Biochemistry
description
Transcript of Biochemistry
![Page 1: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
1
Biochemistry
![Page 2: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
2
Wait, Chemistry?? I thought I was in Biology
![Page 3: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
3
What does Biochemistry mean?
Why do we need to understand
Biochemistry?
![Page 4: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
4
Uses of Organic Molecules
Americans consume an average of 140 pounds of sugar per person per year
Cellulose, found in plant cell walls, is the most abundant organic compound on Earth
![Page 5: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
5
Uses of Organic Molecules
A typical cell in your body has about 2 meters of DNA
A typical cow produces over 200 pounds of methane gas each year
![Page 6: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
6
WaterAbout 60-90 percent of an organism is water
Water is used in most reactions in the bodyWater is called the universal solvent
![Page 7: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
7
Water PropertiesPolarity
CohesivenessAdhesivenessSurface Tension
![Page 8: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
8
Carbon-based MoleculesAlthough a cell is mostly water, the rest of the cell consists mostly of carbon-based moleculesOrganic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds
![Page 9: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
9
Carbon is a Versatile AtomIt has four electrons in an outer shell that holds eightCarbon can share its electrons with other atoms to form up to four covalent bonds
![Page 10: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
10
Hydrocarbons
The simplest carbon compounds …Contain only
carbon & hydrogen atoms
![Page 11: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
11
Carbon can use its bonds to::
Attach to other carbons – they can be straight, unbranched or branched chains or ring structures.
![Page 12: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
12
Large Hydrocarbons:Are the main
molecules in the gasoline we burn in our cars
The hydrocarbons of
fat molecules provide energy for our bodies
![Page 13: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
13
Shape of Organic Molecules
Each type of organic
molecule has a unique three-dimensional
shapeThe shape determines its function in an
organism
![Page 14: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
14
Functional Groups are:Groups of atoms that give
properties to the compounds to which they attach
Gained Electrons Lost Electrons
![Page 15: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
15
Common Functional Groups
![Page 16: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
16
Giant Molecules - PolymersLarge molecules are called polymersPolymers are built from smaller molecules called monomersBiologists call them macromolecules
![Page 17: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
17
Examples of PolymersProteins
Lipids
CarbohydratesNucleic
Acids
![Page 18: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
18
Most Macromolecules are Polymers
Polymers are made by stringing together many smaller molecules called monomers
Nucleic Acid
Monomer
![Page 19: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
19
Linking MonomersCells link monomers by a process
called condensation or dehydration synthesis (removing a molecule of
water)
This process joins two sugar monomers to make a double
sugar
Remove H
Remove OH
H2O Forms
![Page 20: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
20
Breaking Down PolymersCells break
down macromolecules by a process called hydrolysis (adding a molecule of water) Water added to split a double
sugar
![Page 21: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
21
Macromolecules in OrganismsThere are four categories of large
molecules in cells:Carbohydrates
LipidsProteins
Nucleic Acids
![Page 22: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
22
CarbohydratesCarbohydrates
include: Small sugar
molecules in soft drinks
Long starch molecules in pasta
and potatoes
![Page 23: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
23
Monosaccharides:Called simple
sugarsInclude glucose, fructose, & galactoseHave the same chemical, but different structural formulasC6H12O6
![Page 24: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
24
MonosaccharidesGlucose is found in sports drinksFructose is found in fruitsHoney contains both glucose & fructoseGalactose is called “milk sugar”
-OSE ending means SUGAR
![Page 25: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
25
IsomersGlucose & fructose are isomers because they’re structures are different, but their chemical formulas are the same
![Page 26: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
26
RingsIn aqueous (watery) solutions,
monosaccharides form ring structures
![Page 27: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
27
Cellular Fuel
Monosaccharides are the main fuel that cells use for cellular work
ATP
![Page 28: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
28
DisaccharidesA disaccharide is a double sugarThey’re made by joining two monosaccharidesInvolves removing a water molecule (condensation)Bond called a GLYCOSIDIC bond
![Page 29: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
29
Disaccharides
Common disaccharides include:
Sucrose (table sugar)Lactose (Milk Sugar)Maltose (Grain sugar)
![Page 30: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
30
DisaccharidesSucrose is composed of glucose + fructoseMaltose is composed of 2 glucose moleculesLactose is made of galactose + glucose GLUCOSE
![Page 31: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
31
PolysaccharidesComplex carbohydrates
Composed of many sugar monomers linked togetherPolymers of monosaccharide chains
![Page 32: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
32
Examples of Polysaccharides
Starch
Glycogen
Cellulose
Glucose Monomer
![Page 33: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
33
StarchStarch is an example of a
polysaccharide in plants
Plant cells store starch for energy
Potatoes and grains are major sources of starch in the human diet
![Page 34: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
34
GlycogenGlycogen is an
example of a polysaccharide in animalsAnimals store excess
sugar in the form of glycogenGlycogen is similar in structure to starch because BOTH are made of glucose monomers
![Page 35: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
35
CelluloseCellulose is the most abundant
organic compound on EarthIt forms cable-like fibrils in the tough walls that enclose plants
It is a major component of woodIt is also known as dietary fiber
![Page 36: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
36
Cellulose
SUGARS
![Page 37: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
37
Dietary CelluloseMost animals cannot derive
nutrition from fiberThey have bacteria in their digestive tracts that can break down cellulose
![Page 38: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
38
Sugars in WaterSimple sugars and double sugars
dissolve readily in waterThey are hydrophilic, or “water-loving”
WATER MOLECULE
SUGAR MOLECULE
-OH groups make them water soluble
![Page 39: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
39
LipidsLipids are hydrophobic –”water
fearing”
Includes fats, waxes, steroids, & oils
Do NOT mix with water
FAT MOLECULE
![Page 40: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
40
Function of LipidsFats store energy, help to insulate
the body, and cushion and protect organs
![Page 41: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
41
Types of Fatty Acids
Unsaturated fatty acids have less than the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to the carbons (a double bond between carbons)
Saturated fatty acids have the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to the carbons (all single bonds between carbons)
![Page 42: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
42
Types of Fatty Acids
Single Bonds in Carbon chain
Double bond in carbon chain
![Page 43: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
43
Triglyceride
Monomer of lipids
Composed of Glycerol & 3 fatty acid chainsGlycerol forms the “backbone” of the fat Organic
Alcohol (-OL ending)
![Page 44: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
44
Triglyceride
Glycerol Fatty Acid Chains
![Page 45: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
45
Fats in OrganismsMost animal fats have a high
proportion of saturated fatty acids & exist as solids at room temperature (butter, margarine, shortening)
![Page 46: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
46
Fats in OrganismsMost plant oils tend to be low in
saturated fatty acids & exist as liquids at room temperature (oils)
![Page 47: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/47.jpg)
47
FatsDietary fat consists largely of the
molecule triglyceride composed of glycerol and three fatty acid chains
Glycerol
Fatty Acid Chain
Condensation links the fatty acids to Glycerol
![Page 48: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/48.jpg)
48
Lipids & Cell Membranes
• Cell membranes are made of lipids called phospholipids
• Phospholipids have a head that is polar & attract water (hydrophilic)
• Phospholipids also have 2 tails that are nonpolar and do not attract water (hydrophobic)
![Page 49: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/49.jpg)
49
SteroidsThe carbon skeleton of steroids is bent to form 4 fused ringsCholesterol is the “base steroid” from which your body produces other steroidsEstrogen & testosterone are also steroids
Cholesterol
TestosteroneEstrogen
![Page 50: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/50.jpg)
50
Synthetic Anabolic SteroidsThey are variants of testosteroneSome athletes use them to build up their muscles quicklyThey can pose serious health risks
![Page 51: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/51.jpg)
51
ProteinsProteins are polymers made of
monomers called amino acids
All proteins are made of 20 different amino acids linked in different ordersProteins are used to build cells, act as hormones & enzymes, and do much of the work in a cell
![Page 52: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/52.jpg)
52
Four Types of Proteins
Structural
Contractile
Storage
Transport
![Page 53: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/53.jpg)
53
20 Amino Acid Monomers
![Page 54: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/54.jpg)
54
Structure of Amino Acids
Amino acids have a central carbon with 4 things bonded to it:Amino group –NH2
Carboxyl group -COOH
Hydrogen -HSide group -R
Amino
group
Carboxylgroup
R group
Side groups
Leucine -hydrophobic
Serine-hydrophillic
![Page 55: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/55.jpg)
55
Linking Amino AcidsCells link amino acids together to make proteinsThe process is called condensation or dehydrationPeptide bonds form to hold the amino acids together
Carboxyl
Amino Side
Group
Dehydration Synthesis
Peptide Bond
![Page 56: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/56.jpg)
56
Proteins as EnzymesMany proteins act as biological
catalysts or enzymesThousands of different enzymes exist in the bodyEnzymes control the rate of chemical reactions by weakening bonds, thus lowering the amount of activation energy needed for the reaction
![Page 57: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/57.jpg)
57
Enzymes
Their folded conformation creates an area known as the active site.
Enzymes are globular proteins.
The nature and arrangement of amino acids in the active site make it specific for only one type of substrate.
![Page 58: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/58.jpg)
58
Enzyme + Substrate = Product
![Page 59: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/59.jpg)
59
How the Enzyme Works
Enzymes are reusable!!!Active site changes SHAPECalled INDUCED FIT
![Page 60: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/60.jpg)
60
Primary Protein StructureThe primary structure is the specific sequence of amino acids in a proteinCalled polypeptide
Amino Acid
![Page 61: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/61.jpg)
61
Protein Structures
Secondary protein structures occur when protein chains coil or foldWhen protein chains called
polypeptides join together, the tertiary structure forms because R groups interact with each otherIn the watery environment of a cell, proteins become globular in their quaternary structure
![Page 62: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/62.jpg)
62
Protein Structures or CONFORMATIONS
Hydrogen bond
Pleated sheet
Amino acid
(a) Primary structure
Hydrogen bond
Alpha helix
(b) Secondary structure
Polypeptide(single subunit)
(c) Tertiary structure
(d) Quaternary structure
![Page 63: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/63.jpg)
63
Denaturating ProteinsChanges in temperature & pH can denature (unfold) a protein so it
no longer worksCooking denatures protein in eggs
Milk protein separates into curds & whey when it denatures
![Page 64: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/64.jpg)
64
Changing Amino Acid Sequence
Substitution of one amino acid for another in hemoglobin causes
sickle-cell disease
(a) Normal red blood cell Normal hemoglobin
1 2 34 5
6 7. . . 146
(b) Sickled red blood cell Sickle-cell hemoglobin
2 314 5
6 7. . . 146
![Page 65: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/65.jpg)
65
Other Important Proteins
•Blood sugar level is controlled by a protein called insulin
•Insulin causes the liver to uptake and store excess sugar as Glycogen
•The cell membrane also contains proteins
•Receptor proteins help cells recognize other cells
![Page 66: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/66.jpg)
66
INSULIN
Cell membrane with proteins & phospholipids
![Page 67: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/67.jpg)
67
Nucleic AcidsStore hereditary informationContain information for making all the body’s proteinsTwo types exist --- DNA & RNA
![Page 68: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/68.jpg)
68
![Page 69: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/69.jpg)
69
Nucleic AcidsNitrogenous base
(A,G,C, or T)
Phosphategroup
Thymine (T)
Sugar(deoxyribose)
Phosphate
BaseSugar
Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides
Nucleotide
![Page 70: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/70.jpg)
70
Nucleotide – Nucleic acid monomer
![Page 71: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/71.jpg)
71
BasesEach DNA nucleotide has one of the following bases:
Thymine (T) Cytosine (C)
Adenine (A) Guanine (G)
–Adenine (A)–Guanine (G)–Thymine (T)–Cytosine (C)
![Page 72: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/72.jpg)
72
Nucleotide MonomersForm long chains called DNA
Backbone
Nucleotide
Bases
DNA strand
Nucleotides are joined by sugars & phosphates on the side
![Page 73: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/73.jpg)
73
DNA
Two strands of DNA join together to form a double helix
Basepair
Double helix
![Page 74: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/74.jpg)
74
RNA – Ribonucleic AcidRibose sugar has an extra –OH or hydroxyl groupIt has the base uracil (U) instead of thymine (T)
Nitrogenous base(A,G,C, or U)
Sugar (ribose)
Phosphategroup
Uracil
![Page 75: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/75.jpg)
75
ATP – Cellular Energy
•ATP is used by cells for energy
•Adenosine triphosphate•Made of a nucleotide with 3
phosphate groups
![Page 76: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/76.jpg)
76
Summary of Key Concepts
![Page 77: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/77.jpg)
77
Nucleic Acids
![Page 78: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/78.jpg)
78
Macromolecules
![Page 79: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/79.jpg)
79
Macromolecules
![Page 80: Biochemistry](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022062520/568163a7550346895dd4b540/html5/thumbnails/80.jpg)
80
End