Metabolism of xenobiotics Dr. Erzsébet Tóth

23. September 2015.

Department of Medical Biochemistry Semmelweis University

Biotransformation

Drug metabolism

Metabolism of xenobiotics - testidegen vegyületek átalakítása

Stoffwechselverwandlung – anyagcserésítés

One role of biotransformation: is to transform foreign xenobiotics to become

more hydrophylic, consequently exretable.

Other role of biotransformation: endogenious hormons, neurotransmitters, paracrine

hormons are synthetized and degraded in this process.

English name of the process is drug metabolism or metabolism of xenobiotics,

although there are endogenious substrates, too.

Usually it inactivates the molecules, sometimes molecules are converted to active formes.

It is ancient mechanism (3.5 billion years) found in bacteria, each cell of fungi, plants,

animals, humans.

Several kind of reactions are found in each cells, in cp. mt. ER, nucleus, Golgi.

It does not yield energy, but uses products of common metabolic reactions:

UDP-glucose, NADPH, SAM, PAPS, glutathione, acetyl-CoA, glycine, taurine.

It has 3 phases.

oxidation by: -dehydrogenases (e.g. alcohol to aldehyde)

- flavin-containing monooxygenases (e.g. amines, nitrones, thioesters, thiocabamates, phosphins)

- monoamine oxidase (e.g. deamination of chatecholamines)

- cytochrome P450 (pigment with an absorbance at 450 nm – hemoproteins in CO complex)

reduction by: - aldehyde and ketone reductase (to alcohol)

- azoreductase (to amine)

- quinone reductase (to hydroquinone)

hydrolysis by: - epoxide hydrolase (to vicinal diol)

- carboxylesterases (to carboxyl + alcohol)

- amidases (to acid + amine)

Oxidation reaction types:

alcohol dehydrogenation

aldehyde dehydrogenation

alkyl/acyclic hydroxylation

aromatic hydroxylation

deamination

desulfuration

N-dealkylation

N-hydroxylation

N-oxidation

O-dealkylation

sulphoxidation

reduction:

azo reduction

dehalogenation

disulfide reduction

nitro reduction

N-oxide reduction

sulfoxide reduction

Cytochrome P450 enzyme system

is the most important oxidating enzyme

main family: at least 40% amino acid sequence homology

CYP1A1 isoform (1 protein)

subfamily: at least 55% amino acid sequence homology

numbering of CYP and sources of enzymes:

1 - human, higher animals

51 – lower eukaryotic animals and fungi

71 – plants

101 – bacteria

11 gene family CYP proteins are found in all mammals,

in humans 18 gene family 57 isoforms

All CYP enzymes together can catalize ~60 different kind of reactions.

In human and mammals CYP enzymes are membrane bound in ER (50 isoforms) and mitochondria (7 isoforms).

1-3 gene family members have unthinkably broad and overlapping substrate specificity:

several enzyme can transform the same substrate,

it is possible that to different product,

one enzyme accepts huge amount of substrates,

these enzymes transform plant poisons, medicines, chemicals, polutants

4-51 gene family members are specific, they transform endogenious compounds

Main localization of CYP enzymes:

liver, kidney, lung, intestine, skin (but found probably in each cell)

Genetic polymorphism often occurs: small alterations in amino acid sequence can affect

enzyme activity, stability, substrate specificity, affinity for substrates

leading to differences in medicine’s tolerance, but age, gender (and species)

cause difference, too.

Liver failure leads to toxicity of usual doses of drugs.

Regulation of CYP enzymes is done by regulation of the amount of enzymes:

induction or repression or mRNA stability or protein stability is changed.

• Molecules originating from food, spicy and other plants

• food preservatives, colouring compounds, etc.

• hormons, paracrine hormons, neurotransmitters

• lots of chemicals made recently (> 200000)

• pesticides and herbicides,

• soil / water /air pollutants (smoke, cigarette smoke)

• medicines and auxiliary materials

influence the transformation of each other

because on one hand they compete with each other as substrate,

on the other hand they act as inducer or activator of cytochrome P450 and other

enzymes, so accumulation of the compounds may be toxic or

conversely, fast degradation leads to over-metabolism and sub-effective

concentrations of drugs, hormons.

Drug interaction caused by enzyme induction

One drug (drug A) binds to transcription factor (PXR here) and they induce the

expression of a drug-metabolizing enzyme (CYP3A here) which will catalyze

the conversion of another drug (drug B) to become more or less active.

DNA

Mechanism of enzyme induction, regulation of

gene expression

• Receptors of lipophylic hormons, medicines, foreign compounds (xenobiotics)

are nuclear transcriptional factors (proteins)

that are bound to promoter or enhancer sequence of DNA

and increase the transcription of mRNA,

therefore more protein is translated from the many mRNA molecules,

this is the enzyme induction.

• The opposite process is the repression, when mRNA transcription is prevented.

• Other mechanism: hydrophilic second messengers e.g. cAMP, cGMP are ligands

of PKA and PKG kinases that phosphorylate and activate transcription factors

to translocate to nucleus and bind to DNA etc.

Cytochrome P450 enzyme system is a monooxygenase: 1 atom of oxygen is built in to the molecule or

called mixed function oxygenase, because the other atom of oxygen forms water

Cytochrome P450 hemoprotein

Substrate-H + O2 + NADPH +H+ → Substrate-OH + H2O + NADP

1. 2.

3.

S-H + O2 + NADPH +H+ → S-OH + H2O + NADP

After hydroxylation:

dealkylation,

desulfuration,

H2O elimination,

aromatization

Other kind of

reactions:

epoxidation,

dehalogenation,

oxidation to keto group

Cytochrome P450 enzyme system can catalyze ~ 60 different type of

reactions, the most frequent one is hydroxylation that can be followed by others

Components in mitochondria:

NADPH → ferredoxin reductase FAD → ferredoxin FeS → CYP isoform (7 kind of)

=adrenodoxin reductase =adrenodoxin

Components of ER electrone transport chain:

NADPH → cytochrome P450 reductase FAD, FMN → cyt. P450 isoform (50 kind of)

NADH → citochrome b5 reductase FAD → cytochrome b5 (in some reactions)

CPR =

cytochrome

P450

reductase

and

CYP

binding

Composition of cytochrome

P450 enzyme system

in ER and mt.

CPR : CYP = 1 : 10 till 1: 20

NADPH FAD FMN

Composition of cytochrome P450 reductase enzyme:

2 electons come from NADPH,

FAD and FMN prosthetic groups can add electrones in stepwise manner

to 1 heme of CYP .

Humans have 18 families of cytochrome P450 genes and 43 subfamilies

CYP1 drug metabolism (3 subfamilies, 3 genes, 1 pseudogene)

CYP2 drug and steroid metabolism (13 subfamilies, 16 genes, 16 pseudogenes)

CYP3 drug metabolism (1 subfamily, 4 genes, 2 pseudogenes)

CYP4 arachidonic acid or fatty acid metabolism (5 subfamilies, 11 genes, 10 pseudogenes)

CYP5 thromboxane A2 synthase (1 subfamily, 1 gene)

CYP7A bile acid biosynthesis 7-alpha hydroxylase of steroid nucleus (1 subfamily member)

CYP7B brain specific form of 7-alpha hydroxylase (1 subfamily member)

CYP8A prostacyclin synthase (1 subfamily member)

CYP8B bile acid biosynthesis (1 subfamily member)

CYP11 steroid biosynthesis (2 subfamilies, 3 genes)

CYP17 steroid biosynthesis (1 subfamily, 1 gene) 17-alpha hydroxylase

CYP19 steroid biosynthesis (1 subfamily, 1 gene) aromatase forms estrogen

CYP20 Unknown function (1 subfamily, 1 gene)

CYP21 steroid biosynthesis (1 subfamily, 1 gene, 1 pseudogene)

CYP24 vitamin D degradation (1 subfamily, 1 gene)

Do not study!

CYP26A retinoic acid hydroxylase important in development (1 subfamily member)

CYP26B probable retinoic acid hydroxylase (1 subfamily member)

CYP26C probable retinoic acid hydroxylase (1 subfamily member)

CYP27A bile acid biosynthesis (1 subfamily member)

CYP27B Vitamin D3 1-alpha hydroxylase activates vitamin D3 (1 subfamily member)

CYP27C Unknown function (1 subfamily member)

CYP39 7 alpha hydroxylation of 24 hydroxy cholesterol (1 subfamily member)

CYP46 cholesterol 24-hydroxylase (1 subfamily member)

CYP51 cholesterol biosynthesis (1 subfamily, 1 gene, 3 pseudogenes)

lanosterol 14-alpha demethylase

Humans have 57 sequenced CYP genes and 58 pseudogenes.

only full length functional genes are named below

1A1, 1A2, 1B1,

2A6, 2A7, 2A13, 2B6, 2C8, 2C9, 2C18, 2C19, 2D6, 2E1, 2F1, 2J2, 2R1, 2S1, 2U1, 2W1,

3A4, 3A5, 3A7, 3A43,

4A11, 4A22, 4B1, 4F2, 4F3, 4F8, 4F11, 4F12, 4F22, 4V2, 4X1, 4Z1

5A1, 7A1, 7B1, 8A1, 8B1, 11A1, 11B1, 11B2, 17, 19, 20, 21A2, 24,

26A1, 26B1, 26C1, 27A1, 27B1, 27C1, 39, 46, 51

Do not study!

Reactions of endogenous CYP substrates:

synthesis of cholesterol and bile acids

CYP51= lanosterol demethylase (ER)

squalene → squalene-epoxide→→ lanosterol → cholesterol

7α-hydroxylase =

Common name Current name

Side-chain cleavage

enzyme; desmolase CYP11A1

3 β-hydroxysteroid

dehydrogenase 3 beta-HSD

17 α-hydroxylase/

17,20 lyase CYP17

21-hydroxylase CYP21A2

11 β-hydroxylase CYP11B1

Aldosterone synthase CYP11B2

Aromatase CYP19 Author: R. A. Bowen

scc = CYP11A1

Synthesis of steroid hormons

Study these structural formulas.

CYP27B1

cholecalciferol = vitamin D3 → 25-OH-cholecalciferol → 1,25-dihydroxicholecalciferol=

liver kidney, bone, placenta calcitriol (hormon)

CYP4=desaturases CYP8A1= prostacyclin synthase

linoleic ac. → arachidonic acid → prostaglandin H2 → prostacyclin

↓CYP5A1= thromboxane synthase

thromboxane

Do not study the formulas

2nd phase: Conjugation reactions

1.) glucuronidation by UDP-glucuronyl transferase

UDP-glucuronidate + drug = drug-glucuronidate + UDP

(OH, NH2, COOH csoport)

UGT1 are formed by alternative splicing – bilirubin, amines, phenols are substrates

UGT2 are formed by different genes – steroids, bile acids, opioids are substrates

It is the most frequent conjugation reaction type. Enzymes are in ER and

cytoplasm of liver, skin, breast, prostate, adipose tissue…

Xenobiotics can induce them.

bilirubin heme degradation not enough induced

product in newborn + glucuronyl transferase in liver

bilirubin-diglucuronide is not produced in liver, it is not secreted to bile,

accumulated free bilirubin in skin, mucous membranes, sclera, it is jaundice = icterus

Deficiency

Free bilirubin = lipophylic,

it binds to albumin in blood,

high amount is toxic.

Bilirubin-monoglucuronide and

bilirubin-diglucuronide are water-soluble,

secreted to bile,

gut bacteria convert them further.

Do not study the figure, only the text!

2.) Sulfatation by sulfotransferase

PAPS + drug = drug-sulfate + PAP

- alcohols, phenols, arylamines are exogenious substrates,

- steroids, heteropolysaccharides, glycolipids, glycoproteins, thyroid hormones are

endogenous substrates, the hormones are inactivated

in cytoplasm and Golgi apparate

Acidic anhydride bond

Conjugation sometimes causes activation:

adrenal cortex-derived androgen:

dihydroepiandrosterone = DHEA

hydroxysteroid sulfotransferase in steroid target cell

dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate active metabolite

Other clinical aspects

17-alfa-etinylestradiol anticontraceptive + rifampicin antituberculotic HSST inducer

sulfonated and noneffective estrogen in liver, pregnancy is possible

3-4.) glutathione conjugation by glutathione S-transferase

+ acetylation by N-acetyltransferase

GSH + drug = drug-S-glutathione → Gly + Glu + drug-S-Cys → N-acetyl-cysteinyl-drug

slow and fast acetylators according to enzyme polymorphism

isoniazid, an antituberculotic agent can be toxic in slow acetylators

GSH = glutathione = γ-glutamyl-cysteinyl-glycine tripeptide

Leukotrienes are formed by leukocytes, they take part

in inflammation. Exceptionally the glutathione

conjugation leads to activation.

Do not study the figure, just the text!

GST is in: ER, mt, px, pl.mb.

GST is induced in tumors, chemotherapy becomes

inefective. GSH pool can be depleted in minutes in liver.

5.) amino acid conjugation by: glycine, taurine, glutamine

Benzoyl-CoA+ Gly = hippurate (way of elimination of N) + CoA

Phenylacetyl-CoA + Gln = phenylacetylglutamine (way of elimination of N) + CoA

chenodeoxycholyl-CoA + taurine = taurochenodeoxycholate primary bile acid + CoA

cholyl-CoA + Gly = glycocholate primary bile acid + CoA

taurocholate

6.) methylation by methyltransferase

dopamine + SAM = methyl-dopamine (inactive) + SAH

by catechol-oximethyltransferase = COMT in catecholamine degradation

noradrenalin + SAM = adrenalin + SAH

by methyltransferase

This is the only one conjugation

reaction when the product is

slightly more lipophylic than the

substrate, but remains water-soluble

enough to become excreted.

3rd phase: excretion of lipohilic and conjugated compounds

MDR(1-P) = multidrug resistance gene product

and MRP (1-7) = multidrug resistance proteins

are members of ABC (ATP-binding casette)

transporters: when ATP is bound to their nucleotide

binding domain, the transporter opens and

molecules are pumped out.

Metabolism of vitamin D

1,25(OH)2D is the ligand of VDR (vitamin D receptor) transcription factor, it causes induction of many proteins.

CYP27B1:

1-hydroxylase

Metabolism of

β-carotene and

vitamin A

Trans-retinoic acid is the

ligand of RAR and

cis-retinoic acid is the

ligand of RXR,

these transcription factors

(RAR, RXR)

control many-many processes.

or cholesterol derivative

or bile acid

or PUFA

or vit. A derivative

or vit. D derivative

or steroid hormon

androgen receptor

estrogen rec.

glucocorticoid rec.

mineralocorticoid rec.

NR = nuclear receptors

NR = nuclear receptor = transcription factor protein that binds ligand

ligand Liver X receptor (lipid synthesis)

Farnesoid X receptor (bile acid synthesis)

Peroxisome proliferation activating receptor

without ligand NR is

in the cytoplasm

without ligand NR is in the nucleus,

it binds to DNA, but it is in repressor

protein complex, so it is inactive

Transformation of medicines and xenobiotics by

CYP enzyme system

Drug metabolizing CYP enzymes 50 % - 3A4 20 % - 2D6 15 % - 2C9, 2C19 15 % - 1A2, 2A6, 2B6 etc.

Regulation of enzyme synthesis is done by induction:

inducer: drug, chemical, pollutant, contaminant, plant compound

inducer binds to any of the following transcriptional factors: CAR, PXR,VDR

that forms a heterodimer with another transcriptional factor: RXR

own ligand binds to RXR: cis-retinoic acid

more mRNA is transcribed,

more CYP isoenzyme is translated,

bigger amount of enzymes catalyze the reactions with bigger velocity,

medicines are converted, degraded faster.

PXR-RXR PXR-RXR or

transcr.fact. CAR-RXR PXR-RXR CAR-RXR or

HNF VDR-RXR CAR-RXR VDR-RXR CYP3A4

DNA chain HNF DR3 ER6 // ER6 ⌐

xenobiotic responsive enhancer module proximal promoter

PXR= pregnane X receptor (inducers: phenobarbital, androstanol)

CAR= constitutive androstane receptor

VDR= vitamin D receptor (inducer: vit. D)

HNF = hepatic nuclear factor DR = direct repeat

RXR = retinoid X receptor ER = everted repeat = inverse direction repeat of sequence

drug = medicine VDR = vitamin D receptor

In mammals several transcription factors regulate the expression of the same gene

Acts as inducer

substrate product

Transcription factors

from gene mRNA

transcription

enzyme protein synthesis

Clinical aspects

Drug interactions, metabolism of medicines, food components and pollutants by the same enzyme

system

Substrates: these are degraded

and compete for the enzyme

Amitriptyline* (Elavil)

Benzodiazepines

Alprazolam (Xanax)

Triazolam (Halcion)

Midazolam (Versed)

Calcium blockers

Carbamazepine (Tegretol)

Cisapride (Propulsid)

Dexamethasone (Decadron)

Erythromycin

Ethinyl estradiol (Estraderm,

Estrace)

Glyburide (Glynase, Micronase)

Imipramine* (Tofranil)

Ketoconazole (Nizoral)

Lovastatin (Mevacor)

Nefazodone (Serzone)

Terfenadine (Seldane)

Astemizole (Hismanal)

Verapamil (Calan, Isoptin)

Sertraline (Zoloft)

Testosterone

Theophylline*

Venlafaxine (Effexor)

Protease inhibitors

Ritonavir (Norvir)

Saquinavir (Invirase)

Indinavir (Crixivan)

Nelfinavir (Viracept)

Inhibitors

Antidepressants

Nefazodone > fluvoxamine (Luvox) > fluoxetine

(Prozac) > sertraline

Paroxetine (Paxil)

Venlafaxine

Azole antifungals

Ketoconazole (Nizoral) > itraconazole (Sporanox)

> fluconazole (Diflucan)

Cimetidine (Tagamet)â�

Clarithromycin (Biaxin)

Diltiazem

Erythromycin

Protease inhibitors

Inducers

Carbamazepine

Dexamethasone

Phenobarbital

Phenytoin (Dilantin)

Rifampin (Rifadin, Rimactane)

CYP3A4

Inhibitors cause slower degradaton

of drug substrates, medicine

concentration remains high, can be toxic.

Inducer drugs cause faster metabolism of

substrate medicines, so medicines will not be

effective enough, they do not reach the

therapeutic concentration.

Localization of CYP3A4:

liver, GI: from esophagus till colon, resp. tract: nose and lung, kidney tubules, skin, blood cells, ovarium, testis Leydig-cells, adrenal gland zona glomerulosa, parathyroid gland, adenohypohysis

Medicines are not required to study in Biochemistry from the figure

One compound can have dual

function: a substrate and inducer

or substrate and repressor either.

CYP2D6 SUBSTRATES AND

INHIBITORS

Substrates

Antidepressants*

Amitriptyline (Elavil)

Clomipramine (Anafranil)

Desipramine (Norpramin)

Doxepin (Adapin, Sinequan)

Fluoxetine (Prozac)

Imipramine (Tofranil)

Nortriptyline (Pamelor)

Paroxetine (Paxil)

Venlafaxine (Effexor)

Antipsychotics

Haloperidol (Haldol)

Perphenazine (Etrafon, Trilafon)

Risperidone (Risperdal)

Thioridazine (Mellaril)

Beta blockers

Metoprolol (Lopressor)

Penbutolol (Levatol)

Propranolol (Inderal)*

Timolol (Blocadren)

Narcotics

Codeine, tramadol (Ultram)

Inhibitors

Antidepressants

Paroxetine > fluoxetine >

sertraline (Zoloft) > fluvoxamine

(Luvox),

Nefazodone (Serzone),

Venlafaxine > clomipramine

(Anafranil) > amitriptyline

Cimetidine (Tagamet)

Fluphenazine (Prolixin)

Antipsychotics

Haloperidol

Perphenazine

Thioridazine

Do not study!

Genetic polymorphism:

5-10% of the Caucasian and African are dificient

in catalytically active CYP2D6.

14-22% of the Asian population lack the active form of

CYP2C19.

One compound can have dual

function: a substrate and inducer

or substrate and repressor either.

Km = 0,2-2 mM

liver, stomach

Km= 8-10 mM

fatty acid oxidation ↓

gluconeogenesis ↓→ blood sugar level ↓

triglyceride synthesis ↑→ fatty liver

protein adducts provoke

immune response

ROS = reactive oxygen species =

O2-, OH˙

O

‖

Alcohol oxidation

by CYP2E1

in endoplasmatic

reticulum

Only this enzyme system

can be induced among the

ethanol degrading

enzymes,

in alcoholists its amount is

significantly increased.

The ethanol is not only a

substrate, but the inducer

of the enzyme, too.

It accelerates its own

metabolism.

CYP2E1 converts the

procarcinogen tobacco

smoke components to

carcinogens.

In newborn,

in fasting

In alcoholists

Induced in alcoholists

and persons taking

certain drugs

Most important

in adults

Most important

in child

According to the statistics in USA

alone acetaminophen is responsible for

the 1/3 of acut liver failure cases

(50% in adults and 10% in children)

among all the possible cauese: toxins, viruses,

other organ failure, mushroom, alcohol, drugs -

and it causes kidney failure too.

The benzoquinonimin intermediate

produced by CYP2E1 is very reactive:

protein adduct is immunogenic,

DNA damage is mutagenic,

ROS reaction with PUFA in membranes

causes lipid peroxidation and cell death.

CYP2E1 is induced by alcohol and

ethanol is the substrate of CYP2E1.

Metabolism of acetaminophen = paracetamol by CYP2E1

Study this figure.

Acetaminophen =

paracetamol

Do not study!

ROS = reactive oxygen species (OH˙, O2˙-,H2O2)

are produced by CYP isoenzymes in ER,

• by mitochondrial electron transport chain,

• in peroxisome during FA oxidation and

• by xanthine oxidase,

• by NADPH oxidase in cytoplasm,

• spontaneously by metal ions.

We have antioxidant, protective enzymes:

o superooxide dismutase, (SOD)

o catalase,

o glutathione peroxidase (GPX)

o thioredoxin (TRR)

o peroxiredoxin

And by antioxidant compounds:

• ascorbate = vitamin C

glutathione = GSH,

vitamin E = α-tocoferol

urate

Relationship between pesticide DDT, hormon

metabolism and BIOTRANSFORMATION enzymes

DDT = dichlordiphenyl-trichloretane is an

insecticide. Insect-killing effect was

discovered in 1934. In world war II the DDT

was used against louse, flea and in tropic

countries against malaria and yellow fever

spreding mosquitoes, against thyphus,

plague = pestilence, colorado-beetle.

Rate of degradation of DDT in soil,

water, plant, animal is 0-5% / year. It is

accumulated in fat and milk. Most, but

not all countries have withdrawn it from

the market, now Mexico, China, India

etc. produce it.

Europe and North America gets DDT back

with Brasil crude coffee bean,

African cocoa seeds and chocolate,

Chineese peanut, Spanish and Greek etc. orange peel.

Most polluted countries: Costa Rica, Zaire, India,

Mexico, Pakistan, China

The effect of DDT (dichlorodiphenyl-trichlorethane) insecticid or its degradation product

DDE in animals and human:

a) induces aromatase → testosteron is converted to estrogen in males (and females)

b) CYP2B and CYP3A enzymes are induced → testosteron hydroxylation and

inactivation is accelerated,

degradation of 70 % of medicines is increased, drugs have no effect

c) sulfotransferase enzyme is induced → testosteron and other steroid hormon

sulfatation and inactivation is faster

d) it has a direct androgen receptor antagonist effect

Because of above mentioned effects in

embryo, the inner gonad formation is

disturebed,

in adult males the androgen is inactivated,

the male is femininized, becomes impotent.

The similar dicofol, endosulfan and

methoxychlor are used in USA, too.

CYP1A2 SUBSTRATES, INHIBITORS AND INDUCERS

Substrates Smokers requier higher dose of

Amitriptyline* (Elavil) theophylline and other drug

Clomipramine (Anafranil)*

Clozapine (Clozaril)* in war in VIETNAM 1962-1971 the herbicide

Imipramine (Tofranil)* agent orange = phenoxy-acetate + TCCD

Propranolol (Inderal)* as contaminant was used

R-warfarin*

Theophylline* TCCD is strong CYP1A inducer,

Tacrine (Cognex) the strongest carcinogen

Inhibitors

Fluvoxamine (Luvox)

Grapefruit juice

Quinolones

Ciprofloxacin (Cipro)

Enoxacin (Penetrex) > norfloxacin (Noroxin) >

ofloxacin (Floxin) > lomefloxacin (Maxaquin)

Inducers

Omeprazole (Prilosec)

Phenobarbital

Phenytoin (Dilantin)

Rifampin (Rifadin, Rimactane)

Smoking

Charcoal-broiled meat*

TCCD

R-Warfarin is an antithrombotic drug, a vitamin K

antagonist, that prevents formation of prothrombin

in liver. If a CYPA2 inducer drug is added together

with Warfarin, bigger amount of enzymes will fast

degrade Warfarin, so the ineffective dose can not

prevent new thrombus formation.

If CYP2A2 inhibitor = repressor drug is added

together with Warfarin, it is not degraded, its

concentration is toxically high, and in case of

hurt of the patient, the bleeding will not stop.

Do not study the drugs

Agent Orange Agent Orange is the code name for one of the herbicides and defoliants used by the U.S. military as part of its

herbicidal warfare program, Operation Ranch Hand, during the Vietnam War from 1961 to 1971. Vietnam

estimates 400,000 people being killed or maimed, and 500,000 children born with birth defects.[1]

A 50:50 mixture of 2,4,5-T and 2,4-D, it was manufactured for the U.S. Department of Defense primarily by

Monsanto Corporation and Dow Chemical. The 2,4,5-T used to produce Agent Orange was later discovered to

be contaminated with 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxin, an extremely toxic dioxin compound. It was given its

name from the color of the orange-striped 55 US gallon (200 L) barrels in which it was shipped, and was by far

the most widely used of the so-called “Rainbow Herbicides”.[2]

During the Vietnam War, between 1962 and 1971, the United States military sprayed 12,000,000 US gallons

(50,000,000 L) of chemical herbicides and defoliants in Vietnam, eastern Laos and parts of Cambodia, as part

of Operation Ranch Hand.[3] The program’s goal was to defoliate forested and rural land, depriving guerrillas of

cover; another goal was to induce forced draft urbanization, destroying the ability of peasants to support

themselves in the countryside, and forcing them to flee to the U.S. dominated cities, thus depriving the guerrillas

of their rural support base and food supply

180 millió $ kártérítés 45%-át a Monsato fizette a 210 000 veteránnak.

Do not study

Viktor Juscsenko in 2004 and before

Do not study

with metabolizable inducers: with permanently present inducers (TCCD)

aromatic hydrocarbones

dietary plant constituents

tryptophan derivatives TCCD = terachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (inducers)

↓ ↓

AhR = aromatic hydrocarbone receptor (transcription factor)

↓

forms heterodimer with Arnt = aromatic hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator

↓

AhR-Arnt translocation to nucleus and reacts with XREs =xenobiotic response elements =

AhREs = aromatic hydrocarbon responsive elements in the DNA

↓ ↓

biotransformation enzymes induced skin toxicity: chloracne (Viktor Juscsenko)

antioxidant enzymes induced teratogenic response (abnormal emmbryo)

cdk inhibitors induced (cell cycle inhibited) immunosuppression (low immune response)

proapoptotic Bax induced carcinogenesis

IL-2 for T-cells activation of MAPK cascade and

cell proliferation

abnormal hormon metabolism

neurotoxical effect

liver failure

cardiotoxic effect

Aflatoxins are made by Aspergillus

molds (Aspergillus flavus és az Aspergillus

parasiticus), they are toxic compounds and substrates

of CYP1A2. Aflatoxins and these molds are found

mainly in tropical rainy countries on different nuts,

coffee and cereals. Small doses are carcinogenic, big

doses cause acut poisoning.

CYP1A2

CYP3A4

o o

o

o o

Do not study!

CYP1A2

This compound is found

in cigarett smoke, too.

Do not study!

PAH = polyaromatic hydrocarbon

Do not study!

aflatoxin

Enzymatic conversion of some selected human carcinogens towards their

ultimate DNA-reactive metabolites. Nature Reviews Cancer 5, 113-125

Benzo-α-pyrene

Do not study!

Polyaromatic carbohydrogens found in the smoke of cigarett or

charcoal are oxidated and become more water-soluble, at the same

time more toxic, they cause base-modification in DNA and lipid

peroxidation in membranes

do not study!