BiologyLife on Earth with Physiology

Audesirk Audesirk ByersTenth Edition

Biology Aud

esirk Aud

esirk Byers Tenth Edition

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Biology: Pearson New International Edition

Table of Contents

Front Cover

Table of Contents

Chapter 1: An Introduction to Life on Earth1: What is Life?

Organisms Acquire and use Materials and Energy

Organisms Actively Maintain Organized Complexity

Organisms Perceive and Respond to stimuli

Organisms Grow

Organisms Reproduce

Organisms, Collectively, have the Capacity to Evolve

2: What is Evolution?Three Natural Processes Underlie Evolution

3: How Do Scientists Study Life?Life Can Be studied at Different Levels

Biologists Classify Organisms Based on their Evolutionary Relationships

4: What is Science?Science is Based on the Principle that all Events have Natural Causes

The Scientific Method is an Important Tool of Scientific Inquiry

Biologists Test Hypotheses Using Controlled Experiments

Scientific Theories have been thoroughly Tested

Science is a Human Endeavor

Chapter Review

Chapter 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Life1: What are Atoms?

Atoms are the Basic Structural Units of Elements

Atoms are Composed of Still Smaller Particles

Elements are Defined by their Aomic Numbers

Isotopes are Atoms of the same Element with Different Numbers of Neutrons

Nuclei and Electrons Play Complementary Roles in Atoms

2: How do Atoms Interact to Form Molecules?Atoms Form Molecules to Fill Vacancies in their Outer Electron Shells

Chemical Bonds Hold Atoms together in Molecules

Ionic Bonds Form Among Ions

Covalent Bonds Form by Sharing Electrons

Covalent Bonds May Produce Nonpolar or Polar Molecules

Hydrogen Bonds are Attractive Forces between Certain Polar Molecules

3: Why is Water so Important to Life?Water Molecules Attract One Another

Table of Contents

Water Interacts with many other Molecules

Water Moderates the Effects of Temperature Changes

Water Forms an Unusual Solid: Ice

Water-Based Solutions can be Acidic, Basic, or Neutral

Chapter Review

Chapter 3: Biological Molecules1: Why is Carbon so Important in Biological Molecules?

The Unique Bonding Properties of Carbon are Key to the Complexity of Organic

Molecules

2: How are Organic Molecules Synthesized?Biological Polymers are Formed by Removing Water and Split Apart by Adding Water

3: What are Carbohydrates?There are Several Monosaccharides with Slightly Different Structures

Disaccharides Consist of Two Monosaccharides Linked by Dehydration Synthesis

Polysaccharides are Chains of Monosaccharides

4: What are Lipids?Oils, Fats, and Waxes are Lipids Containing Only Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen

Phospholipids have Water-SolubleHeads and Water-Insoluble Tails

Steroids Contain Four Fused Carbon Rings

5: What are Proteins?Proteins are Formed from Chains of Amino Acids

Amino Acids are Joined by Dehydration Synthesis

A Protein Can have as Manyas Four Levels of Structure

The Functions of Proteins are Related to their Three-Dimensional Structures

6: What are Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids?Nucleotides Act as Energy Carriers and Intracellular Messengers

DNA and RNA, the Molecules of Heredity, are Nucleic Acids

Chapter Review

Chapter 4: Cell Structure and Function1: What is the Cell Theory?

2: What are the Basic Attributes of Cells?All Cells Share Common Features

There are Two Basic Types of Cells: Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic

3: What are the Major Features of Eukaryotic Cells?Some Eukaryotic Cells are Supported by Cell Walls

The Cytoskeleton Provides Shape, Support, and Movement

Cilia and Flagella Move the Cell through Fluid or Move Fluid Past the Cell

The Nucleus, Containing DNA, is the Control Center of the Eukaryotic Cell

Eukaryotic Cytoplasm Contains Membranes that form the Endomembrane System

Vacuoles Serve Many Functions, Including Water Regulation, Storage, and Support

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Mitochondria Extract Energy from Food Molecules and Chloroplasts Capture Solar

Energy

Plants use Some Plastids for Storage

4: What are the Major Features of Prokaryotic Cells?Prokaryotic Cells Possess Specialized Surface Features

Prokaryotic Cells have Fewer Specialized Cytoplasmic Structures than do

Eukaryotic Cells

Chapter Review

Chapter 5: Cell Membrane Structure and Function1: How is the Structureof the Cell Membrane Related to its Function?

Membranes are Fluid Mosaics in which Proteins Move within Layers of Lipids

The Fluid Phospholipid Bilayer Helps to Isolate the Cells Contents

A Variety of Proteins form a Mosaic within the Membrane

2: How do Substances Move Across Membranes?Molecules in Fluids Diffuse in Response to Gradients

Movement through Membranes Occurs by Passive Transport and Energy-Requiring

Transport

Passive transport includes Simple Diffusion, Facilitated Diffusion, and Osmosis

Energy-Requiring Transport Includes Active Transport, Endocytosis, and

Exocytosis

Exchange of Materials Across Membranes Influences Cell Size and Shape

3: How do Specialized Junctions allow cells to connect and communicate?Desmosomes Attach Cells Together

Tight Junctions make Cell Attachments Leakproof

Gap Junctions and Plasmodesmata Allow Direct Communication between Cells

Chapter Review

Chapter 6: Energy Flow in the Life of a Cell1: What is Energy?

The Laws of Thermodynamics describe the Basic Properties of Energy

Living Things use the Energy of Sunlight to Create the Low-Entropy Conditions of

Life

2: How is Energy Transformed during Chemical Reactions?Exergonic Reactions Release Energy

Endergonic Reactions Require a Net Input of Energy

3: How is Energy Transported within Cells?ATP and Electron Carriers Transport Energy within Cells

Coupled Reactions Link Exergonic with Endergonic Reactions

4: How do Enzymes Promote Biochemical Reactions?Catalysts Reduce the Energy Required to Start a Reaction

Enzymes are Biological Catalysts

5: How are Enzymes Regulated?

Table of Contents

Cells Regulate Metabolic Pathways by Controlling Enzyme Synthesis and Activity

Poisons, Drugs, and Environmental Conditions influence Enzyme Activity

Chapter Review

Chapter 7: Capturing Solar Energy: Photosynthesis1: What is Photosynthesis?

Leaves and Chloroplasts are Adaptationsfor Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis Consists of the Light Reactions and the Calvin Cycle

2: The Light Reactions: How is Light Energy Converted to Chemical Energy?Light is Captured by Pigments in Chloroplasts

The Light Reactions Occur in Association with the Thylakoid Membranes

3: The Calvin Cycle: How is Chemical Energy Stored in Sugar Molecules?The Calvin Cycle Captures Carbon Dioxide

Carbon Fixed During the Calvin Cycleis Used to Synthesize Glucose

Chapter Review

Chapter 8: Harvesting Energy: Glycolysis and Cellular Respiration1: How do Cells Obtain Energy?

Photosynthesis is the Ultimate Source of Cellular Energy

Glucose is a Key Energy-Storage Molecule

2: What Happens During Glycolysis?

3: What Happens During Cellular Respiration?During the First Stage of Cellular Respiration, Pyruvate is Broken Down

During the Second Stage of Cellular Respiration, High-Energy Electrons Travel

through the Electron Transport Chain

During the Third Stage of Cellular Respiration, Chemiosmosis Generates ATP

Cellular Respiration Can Extract Energy from a Variety of Molecules

4: What Happens during Fermentation?Fermentation Allows NAD+ to be Recycled When Oxygen is Absent

Some Cells Ferment Pyruvate to Form Lactate

Chapter Review

Chapter 9: The Continuity of Life: Cellular Reproduction1: Why Do Cells Divide?

Cell Division Transmits Hereditary Information to each Daughter Cell

Cell Division is Required for Growth and Development

Cell Division is Required for Sexual and Asexual Reproduction

2: What Occurs during the Prokaryotic Cell Cycle?

3: How is the DNA in Eukaryotic Chromosomes Organized?The Eukaryotic Chromosome Consists of a Linear DNA Double Helix Bound to

Proteins

Genes are Segments of the DNA of a Chromosome

Duplicated Chromosomes Separate During Cell Division

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Eukaryotic Chromosomes Usually Occur in Pairs Containing Similar Genetic

Information

4: What Occurs during the Eukaryotic Cell Cycle?The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle Consists of Interphase and Mitotic Cell Division

5: How Does Mitotic Cell Division Produce Genetically Identical Daughter Cells?During Prophase, the Chromosomes Condense, the Spindle Microtubules Form, the

Nuclear Envelope Breaks Down, and the Chromosomes are Captured by the Spindle

Microtubules

During Metaphase, the Chromosomes Line Up Along the Equator of the Cell

During Anaphase, Sister Chromatids Separate and are Pulled to Opposite Poles of

the Cell

During Telophase, a Nuclear Envelope Forms Around each Group of Chromosomes

During Cytokinesis, the Cytoplasm is Divided between two Daughter Cells

6: How is the Cell Cycle Controlled?The Activities of Specific Proteins Drive the Cell Cycle

Checkpoints Regulate Progress through the Cell Cycle

7: Why Do So many Organisms Reproduce Sexually?Sexual Reproduction may Combine Different Parental Alleles in a Single Offspring

8: How Does Meiotic Cell Division Produce Haploid Cells?Meiosis I Separates Homologous Chromosomes into Two Haploid Daughter Nuclei

Meiosis II Separates Sister Chromatids into Four Daughter Nuclei

9: When Do Mitotic and Meiotic Cell Division Occur in the Life Cycles ofEukaryotes?

In Diploid Life Cycles, the Majority of the Cycle is Spent as Diploid Cells

In Haploid Life Cycles, the Majority of the Cycle is Spent as Haploid Cells

In Alternation of Generations life Cycles, There are both Diploid and Haploid

Multicellular Stages

10: How Do Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction Produce Genetic Variability?Shuffling of Homologues Creates Novel Combinations of Chromosomes

Crossing over Creates Chromosomes with Novel Combinations of Genes

Fusion of Gametes Adds Further Genetic Variability to the Offspring

Chapter Review

Chapter 10: Patterns of Inheritance10.1: What is the Physical Basis of Inheritance?

Genes are Sequences of Nucleotides at Specific Locations on Chromosomes

Mutations are the Source of Alleles

An Organisms Two Alleles may be the Same or Different

10.2: How were the Principles of Inheritance Discovered?Doing it Right: The Secrets of Mendels Success

10.3: How are Single Traits Inherited?The Inheritance of Dominant and Recessive Alleles on Homologous Chromosomes Can

Table of Contents

Explain the Results of Mendels CrossesSimple Genetic Bookkeeping Can Predict Genotypes and Phenotypes of Offspring

Mendels Hypothesis Can be used to Predict the Outcome of New Types of

Single-Trait Crosses

10.4: How are Multiple Traits Inherited?Mendel Hypothesized that Traits are Inherited Independently

In an Unprepared World, Genius May Go Unrecognized

10.5: Do the Mendelian Rules of Inheritance Apply to all Traits?In Incomplete Dominance, the Phenotype of Heterozygotes is Intermediate between

the Phenotypes of the Homozygotes

A single Gene May have Multiple Alleles

Many Traits are Influenced by Several Genes

Single Genes Typically have Multiple Effects on Phenotype

The Environment Influences the Expression of Genes

10.6: How are Genes Located on the Same Chromosome Inherited?Genes on the Same Chromosome Tend to be Inherited Together

Crossing Over Creates New Combinations of Linked Alleles

10.7: How are Sex and Sex-Linked Traits Inherited?In Mammals, the Sex of an Offspring is Determined by the Sex Chromosome in the

Sperm

Sex-Linked Genes are Found only on the X or only on the Y Chromosome

10.8: How are Human Genetic Disorders Inherited?Some Human Genetic Disorders are Controlled by Single Genes

Some Human Genetic Disorders are Caused by Abnormal Numbers of Chromosomes

Chapter Review

Chapter 11: DNA: The Molecule of Heredity1: How did Scientists Discover that Genes are made of DNA?

Transformed Bacteria Revealed the Link between Genes and DNA

2: What is the Structure of DNA?DNA is Composed of Four Nucleotides

DNA is a Double Helix of two Nucleotide Strands

Hydrogen Bonds between Complementary Bases Hold two DNA Strands together in a

Double Helix

3: How Does DNA Encode Genetic Information?Genetic Information is Encodedin the Sequence of Nucleotides

4: How does DNA Replication Ensure Genetic Constancy During Cell Division?DNA Replication Produces Two DNA Double Helices, Each with One Original Strand

and One New Strand

5: What are Mutations, and How do they Occur?Accurate Replication, Proofreading, and DNA Repair Produce Almost Error-Free DNA

Toxic Chemicals, Radiation, and Occasional Errors During DNA Replication Cause

Table of Contents

MutationsMutations Range from Changes in Single Nucleotide Pairs to Movements of Large

Pieces of Chromosomes

Chapter Review

Chapter 12: Gene Expression and Regulation1: How is the Information in DNA Used in a Cell

Most Genes Contain the Information Needed to Synthesize a Protein

DNA Provides Instructions for Protein Synthesis via RNA Intermediaries

Overview: Genetic Information is Transcribed into RNA and then Translated into

Protein

The Genetic Code Uses three Bases to Specify an Amino Acid

2: How is the Informationin a Gene transcribed into RNA?Transcription Begins when RNA Polymerase Binds to the Promoter of a Gene

Elongation Generates a Growing Strand of RNA

Transcription Stops When RNA Polymerase Reaches the Termination Signal

3: How is the Base Sequence of mRNA Translated into Protein?In Eukaryotes, a Precursor RNA is Processed to Form mRNA that is Translated into

Protein

During Translation, mRNA, tRNA, and Ribosomes Cooperate to Synthesize Proteins

4: How do Mutations Affect Protein Structure and Function?The Effects of Mutations Depend on how they Alter the Codons of mRNA

5: How is Gene Expression Regulated?In Prokaryotes, Gene Expression is Primarily Regulated at the Level of

Transcription

In Eukaryotes, Gene Expression is Regulated at many Levels

Chapter Review

Chapter 13: Principles of Evolution1: How did Evolutionary thought Develop?

Early Biological thought did not include the Concept of Evolution

Exploration of New Lands Revealed a Staggering Diversity of Life

A Few Scientists Speculated that Life had Evolved

Fossil Discoveries Showed that Life has Changed over Time

Some Scientists Devised Nonevolutionary Explanations for Fossils

Geology Provided Evidence that Earth is Exceedingly Old

Some Pre-Darwin Biologists Proposed Mechanisms for Evolution

Darwin and Wallace Proposed a Mechanism of Evolution

2: How does Natural Selection Work?Darwin and Wallaces Theory Rests on Four Postulates

Postulate 1: Individuals in a Population Vary

Postulate 2: Traits are Passed from Parent to Offspring

Postulate 3: Some Individuals Fail to Survive and Reproduce

Table of Contents

Postulate 4: Survival and Reproduction are not Determined by Chance

Natural Selection Modifies Populations over Time

3: How Do we know that Evolution has Occurred?Fossils provide Evidence of Evolutionary Change over Time

Comparative Anatomy Gives Evidence of Descent with Modification

Embryological Similarity Suggests Common Ancestry

Modern Biochemical and Genetic Analyses Reveal Relatedness Among Diverse

Organisms

4: What is the Evidence that Populations Evolve by Natural Selection?Controlled Breeding Modifies Organisms

Evolution by Natural Selection Occurs Today

Chapter Review

Chapter 14: How Populations Evolve1: How are Populations, Genes, and Evolution Related?

Genes and the Environment interact to Determine Traits

The Gene Pool Comprises all of the Alleles in a Population

Evolution is the Change of Allele Frequencies within a Population

The Equilibrium Populationis a Hypothetical Population in which Evolution does

not Occur

2: What Causes Evolution?Mutations are the Original Source of Genetic Variability

Gene Flow between Populations Changes Allele Frequencies

Allele Frequencies May Change by Chance in small Populations

Mating within a Population is Almost Never Random

All Genotypes are not Equally Beneficial

3: How does Natural Selection Work?Natural Selection Stems from Unequal Reproduction

Natural Selection Acts on Phenotypes

Natural Selection Acts on Phenotypes

Some Phenotypes Reproduce more Successfully than Others

Sexual Selection Favors Traits that Help an Organism Mate

Selection can Influence Populations in Three Ways

Chapter Review

Chapter 15: The Origin of Species1: What is a species?

Each Species Evolves Independently

Appearance can be Misleading

2: How is Reproductive Isolation between Species Maintained?Premating Isolating Mechanisms Prevent Mating Between Species

Postmating Isolating Mechanisms Limit Hybrid Offspring

3: How Do New Species Form?

Table of Contents

Geographic Separation of a Population can Lead to Allopatric Speciation

Genetic Isolation without Geographic Separation can Lead to Sympatric Speciation

Under Some Conditions, Many New Species may Arise

4: What Causes Extinction?Localized Distribution makes Species Vulnerable

Overspecialization Increases the Risk of Extinction

Interactions with Other Species May Drive a Species to Extinction

Habitat Change and Destruction are the Leading Causes of Extinction

Chapter Review

Chapter 16: The History of Life1: How did Life Begin?

The First Living things Arose from Nonliving Ones

RNA may have been the First Self-Reproducing Molecule

Membrane-Like Vesicles may have Enclosed Ribozymes

But did all this Really Happen?

2: What were the Earliest Organisms Like?The First Organisms were Anaerobic Prokaryotes

Some Organisms Evolved the Ability to Capture the Suns Energy

Aerobic Metabolism Arose in Response to Dangers Posed by Oxygen

Some Organisms Acquired Membrane-Enclosed Organelles

3: What were the Earliest Multicellular Organisms Like?Some Algae Became Multicellular

Animal Diversity Arose in the Precambrian Era

4: How did Life Invade the Land?Some Plants Became Adapted to Life on Dry Land

Some Animals became Adapted to Life on Dry Land

5: What Role has Extinction Played in the History of Life?Evolutionary History has been Marked by Periodic Mass Extinctions

6: How did Humans Evolve?Humans Inherited Some Early Primate Adaptations for Life in Trees

The Oldest Hominin Fossils are from Africa

The Genus Homo Diverged from the Australopithecines 2.5 Million Years Ago

The Evolution of Homo was Accompanied by Advances in Tool Technology

Modern Humans Emerged Less than 200,000 Years Ago

The Evolutionary Origin of Large Brains may be Related to Meat Consumption and

Cooking

Sophisticated Culture Arose Relatively Recently

Chapter Review

Chapter 17: Systematics: Seeking Order Amid Diversity1: How are Organisms Named and Classified?

Table of Contents

Each Species Has a Unique, Two-Part Name

Modern Classification Emphasizes Patterns of Evolutionary Descent

Systematists Identify Features that Reveal Evolutionary Relationships

Modern Systematics Relies on Molecular Similarities to Reconstruct Phylogeny

Systematists Name Groups of Related Species

Use of Taxonomic Ranks is Declining

2: What are the Domains of Life?

3: Why do Classifications Change?Species Designations Change when New Information is Discovered

The Biological Species Definition can be Difficult or Impossible to Apply

4: How many Species Exist?

Chapter Review

Chapter 18: The Diversity of Prokaryotes and Viruses1: Which Organisms are Members of the Domains Archaea and Bacteria?

Bacteria and Archaea are Fundamentally Different

Classification of Prokaryotes within each Domain is Difficult

2: How do Prokaryotes Survive and Reproduce?Some Prokaryotes are Motile

Many Bacteria form Protective Films on Surfaces

Protective Endospores Allow Some Bacteria to withstand Adverse Conditions

Prokaryotes are Specialized for Specific Habitats

Prokaryotes Reproduce by Fission

Prokaryotes may Exchange Genetic Material without Reproducing

3: How do Prokaryotes Affect Humans and other OrganismsProkaryotes Play Important Roles in Animal Nutrition

Prokaryotes Capture the Nitrogen Needed by Plants

Prokaryotes are Natures Recyclers

Prokaryotes can Clean up Pollution

Some Bacteria Pose a Threat to Human Health

4: What are Viruses, Viroids, and Prions?A Virus Consists of a Molecule of DNA Or RNA Surrounded by a Protein Coat

Viruses Require a Host to Reproduce

Some Infectious Agentsare even Simpler than Viruses

No One is Certain How these Infectious Particles Originated

Chapter Review

Chapter 19: The Diversity of Protists1: What are Protists?

Protists Use Diverse Modes of Nutrition

Protists Use Diverse Modes of Reproduction

Protists affect Humans and Other Organisms

Table of Contents

2: What are the Major Groups of Protists?Excavates Lack Mitochondria

Euglenozoans have Distinctive Mitochondria

Stramenopiles have Distinctive Flagella

Alveolates Include Parasites, Predators, and Phytoplankton

Rhizarians have thin Pseudopods

Amoebozoans have Pseudopods and No Shells

Red Algae Contain Red Photosynthetic Pigments

Green Algae are Closely Related to Land Plants

Chapter Review

Chapter 20: The Diversity of Plants1: What are the Key Features of Plants?

Plants are Photosynthetic

Plants have Multicellular, Dependent Embryos

Plants have Alternating Multicellular Haploid and Diploid Generations

2: How have Plants Evolved?The Ancestors of Plants Lived in Water

Early Plants Invaded Land

Plant Bodies Evolved to Resist Gravity and Drying

Plants evolved Protection for their Embryos and Sex Cells that Disperse without

Water

More Recently Evolved Plants have Smaller Gametophytes

3: What are the Major Groups of Plants?Nonvascular Plants Lack Conducting Structures

Vascular Plants have Conducting Cells that also Provide Support

The Seedless Vascular Plants Include the Club Mosses, Horsetails, and Ferns

The Seed Plants are Aided by Two Important Adaptations: Pollen and Seeds

Gymnosperms are Nonflowering Seed Plants

Angiosperms are Flowering Seed Plants

4: How do Plants affect other Organisms?Plants Play a Crucial Ecological Role

Plants Provide Humans with Necessities and Luxuries

Chapter Review

Chapter 21: The Diversity of Fungi1: What are the Key Features of Fungi?

Fungal Bodies Consist of Slender Threads

Fungi Obtain their Nutrients from other Organisms

Fungi can Reproduce both Asexually and Sexually

2: What are the Major Groups of Fungi?Chytrids, Blastoclades, and Rumen Fungi Produce Swimming Spores

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Chytrids are Mostly Aquatic

Rumen Fungi Live in Animal Digestive Tracts

Blastoclades have a Nuclear Cap

Glomeromycetes Associate with Plant Roots

Basidiomycetes Produce Club-Shaped Reproductive Structures

Ascomycetes form Spores in a Saclike Case

Bread Molds are Among the Fungi that can Reproduce by Forming Diploid Spores

3: How do Fungi Interact with other Species?Lichens are Formed by Fungi that Live with Photosynthetic Algae or Bacteria

Mycorrhizae are Fungi Associated with Plant Roots

Endophytes are Fungi that Live Inside Plant Stems and Leaves

Some Fungi are Important Decomposers

4: How do Fungi affect Humans?Fungi Attack Plants that are Important to People

Fungi Cause human Diseases

Fungi can Produce Toxins

Many Antibiotics are Derived from Fungi

Fungi Make Important Contributions to Gastronomy

Wine and Beer are made Using Yeasts

Yeasts make Bread Rise

Chapter Review

Chapter 22: Animal Diversity I: Invertebrates1: What are the Key Features of Animals?

2: Which Anatomical Features mark Branch Points on the Animal Evolutionary Tree?Lack of Tissues Separates Sponges from all Other Animals

Animals with Tissues Exhibit either Radial or Bilateral Symmetry

Most Bilateral Animals have Body Cavities

Bilateral Organisms Developin One of Two Ways

Protostomes include two Distinct Evolutionary Lines

3: What are the Major Animal Phyla?Sponges are Simple, Sessile Animals

Cnidarians are Well-Armed Predators

Comb Jellies Use Cilia to Move

Flatworms may be Parasitic or Free Living

Annelids are Segmented Worms

Most Mollusks have Shells

Arthropods are the Most Diverse and Abundant Animals

Roundworms are Abundant and Mostly Tiny

Echinoderms have a Calcium Carbonate Skeleton

The Chordates Include the Vertebrates

Chapter Review

Table of Contents

Chapter 23: Animal Diversity II: Vertebrates1: What are the Key Features of Chordates?

All Chordates Share Four Distinctive Structures

2: Which Animals are Chordates?Tunicates Include Sea Squirts and Salps

Lancelets are Marine Filter-Feeders

Craniates have a Skull

3: What are the Major Groups of Vertebrates?Some Lampreys Parasitize Fish

Cartilaginous Fishes are Marine Predators

Ray-Finned Fishes are the Most Diverse Vertebrates

Coelacanths and Lungfishes have Lobed Fins

Amphibians Live a Double Life

Reptiles are Adapted for Life on Land

Mammals Provide Milk to their Offspring

Chapter Review

Chapter 24: Animal Behavior1: How do Innate and Learned Behaviors Differ?

Innate Behaviors can be Performed without Prior Experience

Learned Behaviors Require Experience

There is No Sharp Distinction between Innate and Learned Behaviors

2: How do Animals Communicate?Visual Communication is Most effective Over Short Distances

Communication by Sound is Effective Over Longer Distances

Chemical Messages Persist Longer but are Hard to Vary

Communication by Touch Helps Establish Social Bonds

3: How do Animals Compete for Resources?Aggressive Behavior Helps Secure Resources

Dominance Hierarchies Help manage Aggressive Interactions

Animals may Defend Territories that Contain Resources

4: How Do Animals Find Mates?Signals Encode Sex, Species, and Individual Quality

5: Why Do Animals Play?Animals Play Alone or with Other Animals

Play Aids Behavioral Development

6: What Kinds of Societies Do Animals Form?Group Living hhas Advantages and Disadvantages

Sociality Varies among Species

Forming Groups with Relatives Fosters the Evolution of Altruism

Honeybees Live Together in Rigidly Structured Societies

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Naked Mole Rats form a Complex Vertebrate Society

7: Can Biology Explain Human Behavior?The Behavior of Newborn Infants has a Large Innate Component

Young Humans Acquire Language Easily

Behaviors Shared by Diverse Cultures may be Innate

Humans may Respond to Pheromones

Studies of Twins Reveal Genetic Components of Behavior

Biological Investigation of Human Behavior is Controversial

Chapter Review

Chapter 25: Population Growth and Regulation1: How does Population size Change?

Changes in Population Size Result from Natural Increases and Net Migration

Biotic Potential Determines the Maximum Rate at which a Population can Grow

2: How is Population Growth Regulated?Exponential Growth Occurs Only Under Unusual Conditions

Environmental Resistance Limits Population Growth

3: How are Populations Distributed in Space and Age?Populations Exhibit Different Spatial Distributions

Populations Exhibit Different Age Distributions

4: How is the Human Population Changing?The Human Population Continues to Grow Rapidly

A Series of Advances has Increased Earths Capacity to Support People

The Demographic Transition Explains Trends in Population Size

World Population Growth is Unevenly Distributed

The Age Structure of a Population Predictsits Future Growth

Fertility in Some Nations is below Replacement Level

The U.S. Population is Growing Rapidly

Chapter Review

Chapter 26: Community Interactions1: Why are Community Interactions Important?

2: How Does the Ecological Niche Influence Competition?Competition Occurs whenever Two Organisms attempt to Use the Same, Limited

Resources

Adaptations Reduce the Overlap of Ecological Niches Among Coexisting Species

Competition among Species may Reduce the Population Size and Distribution of

each

Competition within a Species is a Major Factor Controlling Population Size

3: How Do PredatorPrey Interactions Shape Evolutionary Adaptations?Some Predators and Prey have Evolved Counteracting Adaptations

Predators and Prey may Engage in Chemical Warfare

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Looks can be Deceiving for both Predators and Prey

4: What are Parasitism and Mutualism?Parasites and their Hosts Act as Agents of Natural Selection on One Another

Both Species Benefit from Mutualistic Interactions

5: How Do Keystone Species Influence Community Structure?

6: How Do Community Interactions Cause Change Over Time?There are Two major Forms of Succession: Primary and Secondary

Succession Culminates in a Climax Community

Some Ecosystems are Maintained in Subclimax Stages

Chapter Review

Chapter 27: Energy Flow and Nutrient Cyclingin Ecosystems1: How Do Nutrients and Energy move through Ecosystems?

2: How does Energy Flow through Ecosystems?Energy Enters Ecosystems through Photosynthesis

Energy is Passed from One Trophiclevel to the Next

Net Primary Production is a Measureof the energy stored in Producers

Food Chains and Food Webs Describe Feeding Relationships within Communities

Energy Transfer Between Trophic Levels is Inefficient

3: How Do Nutrients Cycle within and Among Ecosystems?The Hydrologic Cycle has its Major Reservoir in the Oceans

The Carbon Cycle has Major Reservoirs in the Atmosphere and Oceans

The Nitrogen cycle has its Major Reservoir in the Atmosphere

The Phosphorus Cycle has its Major Reservoir in Rock

4: What Happens When Humans Disrupt Nutrient Cycles?Overloading the Nitrogen And Phosphorus Cycles Damages Aquatic Ecosystems

Overloading the Sulfur and Nitrogen Cycles Causes Acid Deposition

Interfering with the Carbon Cycleis Changing Earths Climate

Chapter Review

Chapter 28: Earths Diverse Ecosystems1: What Determines the Distribution of Life on Earth?

2: What Factors Influence Earths Climate?Earths Curvature and Tilt on its Axis Determine the Angle at Which Sunlight

Strikes the Surface

Air Currents Produce Large-Scale Climatic Zones that Differ in Temperature and

Precipitation

Climate Variability is affected by Proximity to Oceans

Mountains Complicate Climate Patterns

3: What are the Principal Terrestrial Biomes?Tropical Rain Forests

Tropical Scrub Forests and Savannas

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Deserts

Chaparral

Grasslands

Temperate Deciduous Forests

Temperate Rain Forests

Northern Coniferous Forests

Tundra

4: What are the Principal Aquatic Biomes?Freshwater Lakes

Streams and Rivers

Freshwater Wetlands

Marine Biomes

Chapter Review

Chapter 29: Conserving Earths Biodiversity1: What is Conservation Biology?

2: Why is Biodiversity Important?Ecosystem Services are practical Uses for Biodiversity

Ecological Economics attempts to Measure the Monetary Value of Ecosystem

Services

Biodiversity Supports Ecosystem Function

3: Is Earths Biodiversity Diminishing?Extinction is a Natural Process, but Rates have Risen Dramatically in Recent

Years

4: What are the Major Threats to Biodiversity?Humanitys Ecological Footprint Exceeds Earths Resources

Human Activities Directly Threaten Biodiversity

5: How can Conservation Biology Help to Preserve Biodiversity?Habitat Preservation is Essentialto Preserving Biodiversity

6: Why is sustainability Essential for a Healthy Future?Sustainable Development Promotes Long-Term Ecological and Human Well-Being

The Future of Earth is in your Hands

Chapter Review

Chapter 30: Homeostasis and the Organization of the Animal Body1: Homeostasis: How do Animals Regulate their Internal Environment?

The Internal Environment is Maintained in a State of Dynamic Constancy

Animals Vary in their Homeostatic Abilities

Feedback Systems Regulate Internal Conditions

2: How is the Animal Body Organized?Animal Tissues are Composed of Similar Cells that Perform a Specific Function

Organs Include Two or more Interacting Tissue Types

Table of Contents

Organ Systems Consist of Two or more Interacting Organs

Chapter Review

Chapter 31: Circulation1: What are the Major Features and Functions of Circulatory Systems?

Two Types of Circulatory Systems are Found in Animals

The Vertebrate Circulatory System has Diverse Functions

2: How does the Vertebrate Heart Work?The Two-Chambered Heart of Fishes was the First Vertebrate Heart to Evolve

Increasingly Complex and Efficient Hearts Evolved in Terrestrial Vertebrates

Four-Chambered Hearts Consist of Two Separate Pumps

Valves Maintain the Direction of Blood Flow

Cardiac Muscle is Present only in the Heart

The Coordinated Contractions of Atria and Ventricles Produce the Cardiac Cycle

Electrical Impulses Coordinate the Sequence of Heart Chamber Contractions

The Nervous System and Hormones Influence Heart Rate

3: What is Blood?Plasma is Primarily Water in which Proteins, Salts, Nutrients, and Wastes are

Dissolved

The Cell-Based Components of Blood are Formed in Bone Marrow

Red Blood Cells Carry Oxygen from the Lungs to the Tissues

White Blood Cells Defend the Body Against Disease

Platelets are Cell Fragments that Aid in Blood Clotting

4: What are the Types and Functions of Blood Vessels?Arteries and Arterioles Carry Blood Away from the Heart

Capillaries Allow Exchange of Nutrients and Wastes

Veins and Venules Carry Blood Back to the Heart

Arterioles Control the Distribution of Blood Flow

5: How does the Lymphatic System Work with the Circulatory System?Lymphatic Vessels Resemble the Capillaries and Veins of the Circulatory System

The Lymphatic System Returns Interstitial Fluid to the Blood

The Lymphatic System Transports Fats from the Small Intestine to the Blood

Lymphatic Organs Help Defend the Body

Chapter Review

Chapter 32: Respiration1: Why Exchange Gases and What are the Requirements for Gas Exchange?

The Exchange of Gases Supports Cellular Respiration

Gas Exchange through Cells and Tissues Relies on Diffusion

2: How do Respiratory Adaptations Minimize Diffusion Distances?Relatively Inactive Animals may Lack Specialized Respiratory Organs

Respiratory Systems and Circulatory Systems Often Work together to Facilitate

Table of Contents

Gas ExchangeGills Facilitate Gas Exchange in Aquatic Environments

Terrestrial Animals have Internal Respiratory Structures

3: How is Air Conducted through the Human Respiratory System?The Conducting Portion of the Respiratory System Carries Air to the Lungs

Air is Inhaled Actively and Exhaled Passively

Breathing Rate is Controlled by the Respiratory Center of the Brain

4: How does Gas Exchange Occur in the Human Respiratory System?Gas Exchange Occurs in the Alveoli

Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide are Transported in Blood Using Different Mechanisms

Chapter Review

Chapter 33: Nutrition and Digestion1: What Nutrients Do Animals Need?

Most Energy is Provided by Carbohydrates and Lipids

Essential Nutrients Provide the Raw Materials for Health

The Human Body is about Sixty Percent Water

2: How does Digestion Occur?In Sponges, Digestion Occurs within Single Cells

The Simplest Digestive System is a Chamber with One Opening

Most Animals have Tubular Digestive Systems with Specialized Compartments

Vertebrate Digestive Systems are Specialized According to their Diets

3: How Do Humans Digest Food?Mechanical and Chemical Digestion Begin in the Mouth

The Esophagus Conducts Food to the Stomach, where Mechanical and Chemical

Digestion Continue

Most Chemical Digestion and Nutrient Absorption Occur in the Small Intestine

Water is Absorbed and Feces are Formed in the Large Intestine

Digestion is Controlled by the Nervous System and Hormones

Chapter Review

Chapter 34: The Urinary System1: What are the Major Functions of Urinary Systems?

Excretion Eliminates Wastes from the Body

Homeostasis Maintains Relatively Constant Internal Conditions

2: What are some Examples of Invertebrate Urinary Systems?Protonephridia Filter Interstitial Fluid in Flatworms

Malpighian Tubules Filter the Hemolymph of Insects

Nephridia Filter Interstitial Fluid in Annelid Worms and Mollusks

3: What are the Structures of the Mammalian Urinary System?Different Structures of the Human Urinary System Produce, Store, and Excrete

Urine

Large Quantities of Blood Flow through the Kidneys

Table of Contents

Nephrons in the Kidneys Filter Blood and Produce Urine

4: How is Urine Formed?Filtration Removes Small Molecules and Ions from the Blood

Tubular Reabsorption Returns Important Substances to the Blood

Tubular Secretion Actively Transports Substances into the Tubule for Excretion

5: How Do Vertebrate Urinary Systems Help Maintain Homeostasis?The Kidneys Regulate the Water and Ion Content of the Blood

The Kidneys Help Maintain Blood pH

The Kidneys Help Regulate Blood Pressure and Oxygen Levels

Fish Face Special Challenges in their Aquatic Environments

Chapter Review

Chapter 35: Defenses Against Disease1: How does the Body Defend itself against Disease?

Vertebrate Animals have Three Major Lines of Defense: Nonspecific External

Barriers, Nonspecific Internal Defenses, and Specific Internal Defenses

Invertebrate Animals Possess the Nonspecific Lines of Defense

2: How Do Nonspecific Defenses Function?The Skin and Mucous Membranes Form Nonspecific External Barriers to Invasion

The Innate Immune Response Nonspecifically Combats Invading Microbes

3: What are the Key Components of the Adaptive Immune System?The Adaptive Immune System Consistsof Cells and Molecules Dispersed throughout

the Body

4: How does the Adaptive Immune System Recognize Invaders?The Adaptive Immune System Recognizes Invaders Complex Molecules

The Adaptive Immune System Can Recognize Millions of Different Antigens

The Adaptive Immune System Distinguishes Self from Non-Self

5: How does the Adaptive Immune System Attack Invaders?Humoral Immunity is Produced by Antibodies Dissolved in the Blood

Cell-Mediated Immunity is Produced by Cytotoxic T Cells

Helper T Cells Enhance both Humoral and Cell-Mediated Immune Responses

6: How does the Adaptive Immune System Remember its Past Victories?

7: How does Medical Care Assist the Immune Response?Antibiotics Slow Down Microbial Reproduction

Vaccinations Produce Immunity Against Disease

8: What Happens When the Immune System Malfunctions?Allergies are Misdirected Immune Responses

An Autoimmune Disease is an Immune Response Against the Bodys Own Molecules

Immune Deficiency Diseases Occur When the Body cannot Mount an Effective Immune

Response

9: How does the Immune System Combat Cancer?

Table of Contents

The Immune System Recognizes Most Cancerous Cells as Foreign

Vaccination Can Prevent Some Cancers

Vaccines may Someday Help to Cure Cancer

Most Medical Treatments for Cancer Depend on Selectively Killing Cancerous Cells

Chapter Review

Chapter 36: Chemical Control of the Animal Body: The Endocrine System1: How Do Animal Cells Communicate?

Paracrine Communication Acts locally

Endocrine Communication Uses the Circulatory System to Carry Hormones to Target

Cells throughout the Body

2: How Do Endocrine Hormones Produce their Effects?Peptide Hormones and Amino Acid-Derived Hormones Usually Bind to Receptors on

the Surfaces of Target Cells

Steroid Hormones Usually Bind to Receptors Inside Target Cells

Hormone Release is Regulated by Feedback Mechanisms

3: What are the Structures and Functions of the Mammalian Endocrine System?Hormones of the Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland Regulate many Functions

throughout the Body

The Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands Influence Metabolism and Calcium Levels

The Pancreas has both Digestive and Endocrine Functions

The Sex Organs Produce both Gametes and Sex Hormones

The Adrenal Glands Secrete Hormones that Regulate Metabolism and Responsesto

Stress

Hormones are also Produced by the Pineal Gland, Thymus, Kidneys, Digestive

Tract, Heart, and Fat Cells

Chapter Review

Chapter 37: The Nervous System1: What are the Structures and Functions of Nerve Cells?

The Functions of a Neuron are localized in Separate Parts of the Cell

2: How Do Neurons Produce and Transmit Information?Information within a Single Neuron is Carried by Electrical Signals

Neurons Use Chemicals to Communicate with One Another at Synapses

3: How does the Nervous System Process Information and Control Behavior?The Nature of a Stimulus is Encoded by Specialization of Sensory Neurons and

their Connections to Specific Parts of the Brain

The Intensity of a Stimulus is Encoded by the Frequency of action Potentials

The Nervous System Processes Information from many Sources

The Nervous System Produces Outputs to Muscles and Glands

Behaviors are Controlled by Networks of Neurons in the Nervous System

4: How are Nervous Systems Organized?

5: What are the Structures and Functions of the Human Nervous System?

Table of Contents

The Peripheral Nervous System Links the Central Nervous System with the Rest of

the Body

The Central Nervous System Consists of the Spinal Cord and Brain

The Spinal Cord Controls many Reflexes and Conducts Information to and from the

Brain

The Brain Consists of many Parts that Perform Specific Functions

The Left and Right Sides of the Brain are Specialized for different Functions

Learning and Memory Involve Biochemical and Structural Changes in Specific Parts

of the Brain

Chapter Review

Chapter 38: The Senses1: How Do Animals Sense their Environment?

The Senses Inform the Brain about the Nature and Intensity of Environmental

Stimuli

2: How are Mechanical Stimuli Detected?

3: How is Sound Detected?The Ear Converts Sound Waves into Electrical Signals

4: How are Gravity and Movement Detected?

5: How is Light Perceived?The Compound Eyes of Arthropods Produce a Mosaic Image

The Mammalian Eye Collects and Focuses Light and Converts Light into Electrical

Signals

6: How are Chemicals Sensed?Olfactory Receptors Detect Airborne Chemicals

Taste Receptors Detect Chemicals Dissolved in Liquids

7: How is Pain Perceived?

Chapter Review

Chapter 39: Action and Support: The Muscles and Skeleton1: How Do Muscles Contract?

Vertebrate Skeletal Muscles have Highly Organized, Repeating Structures

Muscle Fibers Contract through Interactions between Thin and Thick Filaments

The Nervous System Controls the Contraction of Skeletal Muscles

Fast-Twitch and Slow-Twitch Skeletal Muscle Fibers are Specialized for different

types of Activity

2: How Do Cardiac and Smooth Muscles Differ From Skeletal Muscle?Cardiac Muscle Powers the Heart

Smooth Muscle Produces Slow, Involuntary Contractions

3: How Do Muscles and Skeletons Work together to Provide Movement?The actions of Antagonistic Muscles on Skeletons move Animal Bodies

The Vertebrate Endoskeleton Serves Multiple Functions

The Vertebrate Skeleton is Composed of Cartilage, Ligaments, and Bone

Table of Contents

Antagonistic Muscles move Joints in the Vertebrate Skeleton

Chapter Review

Chapter 40: Animal Reproduction1: How Do Animals Reproduce?

In Asexual Reproduction, an Organism Reproduces without Mating

In Sexual Reproduction, an Organism Reproduces via the Union of Sperm and Egg

2: What are the Structures and Functions of Human Reproductive Systems?The Male Reproductive System includes the Testes and Accessory Structures

The Female Reproductive System Includes the Ovaries and Accessory Structures

During Copulation, Sperm are Deposited in the Vagina

During Fertilization, the Sperm and Egg Nuclei Unite

3: How Can People Prevent Pregnancy?Sterilization Provides Permanent Contraception

Temporary Birth Control Methods are Readily Reversible

Chapter Review

Chapter 41: Animal Development1: What are the Principles of Animal Development?

2: How Do Indirect and Direct Development Differ?During Indirect Development, Animals Undergo a Radical Change in Body Form

Newborn Animals that Undergo Direct Development Resemble Small Adults

3: How does Animal Development Proceed?Cleavage of the Zygote Begins Development

Gastrulation Forms Three Tissue Layers

The Major Body Parts Develop During Organogenesis

Development in Reptiles and Mammals Depends on Extraembryonic Membranes

4: How is Development Controlled?Molecules Positioned in the Egg and Produced by Near by Cells Control Gene

Expression During Embryonic Development

5: How Do Humans Develop?Differentiation and Embryonic Growth are Rapid During the First Two Months

Growth and Development Continue During the Last Seven Months

The Placenta Exchanges Materials between Mother and Embryo

Pregnancy Culminates in Labor and Delivery

Milk Secretion is Stimulated by the Hormones of Pregnancy

6: Is Aging the Final Stage of Human Development?

Chapter Review

Chapter 42: Plant Anatomy and Nutrient Transport1: How are Plant Bodies Organized?

2: How Do Plants Grow?

Table of Contents

3: What are the Tissues and Cell Types of Plants?The Dermal Tissue System Covers the Plant Body

The Ground Tissue System Makes Up Most of the Young Plant Body

The Vascular Tissue System Transports Water and Nutrients

4: What are the Structures and Functions of Leaves?The Epidermis Regulates the Movement of Gases into and Out of a Leaf

Photosynthesis Occurs in Mesophyll Cells

Veins Transport Water and Nutrients throughout the Leaf

Many Plants Produce Specialized Leaves

5: What are the Structures and Functions of Stems?Primary Growth Produces the Structures of a young Stem

Secondary Growth Produces Thicker, Stronger Stems

Many Plants Produce Specialized Stems or Branches

6: What are the Structures and Functions of Roots?The Root Cap Shields the Apical Meritem

The Epidermis of the Root is Permeable to Water and Minerals

The Cortex Stores Food and Controls the Absorption of Water and Minerals into

the Root

The Vascular Cylinder Contains Conductingt Issues and Forms Branch Roots

Roots may Undergo Secondary Growth

7: How Do Plants Acquire Nutrients?Roots Transport Minerals from the Soil into the Xylem of the Vascular Cylinder

Roots take Up Water from the Soil by Osmosis

Symbiotic Relationships Help Plants acquire Nutrients

8: How Do Plants move Water and Minerals From Roots to Leaves?The CohesionTension Mechanism Explains Water Movement in Xylem

Minerals Move Up the Xylem Dissolved in Water

Stomata Control the Rate of Transpiration

9: How Do Plants Transport Sugars?The Pressure-Flow Mechanism Explains Sugar Movement in Phloem

Chapter Review

Chapter 43: Plant Reproduction and Development1: How Do Plants Reproduce?

The Plant Sexual Life Cycle Alternates between Diploid and Haploid Stages

2: What are the Functions and Structures of Flowers?Flowers are the Reproductive Structures of Angiosperms

The Pollen Grain is the Male Gametophyte

The Female Gametophyte Forms within the Ovule

Pollination of the Flower Leads to Fertilization

3: How Do Fruits and Seeds Develop?

Table of Contents

The Fruit Develops from the Ovary

The Seed Develops from the Ovule

4: How Do Seeds Germinate and Grow?Seed Dormancy Helps Ensure Germinationat an Appropriate Time

During Germination, the Root Emerges First, Followed by the Shoot

5: How Do Plants and their Pollinators Interact?Some Flowers Provide Food for Pollinators

Some Flowers are Mating Decoys

Some Flowers Provide Nurseries for Pollinators

6: How Do Fruits Help to Disperse Seeds?Explosive Fruits Shoot Out Seeds

Lightweight Fruits may be Carried by the Wind

Floating Fruits Allow Water Dispersal

Clingy or Edible Fruits are Dispersed by Animals

Chapter Review

Chapter 44: Plant Responses to the Environment1: What are Some Major Plant Hormones?

2: How Do Hormones Regulate Plant Life Cycles?Each Plant Life Cycle Begins with a Seed

Auxin Controls the Orientation of the Sprouting Seedling

The Growing Plant Emerges and Reaches Upward

Auxin and Cytokinin Control Stem and Root Branching

Plants Sense and Respond to light and Darkness

Hormones Coordinate the Development and Ripening of Fruits and Seeds

Senescence and Dormancy Prepare the Plant for Winter

3: How Do Plants Communicate, Defend themselves, and Capture Prey?Plants may Summon Insect Bodyguards When Attacked

Attacked Plants Defend themselves

Wounded Plants Warn their Neighbors

Sensitive Plants React to Touch

Carnivorous Sundews and Bladderworts Respond Rapidly to Prey

Chapter Review

Chapter 45: Biotechnology1: What is Biotechnology?

2: How does DNA Recombine in Nature?Sexual Reproduction Recombines DNA

Transformation may Combine DNA from Different Bacterial Species

Viruses may Transfer DNA among Species

3: How is Biotechnology used in Forensic Science?The Polymerase Chain Reaction Amplifies DNA

Table of Contents

Differences in Short Tandem Repeats are used to Identify Individuals by their

DNA

Gel Electrophoresis Separates DNA Segments

DNA Probes are used to Label Specific Nucleotide Sequences

Unrelated People Almost Never have Identical DNA Profiles

4: How is Biotechnology used to make Genetically Modified Organisms?The Desired Gene is Isolated or Synthesized

The Gene is Cloned

The Gene is Inserted into a Host Organism

5: How is Biotechnology used in Agriculture?Many Crops are Genetically Modified

Genetically Modified Plants may be used to Produce Medicines

Genetically Modified Animals may Beuseful in Agriculture and Medicine

6: How is Biotechnology used to Learn about the Genomes of Humans and otherOrganisms?

7: How is Biotechnology used for Medical Diagnosis and Treatment?DNA Technology can be used to Diagnose Inherited Disorders

DNA Technology can Help to Treat Disease

8: What are the Major Ethical issues of Modern Biotechnology?Should Genetically Modified Organisms be Permitted in Agriculture?

Should the Genome of Humans be Changed by Biotechnology?

Chapter Review

AppendixAppendix: Biological Vocabulary: Common Roots, Prefixes, and Suffixes

Appendix: Classification of Major Groups of Eukaryotic Organisms

Index

Back Cover