudewhostillfoughton,beingwhittled

downbysword,axe,lanceanddagger.TheKinghimselffoughtbravely,battle-axeinhandsalmosttoowearytowieldit;aroundhimpressedafuriousthrongofEnglishandGascons,crying:

‘Surrender!Giveway!’

AnxioustosavetheFrenchmonarch,manyEnglishknightsimploredhimtoyieldbuthewasunwillingtodoso

toanyoneofinferiorrank.Repeatedlyheasked:

‘Whereismycousin?WhereisthePrinceofWales?’

AyoungknightofSt.OmerspoketohiminFrench:

‘Sire,surrender!Iwillleadyoutohim.’

Struckbyhispureaccent,

thebreathless,wearyKingasked:

‘Whoareyou?’

‘Sire,IamDenisofNorbeque,aknightofArtois.IservetheKingofEnglandbecauseIhavelostmyallinFrance.’

TheKingsighed:

‘Then,toyouIsurrender.’

Hegavetheyoungknighthisrightgauntletandmovedslowlywithhimtowardstheedgeofthemêlée,wheresomeGasconsandEnglishclaimedhimandtriedtowresthimawayfromNorbeque.TheopportunearrivaloftheEarlofWarwickandSirJohnPelhamsavedwhatmightwellhavebeenadisastrousending.TheEnglishknightsapproachedtheroyalcaptivewithevery

showofrespectandconductedhimtothePrinceofWales.

Slowlythebattleburneditselfout;thetriumphantEnglishpursuedsomeofthefleeingFrenchasfarastheverywallsofPoitiers.Amidthedeadanddying,theBlackPrincehadhispavilionpitchedandthere,withdarknessdescending,satdowntodinewithhisroyal

prisonerofwar.

TheFrenchcasualtiesamountedtoapproximately2,500reportedkilledandsome2,000captured,plusabout4,000wounded;norecordseemstohavebeenkeptofthecasualtiestotheinfantrylevies,whosebatteredbodieswerepiledintoagreatcharnel-pit.Althoughnoaccuratefiguresareavailable,apparentlythe

Englishgotoffverylightly.

TherewereanumberofvalidreasonsfortheEnglishvictoryatPoitiers;asuccessprominentamongtheconsistentEnglishvictoriesovernumericallystrongerforcesthatmarkedthissixteen-yearperiodinthemiddleofthefourteenthcentury.Inaway,Poitierswasathrow-backtothepreviouscenturyinthatitwas

wonbymen-at-armswithasuccessfullateactionofmountedagainstdismountedtroops.AlthoughitbeganintheCrécytradition,thearchersdidnotreallyplaytheirusualprominentpart.

Theeventualresultofthebattlewasmuchaffectedbythemannerinwhichthetwoopposingcommandershandledtheirarmies.TheBlackPrinceneverletgohis

strongpersonalgrip;hemostadequatelyutilisedthelullafterbeatingofftheDauphin’sattackbybrilliantlydecidingtomountandattack,couplingtheonslaughtwithamountedflankattack.Hechosehisgroundwellinthatitwassuitableforthesizeofhisarmy:thehedgeserveditspurposeadmirably,thevineyardinfrontbrokeupthecavalryattacks,andthe

natureofthegroundontherightlentitselftotheflankmove.ThePrincegavehisforcemobilitybykeepinghishorseshandy–withoutthistherecouldhavebeennocombinedfrontalandflankattack,sounusualforbattlesoftheperiod.

Ontheotherhand,KingJohnofFrancelackedcombinedcontroloverhisforces,whowereformedinto

whatamountedtothreedistinctandseparatearmies.ThisisreflectedinthemannerinwhichheallowedhisowndivisiontobesofarbehindthebattlefieldatthetimewhentheDauphinwasbeingrepulsed;atthatmomentheshouldhavebeenhandyandreadytotakeitupagain.Insteadhismenhadalongandslowadvancetomake,givingtheBlackPrincetimetoformulatealternative,

winningtactics.ObsessedwithKingEdward’sdefenceatCrécy,KingJohndismountedhismen-at-arms,butfailedtoobservethatthecircumstanceswereabsolutelydifferentinthatherequiredavigorousimpactthroughshockandmobility,whereasEdwardsoughtdefensivestability.Coupledwiththiserrorandconnectedwithhislackofoverallcontrol,theFrenchKing

allowedhisarmytobeformedintoonegiganticwedgethat,divisionbydivision,dasheditselfagainstthestrongestpartoftheEnglishposition.

SoendedanotherFrenchking’sattempttodefeattheEnglisharmyinFrance,afailureattendedbyevengreaterignominythanthatofhispredecessoratCrécy.

Chapter16

HomildonHill–1402TheroyalcaptivefromPoitierswasmarchedintriumphthroughLondonand,eventually,atwoyears’trucewassigned.Soughtasa

healing-time,thisperiodbecameoneofinternalwarfarebetweenbandsofroutedsoldierywhoformedthemselvesintofreecompaniesofbandits;themiserablecountrythatwasFrancefoundnorestinherself.Next,ParisroseagainsttheCrowninarisingthatwashardlycrushedbeforeEdwardwasagainravagingthewastedland.ThedefeatatPoitiershadsucha

profoundeffectupontheFrenchmilitarymindthattheymadenofurtherattemptstomeettheEnglishinapitchedlandbattle.TheyallowedtheEnglishtowearthemselvesoutmarchingthelengthandbreadthoftheland,whilsttheysullenlyshutthemselvesintheircastles.FaminewasprovingFrance’sbestdefence,sothatthesetacticswerereasonablywellsuitedtothecircumstances;

buttheyinevitablydroveyetanothernailintothecoffinofchivalrybybeingopposedtoeverypreceptofthatfeudalstatewhichbadeeverygoodknighttoaccepteachandallchallenges.

Atlastbothcountriesseemedtobewornout.Edward’sarmyhadfallenbackontheLoirewhenproposalsofpeacereachedthem.BytheTreatyof

Bretigny,inMay1360,EdwardwaivedhisclaimsonthecrownofFranceandontheDuchyofNormandy;ontheotherhand,theDuchyofAquitaine,whichincludedGascony,Guienne,Poitou,Saintonge,Limousin,PérigordandRouergue,werelefttohim,nolongerasafiefbutinfullsovereignty,whilehisnewconquestofCalaisremainedapartofthepossessionsoftheEnglish

crown.EdwardalsoretainedthecountryofPonthieu(withAbbevilleandthesiteofCrécy)ontheChannelCoast.IfitwasnotallthatEdwardwanted,itwasstilltriumph;atriumphwellearnedbythedominantmonarchwhosepersonalityandpersistencehadbroughtvictory.Possessinganaturaltalentforwar,hisattitudeandmethodsinspiredconfidenceintherugged,experiencedand

giftedcommandershehadgatheredaroundhimself.Itwasaconfidencethatflowednaturallyfromthemdowntotherank-and-file,leadingtoavibrantmoraleandahighlevelofdiscipline.WhentheTreatyofBretignywassigned,therewaslittledoubtthattheEnglishsoldierand,therefore,theEnglisharmyformedaprofessionalbodyoffightingmenwithoutequalintheworld.Onlyinthisway

wasitablesoconsistentlytodefeatoneseveraltimeslargerthanitself,itscampaigningbringingapolishedexperiencethatrefusedtoaccepttheexistenceofanythinglessthanoverwhelmingvictory.

EnglandwasayoungnationanditsfiresofnationalconsciousnessweretobestokedupbythisseriesofContinentalsuccesses,

bringingwiththemapridethathasneverlefttheseshores.ItisprobablynomerecoincidencethatthesigningoftheTreatyofBretignypracticallycoincidedwiththeintroductionoftheEnglishtongueintoParliamentaryproceedings.TheincontestablemilitarysuperiorityoftheEnglishinthefourteenthcenturylay,aboveall,inthedexteritywithwhichtheyusedgood

weaponscombinedwiththehighproportionofarcherstootherarms.WiththismustbecoupledthehighstandardsofEnglishmorale;theyenteredtheHundredYearsWarwithareasonablyhighstateofmorale,duetothesuccessesagainsttheScots;byPoitiersthismentalstatewasatitsverypeakamongbothofficersandmen.

Althoughatreatyhadbeen

signed,themenwhofoughtstillhadabilityandhotbloodtoputatthedisposalofanyonewhoneededfirst-classfightingmenandcouldpaywellforthem.Onthe16thofMarch1364aFreeCompanyofEnglisharchers,numberingabout300,foughtfortheKingofNavarreagainsttheKingofFranceatCockerel.Itwasasmallbattle,onlyabout1,500oneachside,butmadenotable

byattemptsoftheFrenchtocombatthenowfamiliarEnglishtactics.Theydismountedtheirmen-at-arms,whofoughtonfoot,theirarmourbeingofsuchsuperiorqualitythatitturnedtheEnglisharrows.Coupledwithaslightsuperiorityinnumbers,thisfactorforcedtheKingofNavarre’smenfromthefield.Itwasonlyaveryslightsuccess,butthedefeatofevenasmallbody

ofEnglishwassuchararityinthosedaysthatitarousedgreathopesinFrenchbreastsforthefuture.

ThefollowingyearsawabattleatAuray,onthe29thofSeptember1365,whenEnglishtroopsaidedJohnofMontfortinhisquarrelwithCharlesofBlois.Theforcesweresmallagain,about4,000aside;bothdismountedandtheFrenchdiscardedtheir

lances,tofightwithbattle-axeandsword.TheEnglisharchersopenedtheengagement,but,asatCockerel,theirshaftscouldnotpenetratetheFrencharmour.Aftersomefutileshooting,withgreatdeliberation,theythrewdowntheirbowsandboldlyadvancedtowardstheFrenchmen-at-arms.Theirlightnessoffootandnimbletacticsaresaidtohaveenabledthem

literallyto‘runringsaround’thearmouredmen,whoseaxesandswordstheypluckedfromtheirhandsandusedagainsttheirformerowners!Inaseriesofdetachedstrugglesbetweenbrawny,activeEnglishmenindoubletandhoseagainstpantingFrenchmencasedstifflyinmailandplate-armour,staggeringandrattlingastheycursedfrombehindclosedvisors,thestruggleswayed

backandforth.Quickly,men-at-armscametotheassistanceofthearchers,and,afteradesperateengagement,theFrenchweredrivenfromthefieldofbattle.

Intheyear1377theFrenchlandedaconsiderablebodyoftroopsontheIsleofWight;theytookandrazedthecityofFrancheville,4andthen,splittingintotwocolumns,madeforthefortressof

Carisbrooke.Thefirstcolumn,ambushedbyEnglisharchers,wascompletelywipedout;thesecondwassosorelybeaten,againbybowmen,atthecastle,thattheFrenchwereforcedtoretreat.AtthistimeRichardIIwasKingofEngland;recordsindicatethathemaintainedastandingbodyguardofarchers,someauthoritiesplacingtheirnumbersashighas4,000.On

oneoccasion,whentroublearoseinLondon,thebodyguard,fearingforthelifeoftheirmaster,drewtheirarrowsandrankedthemselvesoutsideParliament,itissaid,‘totheterrorofthepeople’.

Towardstheendofthefourteenthcenturythearmouroftheperiodbecamemuchmoreelaborate,partakingofthemoreextravagantmodesoftheage.Platewasso

universallywornthatthegussetsofchainatthejointsandthechainapronwereallthatremainedoftheoldmailofthetenthcentury.Thejuponandmilitarygirdlewerestillworn,andvisoredbascinetsweresometimesused,withtheventaillefashionedlikethebeakofabird,whilethebascinetitselfwasoftenencircledbyabandorfilletofermine,oraborderofbeautifulworkmanship.

MilanwasnowthegrandemporiumforequippingthechivalryofEurope.HeraldiccrestsonthehelmetwereworninEnglandbyallmenofrank,butnotgenerallyusedinScotlandforalmostahundredyearsafterbeingcommoninEngland.ThearmouroftheEarlofDouglas,defeatedScotscommanderatHomildonHill,wassaidtohavetakenayeartotemperandmake.

Theoldenemy,theScots,everonthelookoutforanopportunitytoprofitbyEngland’soccupationinotherdirections,crossedtheborderinSeptember1402,andpenetratedasfarasNewcastle.UndertheleadershipofArchibald,fourthEarlofDouglas,theScotsforce,numberingperhaps8,000,laidwastethelandandthenturnedbacktowardstheborder.HenryIV

beingengagedatthetimeonaWelshexpedition,anEnglishforcetoopposetheScotswashastilycollectedundertheleadershipoftheEarlofNorthumberlandandhisson,thegallantHotspur.Theseexperiencedborderleaders,togetherwiththeEarlofMarch,decidedtointercepttheScotswhenontheirhomewardmarch,encumberedwithspoilandherdsofcattle.

TheEarlofDouglaswasatWoolerwhenhereceivedthenewsthathiswaytoScotlandwasbarredbyanEnglishforceatMillfield,ontheriverTill,aboutfivemilesnorth-westofWooler.Douglasimmediatelytookupapositiononaneminence,HomildonHill,abouttwomileswestbynorthofWooler.Thehillitselfwasterracedinthreesuccessivetiers,andhadanelevationof

nearly1,000feetabovesea-level;ithadaflattopandtracesofarudeearthworkweredetectable;onitslowerslopesburialmoundsexisted.

HeretheScotswerenoisilyformingthemselvesintotheirschiltrons–thedefensiveformationsofpikementhathadservedthemwellinthepast–whentheyweresuddenlyattackedbyabodyofabout500Englisharchers

whohadbeensentforwardonareconnaissance.ThebowmenopenedfireatlongrangeontheirhereditaryenemiesandcausedsomedamageamongthemassedScotsranks;thentheycamecloserandmenbegantofallfast–wellmightthearchersofEnglandboastthateachcarriedtwelveScotslivesathisbelt!WithDouglaswasasmallbodyofarchers,whoattemptedtoreplytothehail

ofEnglisharrowswithoutdoingmuchdamage;afactthatcanbeputdowntotheScottishbowbeingsmallerandweakerthanitsEnglishcounterpart,onlybeingpulledtothechestithadamuchshorterrange.Spasmodically,bodiesofScotsspearmenattemptedtochargedownthehill,butallwerethrownbackbyshowersofarrows.Underthegallinghail,thenationaltemperamentofthefiery

Scotsrosetoboilingpoint;theybegantomovefromtheirdefensivepositionandtosurgedownthehill.

Whenthesurgebecameaflood,theEnglisharcherscommencedtoretireinsections,dischargingvolleysinsuccession,causingthebaffledspearmentolosemenateverystepastheyimpulsivelypressedforward.AbodyofScotshorse

lumberedtothefrontbut,inthesameway,wereunabletogetintoclosequarters.Itwasmaddeningandridiculousthatthissmallbodyofmenshouldbecausingsuchheavycasualtieswithoutlosingasinglemanoftheirown.

Thechase,orluring,wenton,untiltheEnglisharchershaddrawntheentireScottishforcedownfromtheirhilltoafieldknownasRedRiggon

theothersideoftheriverTill.Here,theremainderoftheEnglishforcewaited,impatientforaction;infact,HotspurproposedanimmediatechargeonthedisorderedScotsbuttheEarlofMarchseizedhisbridleandsuggestedthatthearchersshouldfirstbeallowedtodischargealltheirshafts.TheScotsattemptedtore-formtheirnormallyclose-packedranksintoadefensive

formationwhentheysawthemassedranksoftheEnglishawaitingthem,butwerestillbeingruthlesslyassailedbythehissingclothyardshaftsofthearchers.TheseScottishpikemen,iftheyhadanyarmouratallitwasonlytheverylightest,sounprotectedandinclose-knitgroups,fellindozensuponeachother.Theirleaders,whostillusedtheoldEnglishchainmail,founditnodefenceagainst

thedeadlyarrows;horses,woundedandungovernable,theirbreastsandflanksbristlingwithbloodyarrows,gallopedmadlytoandfro,tramplingbothdeadandwoundedintoagorypulp.

SirJohnSwinton,anoldScotsknightofdistinguishedrecord,criedoutbitterly:

‘Whystandwethustobeshotdownlikedeer?Where

isourwontedcourage?Arewetobestillasifourhandswerenailedtoourlances?Followmeandletusatleastsellourlivesasdearlyaswecan!’

Attheheadofabout100men,hedesperatelychargedforward,completelyunsupportedbytherestoftheScotsarmy,tobequicklyoverthrownanddestroyedalmosttoaman.Then

Douglasmadeafinalefforttosavethedaybymakingadesperatechargeattheheadofhismen.Beforetheattackbrokedownunderthefireofthearchers,Douglashimselfhadlostaneyeandbeenwoundedinfourplaces.Whenthisonslaughtcameforward,thearchersretiredbeforeit,droppingbackontotheircavalry,butcontinuedtoshootuntiltheadvancingScotswaveredandbroke.

PercyandMarchnowsawthatthetimehadcometoact;theysentintheEnglishmountedmen.Withashout,thearchersdroppedtheirbowsandtooktotheirswordsandaxes,rushinginandminglingwiththehorsemen,toplaytheirfinalpartinthemêlée.Therewasnotagreatdealforthemen-at-armstodo.Theydrewtheirswordsandlaidtheirlancesinrest,buttheScotshadhadenough;

brokenbythearchers,theyturnedtoflee.TheywerepursuedasfarasColdstream,theoldcrossingplaceoftheTweed;itwassaidbythechroniclersthattheScots’lossesinthepursuitwereevengreaterthanthoseofthebattle!

In1403,attheBattleofShrewsbury,theEnglishhadatasteofthefearsomemedicinedealtoutforsolong

totheFrenchandtheScots.Positionedonaslope,theCheshirearchersoftherebelHotspur,filledtheairwithadeadlyhailofarrows,takingheavytollofHenryIV’smen.Thisfirstdischargeofarrowswas,byallaccounts,terrifying;Walsingham,acontemporarywriter,says:‘TheyfellupontheKing’stroopslikeleavesuponthegroundinautumn.Everyonestruckamortalman.’Henry

V,thenthefifteen-year-oldPrinceHenry,carriedtohisgravethescarofafacialwoundcausedbyanarrow–herefusedtoleavethefieldofcombat.

HadtheCheshirearchersbeenabletomaintaintheirshowerofshaftstheroyalarmywouldhavebeensweptfromthefield.Whenitslackened,thearcherswereovercomebythesuperior

numbersoftheKing’smensweepinguptheslope.Withinthreehours,1,600outof8,000menhadbeenkilled,themajorityfromarrowwounds.

Chapter7

Agincourt–1415TakingadvantageofthecivilwarwhichconvulsedFrance,theseinternalcalamitiesofferingatemptingopportunityforaggression,

HenryV,onhisaccession,revivedEdwardIII’sclaimtothethroneofFrance.Henry’swarwasarenewaloftheearlierstruggleontheexpirationofatrucemadebyRichard.Inmid-1415,HenrysailedwithhisarmyfromSouthampton,andinfiveweekshadreducedthestrongfortressofHarfleur.Dysenteryandsimilardiseasesmadehavocinhisranksduringthesiegeandit

waswithamerehandfulofmenthatHenrydecidedtoinsulttheenemywithadaringmarch,likethatofEdward,uponCalais.

Onthe8thofOctobertheEnglishmarchedoffinthreecolumns,withcavalryontheirflanks.ButHenryfoundthebridgesoftheriverSommebrokendownandthefordsrenderedperilousbylinesofpointedstakesinthe

riverbed.Aftersomedelay,anundefendedplacewasdiscoverednearSt.Quentin;hecrossedrapidlyandmarchedforCalais,onlyforhisweary,sickandhalf-starvedforcetofindamuchlargerFrenchforcecampedrightacrosstheirlineofmarch.TheEnglishKingknewthathehadnochoicebetweenfightingandunconditionalsurrender;histroopswerestarvingandthe

waytoCalaislaythroughtheFrencharmy.TheKing’scourageroseashisperilgrewand,hungry,sickandwearyastheywere,thehandfulofmenwhomheledsharedthespiritoftheirleader.

AmidthedarknessoftheOctobernightandthroughthesheetsofbiting,coldrain,theEnglishcouldseethewholelandscapeflickeringwiththeFrenchcamp-fires.Overthe

half-mileofsodden,muddygroundthatlaybetweenthearmies,thepassingwindcarriedthenoiseofshouting,singingandburstsofmerriment.ItcontrastedoddlywiththedisciplinedquietoftheEnglishcamp,wherewell-trainedsoldierssawtotheirweapons,confessedandwereshriven,chastenedbytheconvictionthatmostofthemwoulddieonthemorrow.KingHenry

tookUtilerest;hemovedquietlyamonghismen,talkingtothem.Once,whenabriefseasonofmoonlightoccurred,hesentofficersouttoexaminethegroundoverwhichtheywouldsoonfight.

Atthreeo’clockthemoonrose,andthewholearmyawokeandpreparedfortheday’swork.Tokeeptheirheartscheerful,theKingorderedthetrumpets,drums

andfifestoplayfamiliartunes.Thenightpassedawayandthedawnstoleon–thedawnoftheFeastofSt.Crispin,the25thofOctober1415.Ithadstoppedrainingbuttheskywasgreyandwater-laden;themenbegantobedeployedbytheirmarshalsintoorderofbattle.Iftheydidnotpresentatidy,colourfulappearance,theirtarnished,dentedandwell-usedarmourandequipment

gavethemaworkmanlikestatusthatheldahintofwhatwastocome.IthadbeenbrightandburnishedwhentheyhadleftSouthamptontwomonthsbefore;brightplumesintheapexofthehelmethadlongsincebedraggledanddrooped,buttheformofthehelmitselfwasstillquitebeautiful,withanorleorchapletaroundit.Thebreastplateshadbecomeglobularinrecentyearsand

thesteelgorgetwasreplacingtheancientcamailwhichhadhithertoprotectedthethroat.Hangingsleevesofrichclothhadbeenwornwiththearmour,nowhanginginthreadsandtatters.Thelance-restswerehooksjustbelowtherightbreast;two-handedswordswithheavybladeshadjustbeenintroducedandapole-axewasoftencarriedbycommandersinthefield.Monstrelet,inhisChronicles,

describestheEnglisharchersasbeingforthemostpartwithoutarmour,andinjacketswiththeirhoseloose,withouthatsorcapsandoftenbarefooted;theirhatchetsorswordshungattheirgirdle.St.Remysaysthattheywerenotbareheaded,andthatmanyofthemworecapsofcuirbouilli,orboiledleather,andothersofwicker-workcrossedoverwithbarsofiron.

TheKingheardthreeMasses,heldatvariouspartsofthecampsothatallcouldtakepart;hewascladinallhisarmoursavehishelmandemblazonedsurcoat.AfterthelastMasstheybroughtthemtohim–thehelmwasabascinetwithabaviere,uponwhichhehadacrownofgoldstuddedwithpearls,sapphiresandrubies;hissurcoatwasresplendentwiththeleopardsofEnglandandthefleur-de-

lysofFrance.Hemountedhisgreypalfreyandrodedownthelinesoftroops,callingoutwordsofencouragementtothemashereceivedtheircheers.Hespoketohisarchers,remindingthemthatwhenSoissonshadfallenafewmonthsbefore,theFrenchhadhunguplikedogsthe300Englisharchersofthegarrison.Thecommonsoldierknewthat,indefeat,hewouldbecutdowntothelastman;

notforhimwastherealife-savingransomasinthecaseoftheknights.

Asheproceeded,Henrychancedtohearsomeonewishthat‘…someofthegoodknightswhowereidleinEnglandmight,byamiracle,betransportedtothisfieldofbattle.’

Henrycriedloudly:

‘No!Iwouldnothaveasinglemanmore!IfGodgivesusvictory,itwillbeplainthatweoweittoHisgoodness.IfHedonot,thefewerwearewillbethelesslosstoEngland.ButfightwithyourusualcourageandGodandthejusticeofourcauseshallprotectus!’

AnotherhearteningexampleofspiritandcouragewasshownbyDavidGam,a

Welshcaptain,returningfromreconnoitringtheenemy,whoreportedthat‘…thereareenoughtobekilled,enoughtobetakenandenoughtorunaway!’

ThesmallEnglisharmywasdrawnupontheoldplanofCrécy,intheusualthree‘battles’ofdismountedmen-at-armswitharchersonthewingsofeachbattle,andafurthertwobodiesofarchers,

oneoneachwingofthearmy.Themen-at-armswereaboutfourdeepandthearchersaboutseventotheyard,beingformedintowedgesorbastion-likeformationsprojectinginfrontofthelineofmen-at-arms.ThecentrewascommandedbytheKing,therightwingbyEdward,DukeofYork,andLordCamoyscommandedtheleftwing.ThetotalEnglishstrengthwasunder6,000,

composedofabout1,000men-at-armsandknights,with5,000archers–aforcesosmallthattheKingcouldaffordnoreserveandonlythesmallestbaggage-guard.

TheFrencharmy,mainlycomposedofmen-at-arms,wasformedinthreelines,allbeingdismountedexcepttherearone;thereweretwobodiesofcavalryeach600strong,stationedoneach

wing.Thelineswereaboutfiveorsixdeep,althoughtheFrenchfrontofabout1,200yardswasmostcongestedfortheirforceofabout25,000men,sothattheyweredenselypackedwithlittlespacetoplyweapons.

Thetwoarmiesformedupatdawnonthatautumnmorningand,forfourhours,stoodmotionlesswatchingeachotherintently;the

FrenchhadtoomanybittermemoriesofCrécy,Poitiersandotherbattlestotaketheoffensive,sotheystoodfirmawaitinganEnglishadvance.ItwasananticlimaxthatwasencouragingtothesmallerEnglishforce,althoughverywearingonthenerves!

OnthemarchtoAgincourt,HenryhadbeeninformedthattheFrenchintendedtomakea‘dead-set’atthehated

archers.Tocombatthis,heorderedeacharchertoprovidehimselfwithastakesixfeetinlengthandpointedateachend.Incaseofmountedattack,orwheninpositionasonthisverymorning,thestakesweretobethrustintotheground,theupperendsslopingtowardstheenemy.Thechronicler,Holinshed,writingonthis,says:‘TheKingorderedhisbattlethus:hecausedstakes

boundwithironsharpeatbothendsofthelengthoffiveorsixfoottobepitchedbeforethearchersandoneachsideofthefootmenlikeahedge,totheintentthatifbarded[i.e.armoured]horsesrunrashlieuponthemtheymightshortliebegoredanddestroyed.Certainpersonswerealsoappointedtoremovethestakesas,bythemovementofthearchers,occasionandtimeshould

require,sothatthefootmenwerehedgedaboutwithstakes.Thisdeviceoffortyfieingthearmywasatthistimefirstinvented.’

Duringtheirlongwaitthemenhadthechancetoviewthearena;theysawthattheyfilledonesideofarectangle,theotherthreesidesbeingformedbythemassedFrencharmyinfrontofthem;bytheAgincourtwoodsontheirleft

andtheTramcourtwoodsontheirright.Thewholewasabout940yardswideatitsnarrowestpointandthetwoarmieswereabout1,000yardsapart,withaslightdipbetweenthemsothattheywereinfullviewofeachother.Thegroundbeneaththeirfeetwasploughed,anewlysownwheatfieldmadeverysoftandmuddybythetrampingoffeetafterdaysofheavyrain.Someaccountsof

thebattleclaimthatHenryhadstationedamountedforceofabout400lancesintheTram-courtwoodsontheFrenchleft,and200archersontheirrightintheAgincourtwoods–thisseemsunlikelyinviewofhissparsenumbers.

BattleofAgincourt25thOctober1415

ShrewdtacticianHenryrealisedthathisonlypossiblechanceofvictorylayinprovokingthemuchlargerFrencharmytoattackhim;soateleveno’clock,heorderedhislittlearmytoadvancetowithinlong-archeryrange.Thecryrangthroughthestill

air:

‘Advance,banner!’

Everyonekneltdown,madeacrossuponthegroundandkissedit.SirThomasErpingham,thecommanderofthearchers,repeatedtheorderandhislightlycladmenstruggledtopluckfromtheheavygroundthepointedwoodenstakesthateachhaddrivenbeforehim.Thenthe

wholeforceslowlybegantoadvanceinline,haltingoccasionallytoallowtheheavilyarmouredmen-at-armstoregaintheirbreath.Whenordered,thearchersagainplantedtheirstakesinfrontofthem,obliquelypointingtowardstheFrenchlikechevaux-de-frise;raisingtheirbows,theyopenedfireinanattempttostingtheFrenchintoadvancing.Astheyfiredtheirfirstvolleythe

archersraisedaloudshout,partlyofdefianceandpartlyofsheerpleasureattheprospectofaction.Thestandingabouthadcausedthemtochillandstiffen.Manyofthemhadstrippedtothewaistforfreedomofaction,butmanywerenakedfromthewaistdowninordertocopewiththedysenteryfromwhichmostofthemweresuffering.

TheFrenchwereunabletoreplytothefirethatquicklybecameagalling,damaginghail;theyhadbroughtwiththemasmallbodyofcrossbowmenbuttheyhadbeenpushedtotherearandcouldnotgetforwardwheretheywereneeded.Itwasapositiontheywereprobablynotsorrytobeoccupying,recallingthestoryofhowthecrossbowmenhadbeentrampleddownbytheirown

knightsatCrécy.AtlasttheFrenchcavalryonthewingsbegantomoveforward,thehorsesobviouslystiffandwearyfromsolongstanding,thetreacherous,muddygroundcombinedwiththeweightoftheirarmouredriderscausingthemtostaggerandstumble.Atthesamemoment,thedismountedmen-at-armsofthefrontlinebegantolurchforward,heavily,acrossthe

waterloggedground,sinkingtotheiranklesinthemud,allthetimetakingheavypunishmentfromtheEnglisharrows.

ThemailedcavalrycamenearertotheEnglishlines,flounderingthroughthewet,clayeysoilandbesetbyhailsofarrowsthattookgreatertollastherangebecameshorter.SoaccuratewastheaimoftheEnglisharchers

thatmostofthearrowsstrucktheknightsontheirhelmetsandvisorssothatmanyfellshotthroughthebrain;chroniclersreportthatsoterriblewastherainofarrowsthatallhadtobendtheirheadssoastosavetheirfaces.Otherarchersshotatthehorses,killingsomebutwoundingmore,makingthemswerve,halt,plungeandcavortinalldirectionstocauseconfusionintheFrench

ranks.Sofiercewasthefirecomingtowardsthemfromfrontandflankthat,ontheAgincourtwoodsside,thecavalryledbySirWilliamdeSavensepulledupandturnedback,leavingSirWilliamandonlytwofaithfulfollowerstoreachtheEnglishposition.Here,becauseofthesoftground,someofthearchers’stakesbecameuprooted,butotherscausedthehorsestofallsothatthethreeriders

werethrownheavilytothegroundamongthearchers,tobeinstantlykilledbyswordanddagger.

Theretreatingcavalry,amongstwhomweremanyriderlessandunmanageablehorses,causedgreatdisorderamongtheadvancingmen-at-arms,whoseploddingprogresswasfurtherdisorganisedbytheirbeingcrowdedinoneachother

owingtothe‘funnelling’ofthewoodsastheycamenearertotheEnglishlines.Thiswasfurtheraggravatedbythedismountedmen,goadedbytheshowersofarrows,tendingtoflinchawayfromthewedgesofbowmentowardsthethreedivisionsofmen-at-arms;thiscausedfurtherlossofspace.Evenso,theEnglishlinewasshakenbythefirstimpactoftheheavilyarmoured

formationsandawild,mingledmassofdesperatelyfightingmenofallarmsfilledthearea.Thearchers,droppingtheirbows,seizedtheirswordsandaxesandflungthemselvesintotheplaceswheregapsorbreacheshadbeenmadebytheFrench.Theenemymen-at-arms,almostcompletelyexhaustedbytheirstrugglethroughthemudandthesubsequentfighting,wereno

matchfortheirlighteropponents;almosthelplesslytheystooduntilbeatentothegroundbyrepeatedblowsfromthearchers’weapons.InashorttimetheFrenchlinewasthrownback,reelingupontheirsecond‘battle’asthey,intheirturn,heavilyploddeduptojointheaction.Itisnothardtoimaginethatthearchers,aprettyroughlotatthebestoftimesbutnowwiththeirbloodfiredbythe

successoftheirshooting,werehighlyeffectiveastheysmashedatthestruggling,weighted-downmen-at-armswithswords,axes,clubsandmauls;orjudiciouslyinsertedasharpdaggerintoajointinthearmourofahelpless,fallenman.

TheEnglishreformedtheirlineandsteppedforwardtomeetthenewthreat–ledbytheKing,dismountedand

fightingonfoot,madeconspicuousnotonlybyhisvalourbutbyhisglitteringarmour,emblazonedsurcoatandgleamingcrownonhishelm.Bynowawallofdeadanddyinghadbeguntoformacrossthenarrowgapbetweenthetwowoods.ItwasawallthatwasconstantlyaddedtobythecasualtiesfromtheFrenchsecondline;asitrosehigherandhigheritwasscaledby

theagileandlightlyarmedarchersintheireffortstoreachtheenemy.Someofthefrightfulpilesofdeadmenreachedashighasaman,bothsidesfightingaroundthemasthoughtheyweremasonryramparts.HenrydrovebacktheDued’Alençon,whohadbeatentheDukeofGloucestertothegroundwithhisbattle-axe;indoingsohereceivedablowthatclippedoffaportionof

thecrownonhishelm.D’AlençonandanumberofotherknightshadsworntokilltheKing–thistheytrieddesperatelytodoandthefightingaroundHenrywasdeadlyandwithoutquarter;finallythededicatedFrenchknightswereallkilledorlaywoundedandhelpless.

OnallsidestheFrenchwerebeingrapidlydespatchedandthebattlewas

graduallypeteringoutasfewerandfewerFrenchmenremainedalive.Forthemithadbeenanightmare.Pressingforwarddeterminedlyintothefight,theyfounditimpossibletoobtainsufficientroomtowieldtheirweapons;amanwouldbebroughtcrashingtothemuddyground,takingwithhimthoseoneithersideofhim,foralltowallowhelplesslyuntildespatchedby

thelong,keendaggersofthearchers.Defensivearmourhadbecomesoheavythattherewasnogettinguponceamanwasdown;infact,theweightymenfallinguponeachotherfrequentlycauseddeathbysuffocation.ThishappenedtotheDukeofYorkatAgincourt;whenhisbodywasfoundandpulledfromtheshambleshewasunwoundedbutdead.

Stillfreshandingoodorderandsofaruncommitted,theFrenchthirdlinemightwellhaverestoredthefailingfortunesoftheday.Buttheystood,inindecisionanddismay,realisingthattoadvancewasfruitlessandnotknowingwhatelsetodo,whilstonallsidesthefaint-heartedslippedawayintheconfusion.Whilsttheystoodirresolute,aheraldarrivedfromHenrywithamessage

thattheyweretoleavethefieldinstantly,orreceivenoquarter;soontheybegantomeltaway.

Thetwohoursthatfollowedwerefilledwiththetaskofsecuringprisoners,disentanglingthelivingfromthedead,marshallingthosewhocouldwalkandremovingthearmourofthewoundedandthecaptives.Inthemidstofthisindustry,

wordflewfrommouthtomouththattheenemyhadgotintothebaggage-campatMaisoncelles!ThismeantthattheFrenchwereintheEnglishrear,atpresentbusypillagingthecampafterdispersingthesmallbaggage-guard;atthesametime,theFrenchthirdlinereappearedmenacinglyontheoutskirtsofthefield!TheDukeofBrabanthadjoinedtheirleadersinentreating,

threateningandurgingthemtoreturntothebattleandhadbeenpartlysuccessfulinthattheforcehadslowly,reluctantly,beguntoedgebacktowardstheEnglish;theyformedaforcethat,byitself,outnumberedthewholeEnglisharmy.

Absorbedintheirworkofcollectingprisonersandbooty,theEnglishweretakencompletelyofftheirguard.If

theylefttheprisoners,manyofwhomwerestillintheirarmour,togoandrepelthenewthreat,thentheprisonerscouldpickupweaponsandjoinwiththeplundererstoattackthemintheirrear.Thereseemedlittlealternative;reluctantlyHenryorderedallprisonerstobeputtothesword;aftersomemur-muringsatgoodransomsgoingtowaste,themurderousworkbeganandawholesale

massacretookplace.WhenitwasseenthatthethreatofattackhaddiedawaywiththedisappearanceoftheremainingFrenchtroops,thethroat-cuttingceased.Froissart,speakingontheBattleofAljubarrota,whereasatAgincourtthehandfulofvictorswereobligedbyasuddenpanictoslaytheirprisoners,says:‘Lo,beholdthegreateviladventurethatfellthatSaturday.Forthey

slewasmanygoodprisonersaswouldwellhavebeenworth,onewithanother,400,000franks.’

ThemainfeatureofthebattlewastheextraordinarynumbersofFrenchdead,reportsindicatingthatthenumbersreached10,000.IncludedamongthecasualtieswerehalfthenobilityofFrance–theConstableofFranceandCommander-in-

Chief,Charlesd’Albret,theDukesofAlençon,BrabantandBar,theCountsofNevers,Vaudemont,Marie,RoussiandFalconberg.AmongtheprisonersweretheDukesofOrléansandBourbon,CountArthurofRichmontandMarshalBoucicaut–acleansweepwasmadeofthehighestcommandersofFrance.TheEnglishlosttheDukeofYork,theyoungEarlof

Suffolkandabout1,500menkilledandwounded.

KingHenrysentforMountjoy,aFrenchheraldwhocameforpermissiontoburythedead.Hesaidtohim:

‘Towhombelongsthisvictory?’

‘Toyou,sire.’

‘Andwhatcastleisthat

whichwecanperceiveinthedistance?’

‘ItiscalledthecastleofAgincourt,sire.’

‘ThenletthisbecalledtheBattleofAgincourt,’saidHenry.

Chapter18

Verneuil–1424;andRouvray–1428TheimmediateresultoftheBattleofAgincourtwas

small,fortheEnglisharmywastooexhaustedtopursue;itmadeitswaytoCalaisonlytoreturntoEngland.ForawhilethewarwaslimitedtoacontestforthecommandoftheChannelbysuchseabattlesastookplaceatHarfleuronthe15thofAugust1416,theyearfollowingAgincourt.

John,DukeofBedford,commandedafleetofabout

100shipswhichdroppedanchorinthemouthoftheSeineestuary,withinsightofthenumericallylargerfleetoftheFrench.About150innumberandwithsomeverylargevesselsamongthem,theywereanchoredinmidstream.DrawnupincloseorderinthecentreoftheestuarybetweenHonfleurandHarfleur,theyformedaserriedmasswithlittlewater-spacebetweeneachship.

Althoughheplannedtoattack,Bedfordintendedusinghisarcherstogainvictoryjustastheydidonland–bydrivinghostilemissile-throwersfromshroudsandbulwarkssothattheEnglishmen-at-armscouldboardandcometoclosequarters.TheEnglishshipssettheirsailsfullyanddrovestraightaheadtowardstheenemy,takingheavypunishmentfromthearrows,

crossbowbolts,cannon-ballsandballistamissileswhichshowereddownuponthemfromtheeighthugeGenoesecarrackswhichformedapartoftheFrenchfleet.Theselargevesselspossessedtowering,castle-likepoopsfromwhichtheserriedranksofmissile-mencouldraindowndarts,stonesandironboltsontotheunprotecteddecksofthesmallerEnglishships.

Despitethepunishment,theEnglishgrimlypersistedintheirattemptstograpple,orramtheenemy,shipforship.WiththevesselsfirmlylockedtogethertheEnglisharchers,atpoint-blankrange,firedfurioushailsofarrowsuntiltheyhadridtheenemyshipsofthemissile-menintheshroudsandfighting-topsorbehindthebulwarks.Then,withaloudbattle-cry,thearmouredmen-at-armssurged

forwardoverthebulwarks,apprehensivelyglancingdownwardsattheribbonofwaterthatlaybetweentheshipsandwhichhelddeathforthemanunluckyenoughtofallintoit.Onceontheenemydecks,thebattlewasmuchthesameasanyotherstrugglebetweenmen-at-armsonland;itsurgedandebbedtoandfrountilbysheerphysicalstrength–forwhichtheywerepre-eminent

atthatperiod–theEnglisheitherkilledtheiropponentsorpushedthemintothesea.Thefightlastedsevenhours,duringwhichtheEnglishlostatleasttwentyoftheirshipsbutwerefinallyleftmastersoftheseawithfourofthehugecarrackscapturedandoneaground.

MuchhasbeensaidthroughoutaboutthedeadlyeffectoftheEnglisharrows,

abouttheirpenetrativepowersandtheirlengthofkillingrange;littlehasbeenmentionedofthetreatmentofthemenwhosufferedthesedreadfulwounds–infact,littleisknownofthisfacetofmediaevalwarfare.OneJohnMorstedeappearstohavebeentheEnglishSurgeon-GeneralinthereignofHenryV,whoauthorisedhimtopressintothearmyasmanyofhisbrethrenashe

considerednecessaryfortheexpeditionagainstFrance.Yetonlyone,thesameJohnMorstede,landedthere;andalthoughheafterwardsselectedfifteenassistants,threeofthemservedasarchersunderSirJohnErpinghamatAgincourt,insteadofdressingthewounded.Probablyalldidmilitarydutyofsomekindandconsequentlywere,inlikemanner,exposedtoa

soldier’sfate.Thewounded,therefore,hadnoassistancebeyondnatureandtheirown,ortheircomrades’,exertions.OntheEnglishsidetheywerecertainlyfew,whilstthoseoftheenemy,aswelearnfromdetailsofthebattles,perishedwithouttheslightesteffortbeingmadefortheirrelief.

SirJohnSmythe,amilitarywriterofthesixteenthcentury,wrote:‘…frequently

heardFrenchCaptainsandgentlemenreportthattheydidthinktheEnglisharchersusedtopoisontheirarrow-heads;becauseofgreatnumbersoftheFrenchnationthatmanytimeshadbeenwoundedorhurtwitharrows,veryfewhadescapedwiththeirlives,byreasonthattheirwoundsdidsoimpostumethattheycouldnotbecured.Insuchconcertstheydidgreatlyerr,because,intruth,these

imposthumationsproceededofnothingelsebuttherustofthearrow-headsremainingranklingintheirwounds;andthereforebytheexperienceofourancientenemies,notonlythegreatbutthesmallwoundsofourarrowshavebeenalwaysfoundmoredangerousandhardtobecured,thanthefireofanyshotunpoisoned.Besidesallwhich,itistobenotedthathorsesinthefield,being

woundedorbutslightlyhurtwitharrows,dopresentlyfallyerking,flingingandleapingasiftheyweremad,throughthegreatpainthatuponeverymotiontheydofeelintheirflesh,veinsandsinews,bytheshakingofthearrowswiththeirbarbedheadshanginginthem.Insuchsort,asbeitinsquadronortroop,theydodisorderoneanother,andneverleaveuntiltheyhavecasttheirmasters.’

Aconsideredsurgicalopinionoftodaygivesitthatamanshotwithanarrowinmediaevalwarfarediedalmostinevitably;evenbymodernstandardsofsurgery,theextractionofabarbedarrowisadelicateandpossiblyfataloperation.Thebookof‘MessireAmbroiseParé,ConcilleuretPremierChirugeonduRoiFrancoisParé’(1515–47),whofollowedthearmiesofthat

monarch,treatsextensivelyofthewoundspeculiartomilitarymen,especiallythoseinflictedbyarrows.Inorderthathisprofessionalbrethrenmightmorefullycomprehendthemethodofcure,theprecautionstobeadopted,theincisionstheymightventureupon,andtheuseofthenecessaryinstruments,hehasdelineatedthese,aswellasmanydifferentkindsofarrowsinuseinhistime,and

particularlytheformoftheirheads,aproperacquaintancewithwhichhasagreatbearingonthetreatmentoftheirwounds.Amongthearrowshehasintroduced,somehadtheheadinsertedintothestele(woodenshaftofthearrow),othershadthesteleitselfenteringthehead.Ineithercase,thepointremainedbehindinthewoundandrendereditextremelydangerous.Paré

doesnotpretendtogivetheformsofeveryarrowusedinhisage,butonlythosewhichhehimselfhadatvarioustimesextracted.Paréthusdescribeshismodeofremovinganarrowfromthefleshypartsofthebody:

‘Sileferestoitbarbléainsi,quisouventestlesflèchesAngloises,etestoitàl’endroitd’unos,ouinsérédedans,cequisouvientadvientau

profonddemusclesdelacuisse,debras,dejambes,oud’autrespartiesde-quellesyauroitgrandedistance,lorsneleconvientpousser,maisplutôtdilaterlaplaye,enévitantlesnerfsetgrandsvaisseaux,ainsiquefaitlebonetexpertchirurgienanatomique.Aussifautappliquerundilatatoire,cavéensapartieintérieure,etfaireensorte,queTonpuisseprendelesdeuxailesdufer,

puisaveclebeedeGrüeletenirferme,ettirerlestroisensemble.’

‘IftheironwasthusbarbedwhichisoftenthecasewithEnglisharrows,andwassituatedinornearabone,whichoftenhappens,inthedepthofthemusclesofthethigh,armsorlegsorotherpartswhichwouldbefarremoved,youmustnotpushbutratherdilatethewound,

avoidingthenervesandvessels,asdoesthegoodandexpertanatomicalsurgeon.Alsoonemustapplyadilator[retractor?]toholdthewoundopen;doitinsuchawaythatyoucantakethetwowingsofthebarbwithpinchers[forceps?].Keepitfirmandpullordrawthethreetogether.’

Paréapparentlyunderwentmuchsufferingandpersonal

inconvenienceandwasunabletoconfinehispracticewhollywithinprofessionalbounds.Speakingofa‘SergeantofChas-tellat’–oneofhispatients–hesays:‘Iperformedtowardshimtheofficeofphysician,surgeon,apothecaryandcook,dressinghisdinneraswellashiswoundsuntilthetimehewascompletelycured.’Thedoctoradds:‘LeDieuleguerrissetoujours,’sothat

wemayinferthathispatient’sgratitude,fortheseaccumulatedbenefits,didnotevaporatewiththecauseswhichhadelicitedthem.

AdaysuchasAgincourtmighthavebeenexpectedtobreaktheFrenchloveofobsoletetactics,tohavechangedtheirfanaticalmethodsofhorsemenordismountedknightstryingtobreakanEnglishforceby

frontalattack,onlytobedrivenbackinutterroutbyEnglisharchers.Butthedayofenlightenmenthadyettodawnandmorebloodydefeatsweretofollow.Henryhadgone,dyingofdysenteryin1422;theEnglishwerenowledbytheRegent,John,DukeofBedford.HischieflieutenantwastheEarlofSalisbury,otherEnglishleadersbeingtheEarlofSuffolk,LordScales,SirJohn

FastolfandJohn,LordTalbot.TheFrenchwerenowemployingScottishtroopsintheireffortstodefeattheEnglishinvaders;acompletearmyof6,500,undertheEarlofDouglas,hadlandedinFranceduringAprilof1424andwereservingwiththeFrench,whowerealsoraisingmercenariesinLombardyandelsewhere.

Earlyin1424,thetownof

Ivry,thirtymileswestofParis,hadbeenrecapturedbytheFrenchinasuddenraid;inJune,BedfordsenttheEarlofSuffolktoretakethetown.Thiswasdonewithoutalotoftroublebutthegarrisonshutthemselvesupinthecastle,and,onJuly5th,agreedtosurrenderonAugust14thiftheyhadnotbeenrelievedbythatdate.Thethoughtsofbothsidesnowturnedconstantlyinthe

directionofIvry;theonewishingtorelieve,theothertosecurethecastleandbringtheFrenchtobattle.Butwisheswerenotgoodenough,certainlynotenoughtopreventBedfordfromjoiningSuffolkbeforethecastleonthe13thofAugust,amovewhichcausedthegarrison,aspromised,tomarchoutandsurrenderonthefollowingday.

ButtheFrenchhadmountedarelievingforce,whodirectedtheirstepstowardsVerneuilontheArvewhentheydiscoveredthatthecrossofSt.GeorgewasflyingoverthewallsofIvry.VerneuilwasanoldwalledtownwithasmallEnglishgarrison,unabletostandlongagainstthelargeFrencharmythatcameagainstit.Itisreportedthattheygainedpossessionoftheplaceby

sendingheraldstodeclarethattheEnglishhadbeendefeated,paradingScotstroopstiedtohorses’tailstorepresentEnglishprisonersbeforethewallsoftheoldtown.Onhearingthis,Bedfordmusteredallhisavailabletroopsandmarchedtowardsthetown.Hehadunderhiscommandsome8,000or9,000men,orabouthalfthenumbersofthecombinedFrenchand

Scottishforces.

TheEnglishmarchedtenmilesfromDamville,emergingfromtheforestontotheplainofVerneuiltoseetheFrenchdrawnupinfrontofthem,onthecrestofagentleslope.TheScotsoccupiedtherightofthepositionandtheFrenchtheleft;eachdivisionnominallyinthreelinesbutsoontobecomemergedintoone.The

EarlofBuchan,ConstableofFrance,hadmarchedtheforcetothisforming-upplace;thenhehadresignedcommandtohisfather-in-law,theEarlofDouglas.AsatAgincourt,thearmywaslargelydismounted,exceptforthewings.Ontherightwasabodyofabout900Lombardcrossbowmen,allonhorseback,andinarmour;theleftwingwascoveredby1,000mountedmen-at-arms,

completelymailedwithlance,battle-axeandbarbedhorses.Therewerealsosomemilitia,peasantlevies,intheranks–raw,untrained,ill-armedtroops.

TheEnglishmarcheddownintothedipanduptheverygentleslopetowardstheFrench,haltingjustoutsidemissilerange,whereBedforddeployedhisarmyparallelto,andonthesamefrontageas,

theenemy.HecloselyfollowedhisbrotherHenry’sformationatAgincourtinthateveryonewasdismounted,thefrontwasintwodivisions,onecommandedbyhimselfandtheotherbySalisbury.Thecentreofeachdivisionwasoccupiedbymen-at-armsandthearcherswerepositionedontheflanksofbothdivisions.Therewasalsoareserve,consistingofabout2,000archers,usedasa

baggage-guard,inaleagueraboutthree-quartersofamiletotherear.

So,ataboutfouro’clockontheafternoonofthe17thofAugust1424thetwoarmiesbeganslowlytoadvancetowardseachother.Bedfordgavethetraditionalsignal:

‘Avaunt,banners!’

Afterkneelingdownandreverentlykissingtheground,thetroopsresponded:

‘St.George!Bedford!’

Itwasagreatshoutand,asalways,itstruckalarmintheFrenchhearts.

Asusual,eacharchercarriedhisdouble-pointedstakewhichheattemptedtoplantinthegroundatabout

250yards’distancefromtheenemy.Butthegroundwashardsothatthestakeswouldnotplanteasilyandmuchtimewaswastedintryingtoforcethemintothesunbakedearth;moretimewasconsumedinpassingthestakesforwardfromhandtohanduntiltheyreachedthefrontrank.Beforethehedgeofstakeswashalfcompleted,theleft-flankbodyofFrenchmailedhorsechargedthe

archersandsmashedthroughtheirranks,forcingapassageoverandthroughthehalf-erectedstakes.Thesurvivorsoftheridden-downarchersgatheredtogether,formingaclose-knitbodyformutualprotection,butthehorsemendidnotdelaytodealwiththem,surgingontowardsthebaggage-leaguer.

Bedford’smen-at-armsmovedsteadilyforward,

althoughtheirrightflankhadbeenexposed,tocomeintoclosecontactwiththeFrenchmen-at-armsofComted’Aumale’sdivisionwithwhomtheyclashedinfiercecombat.Itwasclaimedbymenwhohadfoughtatbothplacesthatthehour-longstrugglethattookplaceatthispointwasfiercerthanAgincourt;theEnglish,outnumberedtwotoone,graduallyforcedtheir

opponentsback.Bedfordwasprominentinthismêlée,wieldinghistwo-handedaxevigorouslyallaroundhim,havingdismountedfromthebaychargerthathadcarriedhimtothebattle.

Salisbury’sdivisionencounteredanevenstifferresistancefromtheScots,whoresolutelybattledwithsword,maceandbattle-axeintheclosestconflictformore

thananhour,refusingtobedismayedevenwhentheirFrenchalliesontheirleftbrokeandfledfromthefield.ThemountedLombardcross-bowmenontherightflankoftheFrencharmy,drivenwidebythefireofSalisbury’sflankarchers,rodearoundtheEnglishleftandattackedthebaggage-leaguer.Thebaggage-guardbeingfiercelyengagedwiththeFrenchmailedcavalryoftheother

wing,theLombardswereatfirstcompletelysuccessful,cuttingdownthepoorlyarmedpagesandvarletswhotriedvaliantlytodefendthemselvesandtheirwagons.Thenthearchers,whohadcompletelyroutedtheFrenchmailedcavalry,camerushingacrosstofightofftheLombards,who,intheirturn,weredrivenhelter-skelterfromthefield.Havingamazinglydisposedofboth

bodiesofcavalry,theexhilaratedEnglisharcherssoughtfreshfieldstoconquer;theysawthebattlestillragingontheleftfrontanddeterminedtotakeahandinit.Formingup,theywheeledinaheadlongchargeintotheexposedrightflankofthesorelytriedScottishdivision,utteringtheirfearsomeshoutastheycame.

Underthisnewblow,the

Scotsreeled;butmorewastocome.Bedford’smen-at-arms,havingexhaustedlypursuedthefleeingFrenchmen-at-armsasfarasthetownditch,werenowre-formedanddoggedly,ifwearily,trudgedtheirheavilyarmouredwaybackintothefight–nomeanfeatintheheatofasummer’sday.TheystruckintotherearoftheScots,whowerenowbeinghackedrelentlesslydown

untilhardlyamanremained.Infact,theScottisharmyceasedtoexist.InadditiontoatleastfiftyScottishgentlemenofrankwhodied,therefelltheConstableofFrance,Buchan;hisfather-in-law,thevenerableEarlofDouglas,whohadalreadylostaneyeatHomildonHill;Hop-PringleofSwailholm,SirRobertStewart,SirJohnSwinton,SirAlexanderHome,twoSirJames

DouglasesandSirWalterLindsay.TheFrenchlostmostoftheirleaderswhostayedandfoughtwhendesertedbytherank-and-file–Aumale,thecommander,Narbonne,Ventadour,Tonnerre,theLordsGravilleandRambouilletandmanyknightsfromLanguedocandDauphine.Fivethousandmen,atleast,fell;mostofthemScots.Manywerewounded,amongthemthe

Dued’AlençonandtheMarshalLafayette,whobecametwoofthefewprisonerstakenonthisbloodyday.TheEnglishlosswasalsoheavy,butthefigureof1,000casualtieswasworthwhile,forthis‘SecondAgincourt’lefttheFrenchdisheartened,dispersedandwithoutleaders.

Thewardraggedon,withtheEnglishcontinuingtheir

victoriousway.In1428John,DukeofBedford,theRegent,wasstillincommandandcommittedthearmytolaysiegetoOrléans;anaffairlargelyconsistingofdesultoryartilleryfire,interspersedwithoccasionalsortiesandsallies,itdraggedwearilyonthroughthewinter.EarlyinFebruary,withLentapproachingandastapledietoffishrequired,itwasdecidedtosendfrom

Parisabigconvoyofsaltedherringstothebesiegers.UnderthecommandofSirJohnFastolf,anamemadefamiliar,underanotherspelling,byShakespeare,theconvoywasmadeupofabout300wagons,withanescortof1,000mountedarchersinadditiontowagonersandgrooms.

NewsofthisconvoyreachedtheFrench;the

ComtedeClermontmarchednorth-easttointerceptitontheOrléansroad.Hehadunderhiscommandabout3,000men,includingacontingentofScotsunderSirJohnStewartofDarnley,whowasConstableoftheScotsinFrance;alsopresentwerethelancesoftheComtedeDunois.Clermontalsohadwithhimalargenumberofsmall-calibrecannon.

Theconvoyspentthenightofthe11thofFebruaryinthesmallvillageofRouvray,beingonthepointofresumingtheirmarchnextmorningwhenpatrolscameinwithnewsoftheapproachingFrenchforce.OldsoldierFastolfimmediatelyrealisedthathiscumbersomewagonsintheirthree-mile-longconvoywereimpossibletoprotectadequatelywithhissmall

force,particularlyagainstsuperiornumbersofmountedenemy.Aboutamileoutsidethevillagetheroadranalongthetopofasmallridge,givinganunimpededviewinalldirections.HereFastolfhastilyformedhiswagonsintoaprotectiveleaguer,verysimilartothoseformedcenturieslaterbyWesternpioneersagainsttheattacksofIndians.

Clermontcameupwiththeconvoyatseveninthemorning,firstappearingonthesouth-westskylineinaglitteringofarmourandaforestoflance-points.HewassurprisedtofindhimselfconfrontedwiththisnovelhedgehoginsidewhichtheEnglishhadretired.But,inspiteofbeingsome450yearsearlier,ClermonthadsomethingthattheIndiansdidnotpossess–hehad

artillery!Cleverlyhefittedhistacticstosuitthesituation;insteadofmakingadirectattackontheleaguer,heorderedanartillerybombardment.TothisattacktheEnglishhadnoreplyandwereforcedtosittightandtakeit;casualtiesmountedandherringsspilledontheroadfromsplitbarrels.Itseemedasthough,forthefirsttimeinmilitaryhistory,gunsaloneweregoingto

bringvictoryinthefield,usheringinaneweraofavastnessbeyondfifteenth-centuryman’scomprehension.

However,themarchofprogresswastobethwartedbythecharacteristicimpetuosityoftheScottishcontingent,eagertoavengethedayofVerneuil.Theirleader,StewartofDarnley,contrarytoClermont’s

orders,dismountedhismen,whoadvancedprematurelyandimpulsivelytoattackthebarricadewithswordandbattle-axe,sufferinggreatlyfromthehailofEnglisharrowsthatgreetedtheiradvance.SeeingthattheScotswerewavering,Clermontwasforcedtosupportthembyanattackofmountedmen-at-arms,onlytoseeitbreakdownonthearchers’pointedstakes,just

assimilarattackshaddonesoofteninthepast.BothScotsandFrenchturnedandretreatedbacktotheirstarting-point,headsbowedagainsttheshowersofarrowsthatsawthemoff.Clermontresignedhimselftoresumingtheartillerybombardment.

Butitwasnottobe;Fastolfsawthatthetimehadcomeforthecounter-attack.Mountinghismen,hesent

twocolumnsofcavalrypouringfromthetwinopeningsintheleaguer,tofalluponthealreadyshakenenemy.Theconflictwasshortbutsharp,andtheFranco-Scottishforceweresoonroutedandfleeingfromthefield,leavingStewartofDarnleyandoneofhissonsdead,Dunoiswoundedand‘sixscoreofgreatlordsand500mentherefell’.

Thebattleended,thevillagerscameoutandregaledthemselvesonthesaltedherringsthatlayintheroadaroundthesplinteredbarrels–tothemitwasnottheBattleofRouvraybuttheDayoftheHerrings!Itwasnotreallyabattle,butasmallaffairinwhichtheEnglishproved,astheyhaddoneinthegreaterfieldsofthepast,thattheyweresuperiortotheFrenchinmorewaysthan

one.Nottheleastofthesewasthefactthatthearchers,theordinarysoldiers,wererespectedbythelordsandknightswholedthemintobattle.ItwasaverydifferentsituationfromthatprevailinginFrance,wherethenoblesarrogatedtothemselvesalonethehonourofbearingarms,despisingthecommonsoldiersothateveninthefifteenthcenturyFrenchinfantrywerecomposedofthemost

wretchedclassofpeople.Thiswasillustratedinthemannerinwhichtheywerechargedandriddendownbytheirownlordsandcommandersonthoseoccasionswhensomedistinguishedacthadarousedjealousyorscorn.TheFrenchfootsoldierhadreasontofeelthatforhimtoexhibitanytruemilitaryqualitieswassimplytoimperilhisownlife.

PartIVTheTide

BeginstoTurn

Chapter19

Patay–1429;andFormigny–1450ThesecondquarterofthefifteenthcenturyfoundFrance,forthefirsttime

perhaps,reallyfacinguptothefactthattheold,chivalrousmethodsofwarfarepaidnodividends;thatsomeeffectiveinnovationhadtobediscoveredtocombattheEnglishsystem.Throughbitternecessityandhardexperience,theprofessionalofficersofFrance–Xaintrailles,LaHireandDunois,forexample–stumbleduponamethodof

minimisingthesuperiorityoftheEnglisharchers.Itwassosimplethatithadprobablybeenconsideredanddiscardedmanytimes;inshort,whentheEnglishwerefounddrawnupinagooddefensiveposition,theFrenchrefusedtoattack.ForthefirsttimetheFrenchadmittedtothemselvesthattherewaslittleornochanceofbeatinganEnglisharmyinsuchaposition,thenlikewisethere

wasnopointinthrustingforwardlargebodiesoftroopsasatargettoberiddledwithEnglisharrows.TheFrenchcommandersknewthatthelongbowhadtheabilitytokeepheavier-armedmenatadistance–thereinlayitssuperiority;butoncethecavalryormen-at-armsgotamongthearchersandtheirsupportingmen-at-arms,weightofnumbersmightwelldecidethe

resultingmêlée–andtheFrenchcouldusuallyputmoremenintothefield.

WiththisenlightenmentcamesomeFrenchvictories;theusualtacticalcausesoftheEnglishdefeatslayintheFrenchattackingthemwhentheywereonthemarch,incamporintownswhereitwasimpossiblequicklytoformanorderofbattleongroundspecificallychosen

foritsdefensivequalities.ThistendencytowardsareversalinthealmostmonotonousrunofEnglishvictoriesinevitablyledtoanoticeablesheddingoftheoldconfidencebornofpersistentsuccessovermenusingfutiletactics.Therewasalittlemorecautiondisplayed,initiativebecamestifledandplanscouldnotbemadewiththeformercertaintyofsuccess.Bothcommanders

andmenintheEnglisharmiesweretooexperiencedandprofessionalintheiroutlookforthisnewsituationtodroptheirmoraletotoolowalevel;buttheywereperturbed,almostindignant.Naturally,withsuccessandtheknowledgethattheEnglishwerenotquitesosureofthemselves,theFrenchconfidenceswelledupenormouslyandtheybegantoseek,andwin,conflicts

wheretheywereable,inasuddenonslaught,tohittheEnglishbeforetheycouldformupdefensively.

TheEnglishcommanders,withthetraditionsofCrécy,Poitiers,Agincourtandahostofsimilarbutsmallerbattlesbehindthem,dislikedtakingtheoffensive.Whentheopposingcommandersrefusedtoattackthemintheircarefullychosenposition

wheretheystooddeliberatelypreparedbutheldoffuntilsuchtimeastheycouldassailwhenleastexpected,thentheEnglishbegantolosebattles.AsituationbegantoarisewheretheEnglishforceswerealwaysliabletoasuddenonslaught–Patay,foughtonthe18thofJune1429,isafairexampleofthesortofconflictthatnowtookplace.

PatayoccurredatatimewhentheFrench,inspiredbyJoanofArc,hadrecentlyraisedthesiegeofOrléansandwereendeavouringtocapturethoseLoiretownsstillinEnglishhands.AnEnglishforceunderLordJohnTalbotandSirJohnFastolf,numberingperhaps3,000men,wereretreatingtowardsPatayafteranunsuccessfulattackontheLoirebridgeatMeung,

eighteenmilessouth.HotontheirheelsinpursuitwerethemountedvanguardoftheDuked’Alençon,movingconsiderablyfasterthantheEnglish,whowereregulatedbythespeedoftheirbaggage-train.IntheirattemptstomakecontactwiththeEnglish,Alençonhadpatrolsscoutinginalldirections;theEnglishhadsimilargroupsintheirreartowarnthemofthearrivaloftheenemy.The

wordeventuallycame–theFrenchadvance-guardwascloseontheirheels;ataboutthesamemomenttheFrenchdiscoveredthewhereaboutsoftheEnglish,whorevealedtheirpositionbycharacteristicallyraucous‘Halloos!’asastagburstthroughtheirranks!

HaltingatapointwheretheirtrackdivergedfromtheoldRomanroadoverwhich

theyhadbeenmarching,theEnglishlookedinahurryforagooddefensiveposition.Thecountrywasdottedwithsmallclumpsoftreesandhedges,someofwhichborderedtheroadandwereidealforliningwitharchers;inaslightdipintheground,Talbotstoodwithabout500men.Fastolfdeployedthemainbodyonaridgesouth-eastofPatay,about200yardsbehindTalbot.

Toppingtheslightrise,themountedFrenchadvance-guardsawtheEnglishdrawnupinthedipinfrontofthem;thearcherswerehammeringtheirstakesintothegroundandpreparingtheirbows.Composedofspeciallyselectedmen,wellmountedandledbyLaHireandPotondeXantrailles,twoofthemostexperiencedcommandersintheFrencharmy,itwasaforcealight

withfervourimpartedtothewholearmybytheMaidofOrléans.Pausingonlytotakeinthesituation,thecavalrythundereddowntheslopeinawildtorrenttoburstuponthestartledarchersbeforeabowcouldbedrawnuponthem,hittingthemfrontallyandinflank.Thelightlyarmedinfantrystoodnochancewhatsoever;theywereoverwhelmedinamatterofsecondsandcutdownwhere

theystood,thefewwhodidmanagetoscrambleawayonlyaddingtotheconfusionanddismaythatcoveredFastolf’smenontheridge.

Wellmighttheybedismayed;theirdeploymentontheridgehadbeenslowandtheywerefarfromcompletingtheirformation.Theywerenotaparticularlywell-trainedorexperiencedbunchofmen,besidesbeing

dispiritedbytheretreatfromMeung.TheywereabletodopracticallynothingbeforetheFrenchwerethroughTalbot’sforceanduponthem.ThesituationwasmadeevenmoregravebytherapidarrivaloftheFrenchmainbody,rightontheheelsoftheiradvance-guard.Itwasalloververyquickly;Talbotandmostoftheotherleaderswerecaptured,butFastolfmanagedtogetaway,leaving

behindhisbaggageandguns.

Hisescapewasalittleepicinitself,consistingofmarchingsixtymilesinadayandanight,formedupinastoutbodyofarcherswhofoughtoffeveryattackwitharrowsandthen,whentheywereallgone,takingtotheswordbeforereachingsafety.Buttheirwearystepsweredoggedwithconfusionandbewilderment–neverbefore

hadtheyexperiencedanythingliketheFrenchcavalry’sheadlongcharge;theyfounditdifficulttofathomthisdramatictransitionfromtheusualFrenchprudencetingedwithapprehension.

Itwasabewildermentthatwastogrow.Formorethan100yearsthetacticalemploymentoftheEnglisharcherhadbroughtsuccess

andeachbattlecanbesaidtohavefavourablyinfluencedthebattlethatfollowed.CrécyhadbeenwonbecauseoftheexperiencegainedatHalidonHill;Agincourtwas,initsturn,influencedbyCrécyandPoitiers.Nowthewheelwasturning.Thesidethathadalwayswonwerepreventedfromcontinuingtheirvictoriouspathbecausetheiropponentsnolongerplayedthegametothe

heavilyloadedEnglishrules.Andthewheelturnedinanotherinversemanner–-justastheFrenchhadbeencontinuouslybeatenthroughaslavishadherencetooutmodedtactics,nowcameananomalousturn.EnglishcommanderswerebeingdefeatedbytheimprovedmilitaryskilloftheFrenchbecausetheypersistedinslavishlyapplyingthedefensivetacticsofEdward

IIIandHenryV.FormorethanacenturytheFrenchhadbeendesperatelytryingtodiscoveramethodoratacticthatwouldminimisethedeadlylongbow;nowtheEnglishwereforcedtothinkhard.TheyhadtocomeupwithsomenewsystemassuccessfulasthelongbowtodealwiththesuperiornumbersoftheFrench,otherwisetheEnglishwereforedoomedtodefeatbytheir

numericalinferiority.

In1450,onthe15thofApril,theEnglishlosttheBattleofFormignybecausetheircommanderswereunintelligentlyinfluencedbythetacticsofAgincourt,coupledwiththefactthattheFrenchnolongermadegrossblundersateveryengagement.ItwasthelastbattlebutonetobefoughtintheHundredYearsWar–a

small-scaleengagement,butonethatdecidedthefateofallNormandy.AtCaentheDukeofSomerset,commanderofalltheEnglisharmiesinFrance,wasthreatenedbyanoverwhelmingforce,ledbyKingCharlesofFranceinperson.Toopenthewaytohim,anEnglisharmyofabout4,000menhadbeenscrapedtogetherbystrippingNormanfortressesoftheir

garrisonsandbringingsome2,500reinforcementsfromEngland,underthecommandofSirThomasKyriell.Itwasaforcemadeupofafewhundredmen-at-arms,about1,500archersandtheremainderwerebillmen.

Atfirsttheforcehadsomesuccesses;bymid-ApriltheyhadcometotheareaaroundthevillageofFormigny,wheretheyfoundthemselves

confrontedbyaFrenchcorpsundertheyoungCountofClermont.ItwasoneofseveralFrenchdivisionsthathadbeensentouttoarresttheprogressoftheEnglishforce;itconsistedofabout3,000men,thusbeingnumericallyinferiortotheEnglishforce.Nevertheless,theEnglishcommanderrefusedtoassumetheinitiative;hegroupedhisforceinthelittlevalleycontainingthevillage,

withtheirbackstoasmallbrooklinedwithorchardsandplantationswellcalculatedtocovertheirrear.TheveteranEnglishcommander,experiencedinthedefensivebattlesthathadpreviouslybroughtsuccess,forgottheneedtopushforward;heawaitedClermont’sattackandmadeeverypreparationtodefeatitwhenitcame.Hisarchers,withplentyoftimeattheirdisposal,plantedtheir

stakes,dugditchesandpotholesinfrontoftheirlinetoimpedetheenemycavalry–itwasathrow-backofoveracentury.Kyriellformedhismenuponafrontageofabout1,000yardsinathinlineofdismountedmen-at-arms,withthreegroupsofarchersprojectingforwardinbastions;itwasHenryV’sformationatAgincourtthirty-fiveyearsbefore.

Ataboutthreeo’clockintheafternoon,theFrenchforcecamemarchingstraightuptheroad;theydeployedinthreelinestotherightandleftsothattheyfacedtheEnglish,whowereabout500yardsaway.Therebothsidesstood,eyeingoneanother.TheFrenchnotedwithsomeapprehensionthattheEnglishwerestillimprovingtheiralreadysubstantialdefences.TheFrenchcommanders

wentintoconference–intheolddaystheywouldhaverushedforwardinaheadlongattack,butthenew-styleFrencharmydidthingsdifferently.Actually,theyoungandinexperiencedClermontwasallfortheimmediateattack–heburnedwiththeimpetuosityofyouth.However,hewassufficientlymalleabletolistentohismoreexperiencedofficers,whowarnedhim,throughlong

experience,tobewaryoftheEnglishinapreparedposition.Anyway,whyhurry?WasnottheConstabledeRichemontnearathandwithreinforcements?

So,fortwoorthreehourssomeaimlessskirmishingwenton;itwasaperiodoffarmoreusetotheFrenchthantotheEnglish,fortheirreinforcementsdrewnearerbytheminute.SomeFrench

attacks,onfoot,wereputintofeelouttheflanks,butallwererepulsed,asweresomehalf-heartedmountedattacksalsoontheflanks.Fromtheirpositionbehindstakesandpot-holes,thearcherstookaheavytolloftheenemy.DeRichemontstillhadnotarrivedwhenClermontrecalledthathehadbroughtgunswithhim;heorderedGiraud,MasteroftheRoyalOrdnance,todraguphistwo

culverins.UndertheeyesofthepossiblyapprehensiveEnglish,willinghandsdraggedtheheavygunstoaspotoutsidebowrangefromwhichtheycouldenfiladetheEnglishline.

Aftertheusualfussy,technicalpreparationsbelovedofgunnersthroughouttheages,theyopenedfire.Itwasagalling,naggingbombardment,shots

regularlyarrivinginirritatingsuccessionuntilthearchersweresofrustratedthattheybroketheirranksandrushedoutfrombehindtheirstakes.Aidedbyawingofthebillmen,theychargedheadlongatthegunsandafiercebutbriefmêléetookplacearoundthemuntiltheFrenchwereroutedandreeledaway,leavingthepreciouspiecessilentandinthehandsoftheEnglish.

ThebattlewouldhavebeenwonhadKyrielladvancedhiswholeforceatthiscrucialmoment.TheFrench,dispiritedbytheirlosses,werebeginningtomeltawayfromthefieldandthearchersweretriumphantlytryingtodragtheheavygunsbacktotheirownlines,notknowinghowto‘spike’them.ButtheEnglishcommander,obsessedbyhisdefensivetactics,wouldnotmoveaninch;he

didnotevensendoutaidtothearcherswhohadseizedthegunsbutwerethemselvesnowundergreatpressure,havingbeenattackedbyoneoftheflank‘battles’ofFrenchdismountedmen-at-arms.Adesperatestrugglewastakingplacearoundtheartillerypieces,archersandbillmenbattlingtoholdofftheirattackerswhilstothersstrainedandsweatedintheireffortstogetthegunsaway.

Itwasanunevenstruggle;themorelightlyarmedEnglishwereslowlybutremorselesslypushedbackbytheirheavieropponents,whilsttheircomradeslookedonsullenlyafewhundredyardsaway.EventuallytheEnglishinfantryhadtoabandonthegunsaltogetherastheyfoughtfortheirverylives.

Theveryresistanceofthe

archersproveddisastroustotheEnglishintheirstrongposition,becausetheFrenchpushedthembackbeforetheminaslowandprogressiveadvancetowardsthestakes,sothatthearcherswereunabletousetheirbowstoharasstheenemyforfearofhittingtheirownmen.Soonthefightingwastakingplaceimmediatelyinfrontofthestakes,andtherestoftheFrenchforce,seeingthebattle

goingtheirway,hadmovedforwardallalongtheirlinesothatfiercefightingwastakingplaceatallpoints.ButtheEnglishsuperiorityinnumbersbegantotell,andtheFrenchwereshowingsignsofwaveringwhendeRichemontarrivedontheskylinewithhisreinforcements.TheycamefromadirectionthatimmediatelythreatenedtheEnglishleftflankandrear.

Kyriellwasnowindirestraits;hehadnoreserve,sowasforcedtobendhislinebackintoaright-angle,orroughsemicircle,tofightonthetwofronts.ThearrivalofthenewtroopsbroughthearttoClermont’swearymensothattheyfoundnewstrength;butthefatiguedanddiscouragedEnglishbegantocrumpleundertheshock.Fightinghard,theygavegrounduntiltheywereforced

intoseveralfiercelyfightingbutisolatedgroups,whichfoughtonstubbornlyanddiedhardwithnoquarterbeinggivenorasked.Onepartyof500archersaresaidtohavefoughttotheverylastman,inthebloody,muddygroundofagardenbythebrookside.Afewhundredarchersescaped,butKyriellandhisinfantryweresurroundedandannihilated,thecommanderhimselfbeingsparedand

captured.Four-fifthsoftheEnglishforcewerekilledinthismajordisastertoEnglisharms.Bytheuseofintelligentoffensivetacticsitwasabattlethatcouldhavebeenwonbeforeitevenbegan,andthenwonagainhalfwaythroughitscourse.

PartVTheLastVictories

Chapter20

TheWarsoftheRoses–1461AtthetimeoftheexpulsionoftheEnglishfromtheirContinentalpossessions,no

blamewaslaidatthedoorofthelongbow,nordidthereseemtobeanypermanentdiscreditingofitspower.Nevertheless,asfutureeventsproved,inspiteofthetriplevictoriesofCrécy,PoitiersandAgincourt,tosaynothingofmanylessersuccesses,archeryasaweaponofwarwasonthedowngradeinthemid-fifteenthcentury.Thebowstillretaineditssupremacyasamissile

weaponovertheclumsyarbalest,withitscomplicatedarrayofwheelsandlevers.Infact,thetestimonyofallEuropewasgiveninfavourofthelongbow–CharlesofBurgundyconsideredacorpsof3,000Englishbowmentobetheflowerofhisinfantry;thirtyyearsbefore,CharlesofFrancehadmadethearcherthebasisofhisnewmilitiainavainattempttonaturalisetheweaponofhisenemies

beyondtheChannel.Afterasimilarendeavour,JamesofScotlandhadresignedhimselftoillsuccessandsoturnedthearcheryofhissubjectstoridicule.Beforethat,however,hehadorderedalawtobepassedbytheScottishParliamentin1424:

‘Thatallmenmightbuskthametobearchares,fratheybe12yearsofage;andthatatilktenpoundsworthofland,

thairbemadebowmakres,andspeciallenearparochekirks,quhairnuponhailiedaysmenmaycum,andattheleistschutethrusyeabout,andhaveusyeofarcharie;andwhassausisnotarcharie,thelairdofthelandsailraisofhimawedder,andgiffthelairdraisisnotthesamepane,thekingsshireforhisministerssailraisittotheKing.’

InEnglandEdwardIVproclaimedthateveryEnglishmanandIrishmanlivinginEnglandmusthaveofhisownabowofhisownheight‘tobemadeofyew,wych,orhazel,ashorauborneoranyotherreasonabletree,accordingtotheirpower’.Thesamelawprovidedthatbuttesormoundsofearthforuseasmarksmustbeerectedineverytownandvillage,and

listedaseriesofpenaltiesforthosewhodidnotpractisewiththelongbow.

RichardIIIwasoneofthekingswhorecognisedthevalueofthearcher;Shakespearemakeshimsay,justpriortotheBattleofBosworth:‘Drawarchers,drawyourarrowstothehead!’TherearealsorecordstellingthatRichardsentabodyof1,000archersto

FrancetoaidtheDukeofBrittany.HenryVIIalsoprovidedanti-crossbowlegislationandsentlargeleviesofEnglisharcherstofightfortheDukeofBrittany.DuringthisentireperiodEnglishlongbowmenservedinmanypartsofthethen-knownworld.

Theintroductionofgunpowderwasthebeginningoftheendforthearcher;

althoughover400yearsweretopassbeforethebowandarrowwerefinallyovercomebygun-fire,theseedsweresowninthefourteenthcenturyatCrécyandSluys.Themakingofaskilfularcherwasamatterofyears,butanadequategunnercouldbeproducedinafewmonths–itwasfartooeasytoattainacertainamountofproficiencywiththenewweaponsforthebowto

remainhighlypopular.Atfirstthelongbowwasvastlysuperiortothenewlyinventedhandgunsandarquebuses,whichdidnotattainanygreatdegreeofefficiencybeforetheendofthefifteenthcentury.Whentheydid,thebow–theweaponparexcellenceofEngland–fellintodisuse,althoughthearchercoulddischargetwelveorfifteenarrowswhilethemusketeer

wasgoingthroughthelengthyoperationofloadinghispiece.Thelongbowcouldbeaimedmoreaccuratelyanditseffectiverangeof200–240yardswasgreater;thehitting-powerofawar-arrow,weighingabouttwoounces,wasfargreaterthanthatofamusket-ball,weighingfromone-thirdtohalfanounce.Archerscouldbelinedupasmanyastendeepandshoottogetherovereachother’s

headstoputdownanalmostimpassablebarrage;anditwasaterrifyingbarragethatcouldbeseendescending.ItisnotoutsidetheboundsofpossibilitytoclaimthatthemusketusedatWaterlooin1815wasinferiortothelongbowusedatAgin-courtin1415,bothinrangeandaccuracy.

Earlyfirearmswerereasonablygoodweaponsof

defencewhentheycouldberesteduponrampartsandtheirpowderkeptdry,otherwisetheywerefarlessdeadlythanthelongbowincompetenthands.In1590SirJohnSmyth,aformidablemilitarywriterofthetime,inhisworkTheDiscoursepresentedawholesalecondemnationofthenewweapons,themosquet,thecaliverandtheharquebus.Thebookwashastily

suppressedbyEnglishmilitaryauthorities;thestern,lonevoice,cryingforareturntotheolderandmoreeffectivewaysofthelongbowdidnotcoincidewithcurrentmilitarythinking.Onealsohadtoconsiderthatthemeritofearlyfirearmslayintheprestigewhichtheybroughttotheprinceswhoarmedtheirmenwiththem.

InmanyofthebattlesoftheWarsoftheRoses,artillerywascombinedwitharchers,sothattheenemywasputinapositionwherehehadeithertofallbackortochargeinordertoescapemissilefire–justassimilartacticshadwonthefieldofHastingsforWilliamin1066.EdgecottFieldwasnotableasarenewedattemptofspearmentostandagainstamixedforceofarchersand

cavalry.HeretheYorkistswereentirelydestituteoflighttroops,theirbowmenhavingbeendrawnoffbytheircommander,LordStafford,inafitofpique.ThismeantthatPembrokeandhisNorthWelshtroopswereleftunsupported.Thenaturalresultfollowed;inspiteofthestrongpositionoftheKing’sson,therebels,byforceofarcheryfire,quicklycausedthemtodescendfromthehill

intothevalley,wheretheywereriddendownbytheNorthernhorseastheyretreatedindisorder.

Duringtheperiodofthiswar,armourhadpossiblyreacheditselaboratepeak,asanolddescriptionofaknightarmingfortheBattleofTewkesburyindicated:‘…andarmingwasanelaborateprocessthen,astheknightbeganwithhisfeet,and

clothedhimselfupwards.Heputonfirst,hissabatynesorsteelclogs;secondly,thegreavesorshin-pieces;thirdly,thecuisses,orthigh-pieces;fourthly,thebreechofmail;fifthly,thetuillettes;sixthly,thebreastplate;seventhly,thevambracesorarm-covers;eighthly,thererebraces,forcoveringtheremainingpartofthearmtotheshoulder;ninthly,thegauntlets;tenthly,thedagger

washung;eleventhly,theshortsword;twelfthly,thesurcoatwasputon;thirteenthly,thehelmet;fourteenthly,thelongswordwasassumed;and,fifteenthly,thepennoncel,whichhecarriedinhislefthand.’

Notwithstandingtheundoubtedstrengthofthisarray,thearcherstillappearedtoachievesufficient

penetrationwithhisshaftstobeconsideredaworthwhilepartoftheforces.

AtTowton,onPalmSunday,March29th,1461,LordFalconbridge,commandingpartofthearmyofEdwardIV,usedhisarchersinaninterestingtacticalexpedientwhichsufficedtodecidethedaywhenbotharmieswereemployingthesameweapon.

Thesnow,whichwasfallingveryheavily,wasbeingblownbyastrongwindfrombehindtheYorkistsandintothefacesoftheLancastrians;itrenderedtheopposinglinesonlypartiallyvisibletoeachother.Falconbridgeorderedhisarcherstothefront,toactmoreorlessasskirmishers.Itmustbeexplainedthattwotypesofarrowsweretheninuse–theflightarrowandthesheafarrow;theformerwas

lightlyfeathered,withasmallhead;thelatterwashigh-featheredandshortlyshaftedwithalargehead.Flightarrowswereshotatagreatdistanceand,atproperelevation,couldkillat240yards.Sheafarrowswereforcloserfighting,requiringbutaslightelevation,andwereoftenshotatpoint-blankrange.

Theadvancingarchershad

beencarefullyinstructedtoletflyashowerofsheafarrows,withagreaterelevationthanusual,andthentofallbacksomepacesandstand.Aidedbythegale,theYorkistarrowsfellamongtheLancastrianarchers,who,perceivingthattheyweresheafarrowsandbeingmisledbytheblindingsnowastotheiropponents’exactdistancefromthem,assumedthattheenemywerewithin

easyrange.Theycommencedfiringvolleyaftervolleyintothesnowstorm,allofwhichfellsixtyyardsshortoftheYorkistsuntilthesnowbristledwiththeuselesslyexpendedshaftslikeporcupinequills.WhentheLancastrianshademptiedtheirbelts,theYorkistsmovedforwardandbeganfiringinreturn,usingnotonlytheirownshaftsbutalsothosesoconvenientlysticking

outofthesnowattheirfeet.Theirshootinghadgreateffectandmenfellonallsidesasthewind-assistedshaftscamehissingintothem;inashorttimeitwaspossibleforthebillmenandmen-at-armsofWarwickandKingEdwardtoadvancecomfortablyforwardwithoutreceivinganyharassingfirefromtheLancastrianarchers.Needlesstosay,theYorkistarchersthenlaidasidetheir

bowsandwentinwiththemoreheavilyarmedinfantry.Itwasastrategemthatwonthebattle,andwasonethatcouldonlybeusedwhentheadversarieswereperfectlyconversantwitheachother’sarmamentsandmethodsofwar.

Eveninthelatefifteenthandearlysixteenthcenturiesthelongbowstillretaineditssupremacyoverthearquebus

andhadyetsomefamousfieldstowin,notablythatofFloddenin1513,where,aswillbeseenfromthenextchapter,theoldmanoeuvresofFalkirkwererepeatedbybothparties,thepikemenofthelowlandsonceagainbeingshottopiecesbythearchersofCheshireandLancashire.AslateasthereignofEdwardVIwefindKett’sInsurgentsbeating,bytherapidityoftheirarchery

fire,acorpsofGermanhackbuteerswhomthegovernmenthadsentagainstthem.NorwasthebowentirelyextinctasanationalweaponeveninthedaysofQueenElizabeth.ItwasinthereignoftheVirginQueenthatthefirstreallygreatarcherywriterappearedontheEnglishscene.RogerAscham,tutortoElizabethwhenshewasaprincess,wastheauthorofthebook

Toxophilus,whichremainstheclassicinthefield.Allowingforcertainminordifferences,thephraseologyandcertainadvanceswhichhavebeenmadeinequipment,Ascham’sbookisasvaluabletothearchertodayasitwaswhenitwaswrittenfourcenturiesago.His‘instructions’canbe,andare,usedtodayinteachingnovicearchers.Ascham’srelationtothebow

correspondstothatofIzaakWaltontotherodandreel.

Chapter21

FloddenField–1513Thelongbowwastogooutofmilitaryfashioninablazeofglory,toachieveavictoryintheoldclassicalstylesothatitleftaglowintheheartsof

theyeomanofEngland,butnopangsofregretintheheartsofhisenemies.

TheeventswhichledtotheScottishinvasionofEnglandin1513neednotberecapitulated;sufficetosaythatKingJamesIVofScotlandhadcrossedtheborderinmid-Augustofthatyearwith,forthattime,anenormousarmyof40,000men.Theywerewell

furnishedwiththelatestartilleryoftheday.HisleaderswereallthoseofthehighestrankintheScottishkingdom;itmaybefairlysaidthatnogrown-upmemberofanyfamilyofpositionwasabsentfromtheexpedition.Aftersomeinitialskirmishing,theScotshadNorthumberlandattheirmercy;butaftertakingthecastleofFord,strongholdoftheHeronfamily,James

loiteredintheneighbourhoodwhilsthisarmydailygrewlessinnumbers.SaidtohavebeeninfatuatedbythecapturedLadyHeron,KingJamesappearedtoberegardlessoftheincreasingdesertionsofthosegorgedwithplunderinadditiontothosestarvedthroughthelandbeingforaged-out.Finally,hisarmynumberedlessthan30,000,butthosethatwereleftrepresentedthecreamof

thewholeandwereclaimedtohavebeenoneofthenoblestbodiesoffightingmenevergatheredtogether.Tobackthem,JameshadamostefficienttrainofthirtypiecesofartillerywhichhadbeencastforhimatEdinburghbythemastergunner,RobertBorthwick.

AgainsttheScotswassenttheveteranEarlofSurrey,overseventyyearsofage,

andforced,onaccountofhisrheumatism,totravelmostlybycoach.Chieflyfromthenortherncounties,hehastilygatheredtogetheranarmyofbetween20,000and26,000men.WhilstencampedatAlnwick,SurreysentaformalchallengetoKingJames,namingFriday,9thSeptember,asthedayofbattle;thechallengewasdulyacceptedinthemostformalmanner.Atthetimeof

acceptance,Jameswasencampedinthelowgroundand,accordingtotheoldrulesofchivalry,hisacceptancefromthisspotimpliedthathewouldgivebattleonthatsite.ButbeforelongJameshadmovedhiscampfromtheretoFloddenHill,aneminencelyingduesouthofFordCastle,runningeastandwestinalowridge.Here,onthesteepbrowofFloddenEdge,intheangle

betweentheTillanditssmalltributary,theGlen,James’sdefensivepositionwassostrongthatnosanefoewoulddaretoattackit.

Realisingthis,SurreysentJamesaletterofreproachinwhichhepointedoutthatthearrangementhadbeenmadeforapitchedbattle,andinsteadJameshadinstalledhimselfinafortifiedcamp.Heconcludedbychallenging

himtocomedownontheappointeddayandfightonMillfieldPlain,aleveltractsouthofFloddenHill.KingJamesrefusedeventoseetheheraldwhobroughtthemessage.

SurreythenmarchedhisarmyuptheriverTill;puthisvanguardwiththeartilleryandheavybaggageacrossattheTwizelbridge,whilsttheremainderofhisforce

crossedatSandyford,halfamilehigherup.NowwaspresentedtoJamesanexcellentopportunityofattackingtheEnglishwhilsttheyweresplitintotwoparts.Byfailingtograspit,JamesnowfoundhisfoesplacedbetweenhimselfandScotland;hewasleftwithlittlealternativebuttoreversehisorderofbattle.Settingfiretotherudehutsthathismenhadconstructedonthe

summitofthehill,hemovedhisforceontoBranxtonHill,immediatelybehindFloddenEdge;themovementwaspartiallyobscuredfromtheEnglishbythecloudsofsmokethattrailedoverthebrowofthehill.AstheyformedupontheridgeaboveBranxton,theScottisharmythathadfacedsouthwerenowdrawnupfacingnorth.

Thetwoarmiesfacedeach

other,bothformedintofourdivisionsandbothwithareserve.BeginningontheEnglishright,thefirstdivisionwascommandedbySirEdmundHoward,theyoungersonoftheEarlofSurrey;opposedtohimweretheGordonsundertheEarlofHuntleyandthemenoftheborderundertheEarlofHome.ThesecondEnglishdivisionwasledbyAdmiralHoward,whowasfacedby

theEarlsofCrawfordandMontrose.TheEarlofSurrey,withthethirddivision,wasopposedbyKingJameshimself;whileSirEdwardStanley,withthefourthdivision,hadtotryconclusionswiththeEarlsofLennoxandArgyle,whosetroopsweremainlyhighlanders.TheEnglishreserve,mainlycavalry,wascommandedbyLordDacre;thatoftheScottishunder

Bothwell.

Itwasnotuntilfouro’clockthatthebattlecommenced.Then,asanoldchroniclersays:‘Outbursttheordnancewithfire,flameandahideousnoise….’TheScottishartillerywasfarsuperiorinconstructiontotheEnglish,whichwasconstructedofhoopsandbars,whilsttheScotsmastergunnerhadcasthisweapons;

therewere,however,moreEnglishguns.ItseemsasthoughtheEnglishgunnersweresuperiortothoseservingtheScottishcannon,thelattercommittingtheerroroffiringattoogreatanelevationsothattheirshotspassedovertheheadsoftheEnglishandburiedthemselvesinthemarshygroundbeyond.Theoldwritergoesontosay:‘…andthemastergunneroftheEnglishslewthemaster

gunneroftheScots,andbeatallhismenfromtheirguns.’TheearlydeathofBorthwick,broughtdownbyaball,setupapanicinhismen,whoranfromtheirguns–butitwasnotbyartilleryfirethatFloddenwastobewonorlost.Jamesrealisedthisfactandorderedanattack;thebordertroopsoftheLordsHuntleyandHomeappeartohavebeenthefirsttocometoclosequarterswiththe

English.

InanunusualsilencetheScotsrushedforward,theirtwelve-foot-longpikeslevelledinfrontofthem;theinitialimpetusoftheironslaughtcarriedthemfarintotheEnglishlines,sothatatfirsttheyachievedabsolutesuccess.TheEnglishright,underSirEdmundHoward,wasthrustback,theirleaderthricebeatendownandhis

banneroverturned.TheEnglishfightinglinewasindisorderonthisflank.SomeCheshirearchers,whohadbeenseparatedfromtheircorpsandsentouttostrengthentherightwing,fledinalldirectionsandchaoscametoHoward’swing.JohnHeron,usuallyknownastheBastardHeron,attheheadofagroupofNorthumbrians,checkedtheroutlongenoughforDacretochargedown

withhisreserve.ThiscommittingofthereserveatsuchanearlystagedidnotsucceedinrestoringtheEnglishline,butitdidputHuntleytoflight,whilsttheundisciplinedborderersofHomehadnofurtherideaoffighting.Inaborderforay,nomorewasexpectedafterroutingone’sopponents;Home’smendidnotgraspthatFloddenwasnoordinaryforay–’Wehavefoughtand

won,lettherestdotheirpartaswellaswe!’wastheiranswertothosetryingtorallythem.

Whilstthiswasgoingon,CrawfordandMontrosewerefuriouslyattackingthedivisionofAdmiralHoward;somuchsothattheAdmiralsenttohisfather,theEarlofSurrey,forassistance.ButSurreywasfullyoccupiedinholdinghisownagainstthe

divisioncommandedbyKingJames,strengthenedbyBothwell,whohadbroughtupthereserveandflungthemintothestruggle.Thebattlewasnowatitsheightandwasbeinghardlycontestedallalongtheline;itseemed,hereandthere,asthoughtheEnglishhalberdswereprovingmoredeadlyweaponsatclosequartersthanthelongScottishpikes.

OntheEnglishleft,thearchersofCheshireandLancashire,underSirWilliamMolyneauxandSirHenryKickley,werepouringvolleysofarrowsintothetightlypackedranksoftheScottishright,highlandersundertheEarlsofLennoxandArgyle.Galledbythehailofshaftswhichspittedtheirunarmouredbodies,thewildclansmenfinallyfoundittobemorethantheycould

bear.Castingasidetheirtargetsandutteringwild,fierceyells,theyflungthemselvesforwardinaheadlongrush,claymoreandpole-axewavingfuriouslyinafrenzyofanxietytoburythemselvesintoEnglishfleshandbone.Thebowmenandpikemenwereshaken,sotremendouswastheinitialshock,theirbillsandswords,whichhadreplacedthebows,reelingandwaveringunder

theonslaught;butdisciplineprevailedandtheirformationremainedunbroken.Thearchersontheflanksofthemêléestoodbackandpouredinvolleyaftervolleyatclosequarters,whiletheinnerlineofpikemenandmen-at-armsheldoffthewildhighlanders.Theirarrowsgone,thearchersthrewdowntheirbows,drewtheirswordsandaxestoflingthemselvesintothefray,bothinfrontandon

theflanks.Itwasadeadlystrugglewhilstitlasted,butgraduallytheclansmengaveway,fightingatfirst,butthen,suddenly,incompleterout–bothearlsdiedtryingtostemthetide.

Stanleypressedforward,wonhiswayupandcrownedtheridge.HedidnotmaketheerrorofpursuingfromthefieldthethoroughlybrokenScotswhomhismenhadjust

beaten.Facingabout,hechargedobliquelydownhilltotaketheScotsdivisionsofKingJamesandBothwellinflank.Thisstruggleinthecentre,betweenSurreyandKingJames,hadbeenproceedingfiercely;theKingwasfightingonfootliketherestofhisdivision,conspicuousbytherichnessofhisarmsandarmour.Stanley’sflankattack,coincidingwithasimilar

attackontheotherflankbyDacreandEdmundHoward,proveddisastroustotheScots.Hemmedinonallsides,theybegantofallbyhundredsinthecloseanddeadlymêlée;noquarterwasaskedbyeithersideandnonewasgiven.Thebloodflowingfromthedreadfulgashesinflictedbyaxes,billsandtwo-handedswordsmadethegroundsoslipperythatmanyofthecombatantsweresaid

tohavetakenofftheirbootstogainasurerfooting.

Asabattle,allwasoverbynowandnothingremainedbuttheslaughter.Surroundedbyasolidringofhisknights,Jamesrefusedtoyielduntilhefinallyfell,dyingwiththeknightswhohadformedahumanshieldaroundhim.Hewassaidtohavebeenmortallywoundedbyaballfiredbyanunknownhand;he

hadseveralarrowsinhisbody,agashinhisneckandhislefthandwasalmostseveredfromhisarm.TenthousandmenfellontheScottishside;tolisttheslainisalmosttocataloguetheancientScottishnobility.Withtheexceptionoftheheadsoffamilieswhoweretoooldortooyoungtofight,therewashardlyafamilyoftoprankthatdidnotgrievouslysuffer.The

Englishlostabout5,000men.

OntheScotsside,thearchersofEttrick,knowninScotlandasthe‘FlowersoftheForest’,perishedalmosttoaman.Tothisdaythesweet,sad,wailingairknownbythatnameisinvariablytheDeadMarchusedbyScottishregiments.

Chapter22

TheEndoftheRoadExceptpossiblyinagreatclanbattlein1688,whenMacintoshfoughtMacdonald,thelastoccasiononwhichthelongbowwasusedforwarin

BritainissaidtohavebeenatTippermuirin1644.HeretheMarquisofMontrose,upholdingthecauseofCharlesI,routedtheCovenanters;hisarmy,havinglittleammunitionfortheirfewmuskets,usedhailsofstonesandancientbowstobringthemvictory.Sincethereweresomanymorebattlesduringthenextfewyearsofthatunhappyperiod,itisquitelikelythatthebow

wasusedtogoodeffectonotheroccasions–itseemsunlikelythatitshouldhavebeencompletelyabandonedinthemiddleofacivilwar.In1622thelongbowwasnolongermentionedinthelistofweaponswithwhichthemilitaryforcesweretobearmed.

Oneofthegreatpuzzlesofmilitaryhistoryiswhyartilleryandfirearmsreplaced

thelongbowsorapidlywhenthelatter,rightuptothetimeofWaterlooandbeyond,wascapableoffargreaterrange,rateoffire,andaccuracy.In1625,inhispamphletDouble-armedMan,W.Neadegavetheeffectiverangeofthebowassixteentotwentyscoreyardsandclaimedthatthearchercoulddischargesixarrowswhilethemusketeerloadedandfiredbutonce.In1792

Lieutenant-ColonelLee,ofthe44thRegiment,stronglyadvocatedtheuseofthelongbowinpreferencetotheflint-lockmusket.Tosupporthiscasehegavethefollowingreasons:

1.Becauseamanmayshootastrulywiththebowaswiththecommonmusket.

2.Hecandischargefourarrowsinthetimeofcharging

anddischargingonebullet.

3.Hisobjectisnottakenfromhisviewbythesmokeofhisownside.

4.Aflightofarrowscominguponthemterrifiesanddisturbstheenemy’sattentiontohisbusiness.

5.Anarrowstickinginanypartofamanputshimhorsdecombatuntilitis

extracted.

6.Bowsandarrowsaremoreeasilymadeanywherethanmusketsandammunition.

Aslateas1846theeffectiverangeofthemusketincommonuseintheBritisharmywas,forallpracticalpurposes,only100to150yards–thecommondictumbeingnottofireuntilyou

couldseethewhitesoftheenemy’seyes!Whythenwasthebowabandonedsoearlyinfavourofthecrudefirearmsoftheperiod?

Onthebattlefield,archeryhascertainunavoidabledrawbacksaffectingboththemanandhisweapon.Tousehislongboweffectively,thearcherneededspacearoundhim–hehadtostandtodeliverhisshaft.Notonlydid

thismakehimvulnerabletotheelements,italsoturnedhimintoagoodtarget;thewholecourseofwarfarewasalteredwhenthebreech-loadingrifleenabledthesoldiertore-loadhisarmwhilstlyingdown.Althoughrainhadanadverseeffectupontherateoffireofamusket,itcompletelyrenderedthelongbowuseless;windcouldalsorenderthearcherhelpless.However,the

crucialfactorwasthatthearcherhadtobeanathleteinthebestphysicalcondition,whereasthemanbehindtheguncouldfunctioneveninthestateofwearydebilityproducedbythecold,wetandhungerofextendedactiveservice.Mediaevalcommanderswerewellawareoftheimportanceofmaintainingboththehealthandthestatureoftheirarchers–theymountedthem

onhorseswheneverpossible,recruitedthemfromthefixedheraldicrankofyeoman(thehighestheldbymenoflowdegree)andeverencouragedpracticeatthebutts.

AlthoughthelongbowwonCrécy,PoitiersandAgincourt,togetherwithahostofsmallerengagements,theHundredYearsWarwaswonbytheFrench.Bybetteradaptingthemselvestothe

newlyinventedandprimitiveartilleryandbyusingthemwithasuperiortechnique,theFrenchwereabletorecapturethetownsandprovinceslosttotheEnglish,eventuallynullifyingtheeffectsofalltheEnglishvictoriesthroughouttheHundredYearsWar.

Perhapsregrettably,todayitisonlytheincurableromanticistwhowillclaim

specialvirtuesforthelongbowasagainstfirearms.But,intheend,hewillhavegrudginglytoadmitthatthefirearmhasprovedtobewhatthebowcouldnotbecome–aperfectibleweapon.Anygoodshotinanaveragemodernsmall-borerifleclubcangeta‘possible’outofeverytenshotsaimedatatwo-inchcircle100yardsaway;hewillbeabletodothisconsistentlyandwithout

hesitation.The‘gold’ofanarcherytargetisasbigasasaucer,yetHoraceA.Fordheldforyearstherecordof28hitsin75shotsat60yards.Noarcher,howeverskilful,canbeabsolutelycertainwithinseveralincheswhereasingleshaftwillland.ItisadegreeofuncertaintyemphasisedbyanincidentattheinaugurationoftheNationalRifleAssociationatWimbledononJuly2nd,

1860,whenQueenVictoriapulledasilkencordwhichfiredaWhitworthrifleonafixedrestandhitonly1¼inchesfromthecentreofthetarget!

EpilogueIn1939CaptainJackChurchilloftheManchesterRegimentwasamemberoftheBritishteamcompetingintheWorldArcheryChampionshipatOslo.Withwarintheoffing,thepartyarrivedbackinEnglandaftersomedifficultiesandhewent,

almostimmediately,withtheadvancepartyoftheBritishExpeditionaryForcetotheContinent.Beforeembarking,CaptainChurchillhadmadebyPurleofLondonahundred-poundyewbowtogetherwithhuntingarrows;healsoequippedhimselfwithtwosteelbowswhichwerelaterbrokenwhilststickingoutofthebackofalorrythatwasbackedagainstawall.

Duringthedaysofthe‘phoneywar’of1939,CaptainChurchilltookeveryopportunityofpractisingwithhisbowbyshootingattargets.InDecember1939the4thBrigadeofthe2ndDivisionoftheB.E.F.,consistingoftheNorfolkRegiment,theRoyalScots,theWarwickshireRegiment,andthemachine-gunsoftheManchesterRegiment,tookoverpartoftheMaginot

Line.Itwasabitterlycoldwinterandsnowlayonthefrozenground,sothatpatrolsformedofgroupsfromallbattalionsweresentoutinfrontoftheMaginotLinewearingwhitenightgownsandwithelephantinelegsencasedinlayersofstrawandsandbags.Frustratedandirritatedbytheofficialpolicyofnotprovokingtheenemy,CaptainChurchilldecideduponasymbolicgesture

whichhethoughtwouldnotonlygivehimgreatpersonalsatisfactionbutmightalsocreateacertainalarm,despondencyandbewildermentintheenemylines.Onthe31stofDecember1939,whilstoutwithapatrolamidtheundulating,snow-coveredcountrysideofno-man’s-land,hestealthilymadehiswaytobetweenfiftyandeightyyardsfromtheGermanlines

and,drawinghisbowstringbacktohischeek,letlooseanarrowwhichheheardbiteintoafrost-hardgroundwithanaudible‘clack’.Therewasnoreactionwhatsoever,soChurchillagaindrewhisbowandloosedasecondarrow–thistimeaGermanvoicecalledoutandtherewasobviouslysomeconsternationcausedintheenemydefences,althoughhedidnothavethesatisfactionof

knowingwhetherornothisarrowhadhitanyone.Althoughelatedbyhisgesture,thearcherregrettednotbeingabletoretrievehisarrows.Theshaftscosthim105.6d.eachandtheWarOfficehadnofinancialresponsibilityforsuchammunition!

Onthe27thofMay1940,whilstincommandofamixedforceholdingthe

villageofL’Epinette,nearBethune,duringtheretreattoDunkirk,CaptainChurchill,whohadbeenslightlywoundedonthe25th,becametheonlyEuropeanforcenturieswho,intheactionofwar,hadkilledanenemywiththelongbow.Climbingintotheloftofasmallgranary,throughaverticalopeninginonewall,normallyusedforhaulingupsacksofgrain,hesaw,somethirty

yardsaway,fiveGermansoldiersshelteringbehindthewallbutinclearviewofthegranary.QuicklyandquietlyCaptainChurchillfetcheduptwoinfantrymenandinstructedthemtoopenrapidfireontheenemybutnottopullthetriggeruntilhehadloosedanarrowatthecentreman.CaptainChurchillliftedhisbow,tookcarefulaimandloosedtheshaft.Atthesametimeasthebowstring

twanged,theairwasshatteredbytherapidfireofthetwoinfantrymen.CaptainChurchillwasdelightedtoseehisarrowstrikethecentreGermanintheleftofthechestandpenetratehisbody;theremainingGermansofthepartyslumpedtothedustyground.Withtheideaofretrievinghisarrowbypushingorpullingitthroughthewound,CaptainChurchillswiftlyrantothebodybut

wasunabletoextracttheshaft.Inhishastehebrokethearrow,leavingitsbarbedheadintheGerman’sbody.Atthismomentenemymachine-gunfirewasopeneddownthelineoftheroadandeveryonedivedforcover.

Sheet21oftheWarDiaryofthe4thInfantryBrigade,datedthe30thofMay1940,bearsthefollowingparagraph:

‘OneofthemostreassuringsightsoftheembarkationwasthesightofCaptainChurchillpassingdownthebeachwithhisbowsandarrows!HisactionsintheSaarwithhisarrowsareknowntomanyandhisdisappointmentatnothavinghadthechancetokeepinpracticehadtriedhimsorely.Hishighexampleandhisgreatworkwithhismachine-gunswereagreathelptothe

4thInfantryBrigade.’

Fiveyearsbeforethefirstatomicbombexplodedandnearly600yearsaftertheBattleofCrécyanEnglisharcherhadincongruouslyandbrieflyreturnedtotheancientbattlefieldsofFrance.

Bibliography

TechnicalSources

Akerman,Archaelogia(i860),Vol.XVII

Ascham,Roger,Toxophilus(sixteenthcentury)

Ascham,Roger,TheTreatiseontheBow(1545)

Ashdown,Charles,ArmourandWeaponsintheMiddle

Ages(1925)

Ashdown,Charles,BritishandForeignArmsandArmour(1909)

Barwick,ABriefDiscourse{FirearmsandBows)(1594)

Blair,Claud,EuropeanArmour(1958)

Burke,Edmund,TheHistory

ofArchery(1958)

Demarin,Auguste,WeaponsofWar(1870)

Edwards,C.B.andHeath,E.G.,InPursuitofArchery(1962)

Elmer,R.P.,Archery(1933)

Ffoulkes,Charles,ArmourandWeapons(1909)

Ffoulkes,Charles,ArmsandArmaments(1945)

Ford,H.A.,Archery,ItsTheoryandPractice(1856)

Gordon,P.H.,TheNewArchery(1939)

Grancsay,S.V.,ArmsandArmour(1964)

Grancsay,S.V.,Handbookof

ArmsandArmour(1930)

Grimley,Gordon,TheBookoftheBow(1958)

Griswold,L.,Handicraft–Archery(1942)

Hansard,G.A.,TheBookofArchery(1840)

Hewitt,John,AncientArmourandWeaponsinEurope,Vols.I,II,III(1855–9)

Klopsteg,P.E.,BowsandArrows:AChapterintheEvolutionofArcheryinAmerica(1863)

Klopsteg,P.E.,ScienceLooksatArchery(1934)

Laking,SirGuy,ARecordofEuropeanArmourandArmsthroughSevenCenturies(1920–2)

Longman,C.J.andWalrand,

H.,Archery(1894)

Mann,SirJames,Armour(1962)

Mayrich,SirSamuelRush,HistoryofArmsandArmour(1824)

Murdoch,John,AStudyoftheEskimoBowsintheUnitedStatesNationalMuseum(1884)

Myer,Herman,BowsandArrowsinCentralBrazil(1896)

Nicolle,Patrick,TheBookofArmour(1960)

Oakeshott,R.Ewart,TheArchaeologyofWeapons(1960)

Pope,Dr.SaxtonT.,HuntingwiththeBowandArrow(1923)

Thompson,M.,TheWitcheryofArchery(1878)

Wilbur,C.Martin,HistoryoftheCrossbow(1936)

HistoricalSources

Barbour,J.,TheBruce(1909)

Barrett,C.R.B.,BattlesandBattlefieldsinEngland(1896)

Bryant,Arthur,TheAgeofChivalry(1963)

Burne,Lieutenant-ColonelAlfredH.,TheAgincourt

War(1956)

Burne,Lieutenant-ColonelAlfredH.,TheArtofWaronLand(1944)

Burne,Lieutenant-ColonelAlfredH.,TheCrécyWar(1955)

Chandler,DavidEdr.,TheBattlefieldsofEurope,Vol.I(1965)

Churchill,SirWinstonS.,TheHistoryoftheEnglish-SpeakingPeoples(1956)

Costain,RichardB.,TheLastofthePlantagenets(1962)

Creasy,SirEdward,FifteenDecisiveBattles(N.D.)

Field,ColonelCyril,OldTimesUnderArms(1939)

Fortescue,J.W.,AHistoryof

theBritishArmy,Vol.I(1899)

Fox-Davies,A.C,CompleteGuidetoHeraldry(N.D.)

Froissart,Jean,Passagesfrom(Edt.F.T.Marzials)(1900)

George,H.B.,BattlesofEnglishHistory(N.D.)

Grant,James,BritishBattles

onLandandSea(N.D.)

Green,JohnRichard,AShortHistoryoftheEnglishPeople(1874)

Hay,Ian,TheKing’sService(1938)

Jacob,E.F.,TheOxfordHistoryofEngland–theFifteenthCentury(1947)

Kelly,F.M.andSchwabe,

R.,AShortHistoryofCostumeandArmour(1931)

Kozlenko,William,MenatWar(Edt.)(1942)

MacKenzie,W.M.,TheBattleofBannockburn(1913)

MacKenzie,W.M.,TheBannockburnMyth(1932)

McKisack,May,TheOxfordHistoryofEngland–theFourteenthCentury(1959)

Miller,T.,TheSiteoftheBattleofBannockburn(1931)

Morris,J.E.,‘TheArchersofCrécy’(inEnglishHistoricalReviewXII)(1897)

Morris,J.E.,TheWelshWars

ofEdwardI(1897)

Neade,W.,Double-ArmedMan(pamphlet)(1625)

Newhall,ProfessorR.A.,TheEnglishConquestofNormandy

Nicolas,SirH.,BattleofAgincourt(1827.2ndEdt.1832)

Oman,SirCharlesW.C,

HistoryoftheArtofWarintheMiddleAges(1924)

Perroy,Edouard,TheHundredTearsWar(1951)

Poole,AustinLane,MedievalEngland,Vol.I(Edt.)(1958)

Powicke,SirMaurice,TheOxfordHistoryofEngland–theThirteenthCentury(1953)

Ramsay,SirJames,LancasterandYork(1892)

Roberts,T.,TheEnglishBowman(1801)

Round,J.H.,FeudalEngland(1895)

Scott,Sibbald,TheBritishArmy:itsOrigin,ProgressandEquipment,Vol.II(1867)

Scott-Giles,C.W.andBrooke-Little,J.P.,Boutell’sHeraldry(revisedby)(1950)

Sellman,MedievalEnglishWarfare(1960)

Sheppard,E.W.,AShortHistoryoftheBritishArmy(1926)

Smythe,SirJohn,TheDiscourse(sixteenth

century)

Treece,H.andOakeshott,Ewart,FightingMen(1963)

Wedeck,H.E.,ConciseDictionaryofMedievalHistory(1963)

Wedgewood,C.V.,BattlefieldsinBritain(1944)

Wyllie,J.H.,ReignofHenryV(3vols.,1914,1918,1929)

EncyclopaediaBritannica,Vol.2–AHistoryoftheBritishArmy

FictionalSources

Chaucer,G.,CanterburyTales

Doyle,A.Conan,TheWhiteCompany(1905)

Doyle,A.Conan,SirNigel(1906)

Henty,G.A.,InFreedom’sCause(1890)

Henty,G.A.,AtAgincourt(1897)

Henty,G.A.,BothSidestheBorder(1899)

Henty,G.A.,St.GeorgeforEngland(1896)

Shakespeare,William,HenryIV

IndexACQUITAINE,DuchyofAgincourt,Battleof

FrenchmethodsHenryV’saddresstoarchers

Aljubarrota,BattleofAlnwick,Henry,BaronPercyofArc,JoanofArcher,comparisonwith

musketeer

contestwithcrossbowmendescribedinsixteenth-centuryversestanceandaim

Archers,appearanceandequipmentCheshireEttrickFreeCompanyofLancastrianmountedatPoitiersrateoffireScottishtacticalcombinationwithmen-at-arms

weaponsotherthanbowWelshYorkist

ArcherypracticeArchibald,4thEarlofDouglasArmour,andequipment;

EnglishatFalkirkBlackPrince’satPoitierschangesinEnglishatAgincourthorses’men-at-armsplatePoitiersScots,atHomildonHill

TewkesburyWarsofRoses

ArquebusesArrow,description

flightheadslengthmodernhuntingsheaf

Artillery,CrécyFloddenJamesIV’sarmyRouvray

Arundel,EarlofAscham,RogerAssizeofArms

Audrehem,FrenchMarshalAumale,CountofAuray,BattleofBALIOL,EdwardBannockburn,BattleofBar,DukeofBeauchamp,SirJohnBeaumont,BattleofBeaurepair,ScotsencampmentBedford,John,DukeofBentley,SirWilliamBergeracBerkhamstedCastle,bow-stavefromBerwick,siegeof

BlackDeathBlackPrinceBlanchetaqueBlois,CharlesofBlois,CountofBohemia,KingofBohun,SirHenryBorthwick,James,MasterGunnerBothwell,commandingScottishreserveatFloddenBoucicaut,MarshalBourbon,DukeofBowstaves,survivingspecimensBowstrings

Brabant,DukeofBranxtonHill,nearFloddenBretigny,TreatyofBreuville,BattleofBritishExpeditionaryForce,1939BritishMuseum,earlybowstavesinBrittanyBrittany,DukeofBruce,RobertBuchan,Earlof,ConstableofFranceBurgundy,CharlesofCADZANDCalais

CalthropsGamoys,LordCannonCanterburyTalesCarisbrookeCavalry,English

FeudalFrenchNormanScots

Chandos,SirJohnCharles,KingofFranceChaucer,Geoffrey,CanterburyTalesChivalryChristopher,capturedEnglish

shipChurchill,CaptainJackClerks,ValleyofClermont,CountofCockerell,BattleofConstableofFranceCopeland,SirJohnCovenantersatTippermuirCrawford,EarlofCrécy,BattleofCrossbowCrossbowmen

BrabantFrenchLombardSaracen

CulverinsDACRE,LordDagworth,SirThomasd’Albret,Charlesd’Alençon,Countd’Alençon,DukeDauphinDavidII,ofScotlandDeBuch,Captald’Endreghem,ArnaudDeLeyburn,RogerDeMézeraryDeMontfort’sArchersDeNesle,GuyDerby,EarlofDeRous,John,drawingof

archerDouglas,Archibald,LordofGallowayDouglas,EarlofDouglas,SirJamesDouglas,SirWilliam,ofLiddesdaleDoyle,A.Gonan,TheWhiteCompanyDunkirk,retreatto,1940Dunois,CountofDurham,BishopofEDGECOTTField,BattleofEdwardtheConfessorEdwardIEdwardII

EdwardIIIEdwardIVElizabethIErpingham,SirThomasFALCONBERG,CountofFalconbridge,LordFalkirk,BattleofFastolf,SirJohnFeudalArmiesFirearmsFloddenField,BattleofFlowersoftheForestFord,Castleof,NorthumberlandFord,HoraceA.Formigny,Battleof

Fortescue,SirJohnFourthInfantryBrigade,of2ndDivn.B.E.F.Francheville,IsleofWightFreeCompanyofArchersFroissartFyrd,theGAM,DavidGasconyGenoesecarracksatHarfleurGenoeseGrossbowmenGiraud,MasteroftheRoyalOrdnanceGloucester,DukeofGordonsatFloddenGraham,SirJohn

Graville,LordGuédel’HommetrackGunpowderGunsHACKBUTEERS,GermanHalberdsHalidonHill,BattleofHandgunsHangest,CountHarcourt,GodfreyHarfleur,BattleofHastings,BaronHenryIHenryIIHenryIVHenryV

HenryVII,anti-crossbowlegislationHerce,formationofarchersHeron,John(Bastard)Heron,LadyHerrings,Convoysof

DayofHeynault,SirJohnofHighStewardofScotlandHighlandersatFloddenHolinshed,RalphHome,EarlofHome,SirAlexanderHomildonHill,BattleofHop-PringleofSwailholmHotspur

Howard,AdmiralHoward,SirEdmundHundredYearsWarHuntley,EarlofINDENTURESgoverningEnglisharmiesIrishinfantryIvryJAMESIofScotland;lawconcerningarcheryJamesIVofScotlandJohnIIofFranceKETT’SInsurgentsKickley,SirHenryKnight’sequipmentKyriell,SirThomas

LAFAYETTE,MarshalLaHireLancaster,DukeofLance,troopformationLee,Lieutenant-ColonelLennox,EarlofL’Epinette,nearBethuneLindsay,SirWalterLisle,JeandeLongbowLunalonge,BattleofMACINTOSHv.Macdonald,clanbattleMaesMaydogMaginotLineMaisoncelles

ManchesterRegiment,1939Manny,SirWalterMarch,EarlofMarie,CountofMaryRoseMauron,BattleofMercenaries,GenoeseMessina,siegeofMeungMillfieldPlainMolyneaux,SirWilliamMonstreletMontfort,JohnofMontrose,EarlofMontrose,MarquisofMoray,Earlof

Morlaix,BattleofMorstede,John,EnglishSurgeon-GeneralMountjoyMusgrove,BaronMusketMusketeerNARBONNE,CountofNationalMilitia(theFyrd)NationalRifleAssociationNavarre,KingofNeade,W.,pamphletDouble-armedManNevers,CountofNeville’sCross,BattleofNorbeque,Denisof

NorfolkRegimentNormandy,DuchyofNormandy,DukeofNorthampton,EarlofNorthumberland,EarlofNouailleBridgeatPoitiersOREWINEBridgeOrléans,DukeofOrléans,siegeofOxford,EarlofPARÉ,AmbroisePatay,BattleofPelham,SirJohnPembroke,LordPérigord,CardinaldePhilip,KingofFrance

PicardyPoachingPoitiers,BattleofPonthieuPurleofLondonRABY,Ralph,BaronNevilleofRambouillet,LordRennesRhuddlanCastleRichardIRichardIIRichardIIIRichemont,ConstabledeRichmont,CountArthurofRobinHood

Roses,WarsofRoussi,CountofRouvray,BattleofRoyalScotsRegiment,1939RoyalStatutesgoverningbowmenST.CRISPIN,FeastofSt.Georges-la-Valade,BattleofSt.PoldeLéon,BattleofSaintes,siegeofSalisbury,EarlofSavense,SirWilliamScales,LordSchiltronsScotsBanners

InFrenchemployInvadeEnglandPikemen

Scrope,BaronShakespeare,WilliamShrewsbury,BattleofSluys,BattleofSmithe,Ralphe,EnglisharcherSmyth,SirJohnSomerset,DukeofSomme,RiverSouthamptonSpanishfleetStafford,LordStandard,Battleofthe

Stanley,SirEdwardStewart,SirJohn,ofDarnleyStewart,SirRobertStirlingBridge,BattleofStirlingCastle,siegeofSuffolk,EarlofSurgery,mediaevalSurrey,EarlofSwinton,SirJohnSwissPikemenTALBOT,LordJohnTewkesbury,Battleof,armourTill,RiverTinchebrai,BattleofTippermuir,Battleof

Tonnerre,CountofTowerofLondonTowton,BattleofToxophilusTramcourtWoodsVANNESVaudemont,CountofVentadour,CountofVerneuil,BattleofVerneuil,siegeofVictoria,QueenWADICOURTWales,PrinceofWallace,WilliamWarwick,EarlofWarwickshireRegiment,1939

Waterloo,BattleofWellington,DukeofWelshinfantryWelshWarsWhiteCompany,TheWhitworthrifleWight,IsleofWinchelsea,navalbattleofWinchester,StatuteofWounds,arrowXAINTRAILLES,PotondeYEWYork,Edward,Dukeof

1A.ConanDoyle,TheWhiteCompany,p.79.DuringthecourseofaconversationbetweenJohnofHordle,AlleyneEdricsonandAylward,theveteranbowman,whentheydiscussedtherespectivemeritsoftheScotsandtheFrenchasfoemenoftheEnglish.

2TheBlackDeath,aplaguewhichstruckBritainin1349,

sweptawaymorethanhalfofthethreeorfourmillionswhothenformedthepopulationofEngland.Sofiercewereitsassaultsthatthewholeorganisationoflabourwasthrownoutofgearandforatimeevencultivationceased.Nearly60,000peopleperishedinNorwich,whilstinBristolthelivingwerehardlyabletoburythedead.TherespectivenumericalstrengthsoftheFrenchand

Englisharmiesmustbeviewedinthelightofthissituation.

3Meaning‘barrow’inAnglo-Saxon.

4TheBoroughofFranchevilleisnowknownasNewtown,IsleofWight.Itisnowaminute,decayedvillagebutwasonceapopulousandthrivingtownwithaharbour.Initsdayit

wassuperiorinsizeandcommercialprosperitytoneighbouringNewport.Itwassackedandburnedmanytimesduringitsearlyexistence.