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Of Friendship

IT HAD been hard for him that spake it to have put moretruth and untruth together in few words, than in that

speech, Whatsoever is delighted in solitude, is either awild beast or a god. For it is most true, that a natural andsecret hatred, and aversation towards society, in anyman, hath somewhat of the savage beast; but it is mostuntrue, that it should have any character at all, of thedivine nature; except it proceed, not out of a pleasure insolitude, but out of a love and desire to sequester amans self, for a higher conversation: such as is found to

have been falsely and feignedly in some of the heathen;as Epimenides the Candian, Numa the Roman,Empedocles the Sicilian, and Apollonius of Tyana; andtruly and really, in divers of the ancient hermits and holyfathers of the church. But little do men perceive whatsolitude is, and how far it extendeth. For a crowd is notcompany; and faces are but a gallery of pictures; and talkbut a tinkling cymbal, where there is no love. The Latin

adage meeteth with it a little: Magna civitas, magnasolitudo; because in a great town friends are scattered;so that there is not that fellowship, for the most part,which is in less neighborhoods. But we may go further,and affirm most truly, that it is a mere and miserablesolitude to want true friends; without which the world isbut a wilderness; and even in this sense also of solitude,whosoever in the frame of his nature and affections, is

unfit for friendship, he taketh it of the beast, and not fromhumanity.

A principal fruit of friendship, is the ease and dischargeof the fulness and swellings of the heart, which passionsof all kinds do cause and induce. We know diseases ofstoppings, and suffocations, are the most dangerous inthe body; and it is not much otherwise in the mind; youmay take sarza to open the liver, steel to open the spleen,

flowers of sulphur for the lungs, castoreum for the brain;but no receipt openeth the heart, but a true friend; to

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whom you may impart griefs, joys, fears, hopes,suspicions, counsels, and whatsoever lieth upon theheart to oppress it, in a kind of civil shrift or confession.

It is a strange thing to observe, how high a rate greatkings and monarchs do set upon this fruit of friendship,whereof we speak: so great, as they purchase it, manytimes, at the hazard of their own safety and greatness.For princes, in regard of the distance of their fortunefrom that of their subjects and servants, cannot gatherthis fruit, except (to make themselves capable thereof)they raise some persons to be, as it were, companions

and almost equals to themselves, which many timessorteth to inconvenience. The modern languages giveunto such persons the name of favorites, or privadoes;as if it were matter of grace, or conversation. But theRoman name attaineth the true use and cause thereof,naming them participes curarum; for it is that which tieththe knot. And we see plainly that this hath been done, notby weak and passionate princes only, but by the wisest

and most politic that ever reigned; who have oftentimesjoined to themselves some of their servants; whom boththemselves have called friends, and allowed otherlikewise to call them in the same manner; using the wordwhich is received between private men.

L. Sylla, when he commanded Rome, raised Pompey(after surnamed the Great) to that height, that Pompeyvaunted himself for Syllas overmatch. For when he had

carried the consulship for a friend of his, against thepursuit of Sylla, and that Sylla did a little resent thereat,and began to speak great, Pompey turned upon himagain, and in effect bade him be quiet; for that more menadored the sun rising, than the sun setting. With JuliusCaesar, Decimus Brutus had obtained that interest as heset him down in his testament, for heir in remainder, afterhis nephew. And this was the man that had power with

him, to draw him forth to his death. For when Caesarwould have discharged the senate, in regard of some ill

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presages, and specially a dream of Calpurnia; this manlifted him gently by the arm out of his chair, telling himhe hoped he would not dismiss the senate, till his wifehad dreamt a better dream. And it seemeth his favor wasso great, as Antonius, in a letter which is recitedverbatim in one of Ciceros Philippics, calleth himvenefica, witch; as if he had enchanted Caesar. Augustusraised Agrippa (though of mean birth) to that height, aswhen he consulted with Maecenas, about the marriage ofhis daughter Julia, Maecenas took the liberty to tell him,that he must either marry his daughter to Agrippa, ortake away his life; there was no third way, he had madehim so great. With Tiberius Caesar, Sejanus hadascended to that height, as they two were termed, andreckoned, as a pair of friends. Tiberius in a letter to himsaith, Haec pro amicitia nostra non occultavi; and thewhole senate dedicated an altar to Friendship, as to agoddess, in respect of the great dearness of friendship,between them two. The like, or more, was betweenSeptimius Severus and Plautianus. For he forced his

eldest son to marry the daughter of Plautianus; andwould often maintain Plautianus, in doing affronts to hisson; and did write also in a letter to the senate, by thesewords: I love the man so well, as I wish he may over-liveme. Now if these princes had been as a Trajan, or aMarcus Aurelius, a man might have thought that this hadproceeded of an abundant goodness of nature; but beingmen so wise, of such strength and severity of mind, and

so extreme lovers of themselves, as all these were, itproveth most plainly that they found their own felicity(though as great as ever happened to mortal men) but asan half piece, except they mought have a friend, to makeit entire; and yet, which is more, they were princes thathad wives, sons, nephews; and yet all these could notsupply the comfort of friendship.

It is not to be forgotten, what Comineus observeth of hisfirst master, Duke Charles the Hardy, namely, that he

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would communicate his secrets with none; and least ofall, those secrets which troubled him most. Whereuponhe goeth on, and saith that towards his latter time, thatcloseness did impair, and a little perish hisunderstanding. Surely Comineus mought have made thesame judgment also, if it had pleased him, of his secondmaster, Lewis the Eleventh, whose closeness was indeedhis tormentor. The parable of Pythagoras is dark, buttrue; Cor ne edito; Eat not the heart. Certainly, if a manwould give it a hard phrase, those that want friends, toopen themselves unto, are carnnibals of their ownhearts. But one thing is most admirable (wherewith I willconclude this first fruit of friendship), which is, that thiscommunicating of a mans self to his friend, works twocontrary effects; for it redoubleth joys, and cutteth griefsin halves. For there is no man, that imparteth his joys tohis friend, but he joyeth the more; and no man thatimparteth his griefs to his friend, but he grieveth the less.So that it is in truth, of operation upon a mans mind, oflike virtue as the alchemists use to attribute to their

stone, for mans body; that it worketh all contrary effects,but still to the good and benefit of nature. But yet withoutpraying in aid of alchemists, there is a manifest image ofthis, in the ordinary course of nature. For in bodies,union strengtheneth and cherisheth any natural action;and on the other side, weakeneth and dulleth any violentimpression: and even so it is of minds.

The second fruit of friendship, is healthful and sovereignfor the understanding, as the first is for the affections.For friendship maketh indeed a fair day in the affections,from storm and tempests; but it maketh daylight in theunderstanding, out of darkness, and confusion ofthoughts. Neither is this to be understood only of faithfulcounsel, which a man receiveth from his friend; butbefore you come to that, certain it is, that whosoeverhath his mind fraught with many thoughts, his wits andunderstanding do clarify and break up, in the

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communicating and discoursing with another; he tossethhis thoughts more easily; he marshalleth them moreorderly, he seeth how they look when they are turnedinto words: finally, he waxeth wiser than himself; andthat more by an hours discourse, than by a daysmeditation. It was well said by Themistocles, to the kingof Persia, That speech was like cloth of Arras, openedand put abroad; whereby the imagery doth appear infigure; whereas in thoughts they lie but as in packs.Neither is this second fruit of friendship, in opening theunderstanding, restrained only to such friends as areable to give a man counsel; (they indeed are best;) buteven without that, a man learneth of himself, andbringeth his own thoughts to light, and whetteth his witsas against a stone, which itself cuts not. In a word, a manwere better relate himself to a statua, or picture, than tosuffer his thoughts to pass in smother.

Add now, to make this second fruit of friendshipcomplete, that other point, which lieth more open, and

falleth within vulgar observation; which is faithfulcounsel from a friend. Heraclitus saith well in one of hisenigmas, Dry light is ever the best. And certain it is, thatthe light that a man receiveth by counsel from another, isdrier and purer, than that which cometh from his ownunderstanding and judgment; which is ever infused, anddrenched, in his affections and customs. So as there isas much difference between the counsel, that a friendgiveth, and that a man giveth himself, as there is betweenthe counsel of a friend, and of a flatterer. For there is nosuch flatterer as is a mans self; and there is no suchremedy against flattery of a mans self, as the liberty of afriend. Counsel is of two sorts: the one concerningmanners, the other concerning business. For the first,the best preservative to keep the mind in health, is thefaithful admonition of a friend. The calling of a mans selfto a strict account, is a medicine, sometime too piercingand corrosive. Reading good books of morality, is a little

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flat and dead. Observing our faults in others, issometimes improper for our case. But the best receipt(best, I say, to work, and best to take) is the admonitionof a friend. It is a strange thing to behold, what grosserrors and extreme absurdities many (especially of thegreater sort) do commit, for want of a friend to tell themof them; to the great damage both of their fame andfortune: for, as St. James saith, they are as men that looksometimes into a glass, and presently forget their ownshape and favor. As for business, a man may think, if hewin, that two eyes see no more than one; or that agamester seeth always more than a looker-on; or that aman in anger, is as wise as he that hath said over thefour and twenty letters; or that a musket may be shot offas well upon the arm, as upon a rest; and such otherfond and high imaginations, to think himself all in all. Butwhen all is done, the help of good counsel, is that whichsetteth business straight. And if any man think that hewill take counsel, but it shall be by pieces; askingcounsel in one business, of one man, and in another

business, of another man; it is well (that is to say, better,perhaps, than if he asked none at all); but he runneth twodangers: one, that he shall not be faithfully counselled;for it is a rare thing, except it be from a perfect and entirefriend, to have counsel given, but such as shall be bowedand crooked to some ends, which he hath, that giveth it.The other, that he shall have counsel given, hurtful andunsafe (though with good meaning), and mixed partly of

mischief and partly of remedy; even as if you would call aphysician, that is thought good for the cure of thedisease you complain of, but is unacquainted with yourbody; and therefore may put you in way for a presentcure, but overthroweth your health in some other kind;and so cure the disease, and kill the patient. But a friendthat is wholly acquainted with a mans estate, willbeware, by furthering any present business, how he

dasheth upon other inconvenience. And therefore rest

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not upon scattered counsels; they will rather distract andmislead, than settle and direct.

After these two noble fruits of friendship (peace in the

affections, and support of the judgment), followeth thelast fruit; which is like the pomegranate, full of manykernels; I mean aid, and bearing a part, in all actions andoccasions. Here the best way to represent to life themanifold use of friendship, is to cast and see how manythings there are, which a man cannot do himself; andthen it will appear, that it was a sparing speech of theancients, to say, that a friend is another himself; for that

a friend is far more than himself. Men have their time,and die many times, in desire of some things which theyprincipally take to heart; the bestowing of a child, thefinishing of a work, or the like. If a man have a true friend,he may rest almost secure that the care of those thingswill continue after him. So that a man hath, as it were,two lives in his desires. A man hath a body, and thatbody is confined to a place; but where friendship is, all

offices of life are as it were granted to him, and hisdeputy. For he may exercise them by his friend. Howmany things are there which a man cannot, with any faceor comeliness, say or do himself? A man can scarceallege his own merits with modesty, much less extolthem; a man cannot sometimes brook to supplicate orbeg; and a number of the like. But all these things aregraceful, in a friends mouth, which are blushing in amans own. So again, a mans person hath many properrelations, which he cannot put off. A man cannot speakto his son but as a father; to his wife but as a husband;to his enemy but upon terms: whereas a friend mayspeak as the case requires, and not as it sorteth with theperson. But to enumerate these things were endless; Ihave given the rule, where a man cannot fitly play hisown part; if he have not a friend, he may quit the stage.

Analysis of Bacons Essay "Of Friendship"

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As a pragmatic and as an empirical thinker Bacon followed two

fundamental Renaissance principlesSepantia or search for knowledge and

Eloquentia, the art of rhetoric. This explains, to some extent, the impassioned

presentation of his ideas and views and the aphoristic style of his writing. But the

essay Of Friendship is stylistically somewhat different in that it contains

passionate and flattering statements along with profuse analogies and examples

to support or explain his arguments perhaps because this essay was occasioned

by the request of his friend Toby Matthew.

Bacon begins the essay by invoking the classical authorities on basic

human nature. First, he refers to Aristotles view in Politics: Whosoever is

delighted in solitude is either a wild beast or a god. According to Aristotle, a man

by nature and behaviour may be degraded to such an extent that he may be

called unfit for society. Again, he may be so self-sufficient that he may not need

society. In the first case, he resembles a wild beast and in the second, he

resembles gods. Here it should be pointed out that Bacon is not ruling out the

value of solitude; in fact, he is reserving solitude for higher kind of life, which is

possible for a few great men like Epimenides, Numa, Empedocles, Apollonius and

some Christian saints. Here too Bacon is following Aristotelian view on solitude

as expressed in Ethics, where Aristotle prefers a contemplative life to an active

life:

It is the highest kind of life, it can be enjoyed uninterruptedly for the greatest

length of time...

Bacons logic is that those who live in society should enjoy the bliss of

friendship for more than one reason. First of all, friendship is necessary for

maintaining good mental health by controlling and regulating the passions of the

mind. In other words, Bacon here speaks of the therapeutic use of friendshipthough which one can lighten the heart by revealing the pent-up feelings and

emotions: sorrows, joys, fears, hopes, suspicions, advice and the like.

Then in order to justify the value of friendship, Bacon points out the

practice of friendship on the highest social level. He informs us that the kings

and princes, in order to make friends, would raise some persons who would be fit

for friendship. Then Bacon tries to glorify friendship by translating the Roman

term for friendship, Participes curarum, which means sharers of their cares. He

gives instances of raising of men as friends from the Roman history: Sylla and

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Pompey the Great, Julius Caesar and Antonius, Augustus and Agrippa, Tiberius

Caesar and Sejanus, Septimius Severus and Plautianus. Bacon also refers to what

Comineus wrote of Duke Charles the Hardys deterioration of his mental faculty

just because of his reserve and loneliness and extends his judgement to the case

of Comineus second master, Louis XI. The point which Bacon strongly wants to

assert is that friendship functions for a man in a double yet paradoxically

contrary manner: ...it redoubleth joys, and cutteth griefs in halfs.

The second fruit of friendship, according to Bacon, is beneficial for the

clarity of understanding. If a man has got a faithful friend, he can be consulted to

clarify the confusions of the mind. He calls the counsel of a friend, citing

Heraclitus, drier and purer than that a man gives himself out of self love, which

clouds his judgement. Bacon then counsel of this sort into two kinds: the one

concerning manners and the other concerning business. A friends constructive

criticism of the other friends behaviour helps him more than a book of morality.

In the matter of conducting practical business, Bacon thinks, a true friends

advice can also be helpful in undertaking a venture or averting a danger.

Finally, Bacon speaks of the last fruit of friendship, which is manifold in the

sense that there are so many things in life, which can be fulfilled only with the

help of a friend. In fact, at a rare moment Bacon gets emotional and quotesclassical maxim that a friend is another self. His point is that a man may have

many a desire, which may not be realized in his life-time, but if he has got a true

friend, his unfulfilled desire will be taken care of by his friend. Not only this, a

friend, unlike the near and dear ones and enemies, can talk to him on equal

terms whenever situation demands. Keeping all these things, Bacon concludes

that if a man does not have a friend, he may well leave this world. That is to say,

he is not fit for the human society to live in.

REFERENCES: OF FRIENDSHIP

Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, also known as Pompey (/pmpi/) orPompey the Great[1]

(Classical Latin abbreviation: CNPOMPEIVSCNFSEXNMAGNVS[2]) (September 29, 106 BC September 29, 48 BC), was a military and political leader of the late Roman Republic. Hecame from a wealthy Italian provincial background, and established himself in the ranks ofRoman nobility by successful leadership in several campaigns. Sulla addressed him by thecognomenMagnus (the Great) and he was awarded three triumphs.

Pompey joined his rival Marcus Licinius Crassus and his ally Julius Caesarin the unofficialmilitary-political alliance known as the First Triumvirate. The first triumvirate was validated

by the marriage between Julia (daughter of Julius Caesar) and Pompey. After the deaths ofCrassus and Julia, Pompey's wife and Caesar's daughter, Pompey sided with the optimates,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Latinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sullahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognomenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_triumphhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Licinius_Crassushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Triumviratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Triumviratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juliahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juliahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Latinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sullahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognomenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_triumphhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Licinius_Crassushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Triumviratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juliahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English

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married and pregnant divorced her husband and Pompey divorced Antistia.[9] ThoughAemilia died in childbirth soon after, the marriage confirmed Pompey's loyalty and greatly

boosted his career.[10

Thursday, May 27, 2010

Mahabharata: Karna and his friendship

In the Mahabharata, Bhishma lectures Yudhisthira about the types of friends a rulerhas. Basically, he talks about (1) natural friends, who share a similartemperament with you or belong to your family, (2) friends whose ancestors havebeen loyal to your family, (3) friends with whom you share a relationship of mutualprofit, and (4) contrived friends, who you can pay to follow you. Then he talksabout a rare class of friends the dharmatma (righteous soul). Though everyonemay wish to have a few righteous friends, they are not someone you can easilysearch for. Also, once you find them, they are not permanent. Because they are

detached, they may move away if you leave your virtuous path, as the scripturesuggests.

After raising general concerns about the trustworthiness of friends from the firstfour classes, Bhishma gives features of friends you can trust: (1) they are happy tosee you happy and sad to see you sad, and (2) they are never jealous of yourprogress but get alarmed in your adversities. Unsurprisingly, trustworthy friendsform a class of their own.

Based on this model, Karna appears to comfortably qualify as a trustworthy friendfor Duryodhana. But is he a righteous friend as well? This is not an easy question to

answer. A key given in the text is that you have to be a righteous soul yourself toattract a righteous soul as your friend. Accordingly, no matter how good a personKarna was, the scripture may hesitate to label a friend of Duryodhana as"righteous." Only a king like Yudhisthira deserves a dharmatma as a friend.

So how would you grade Karna's friendship? Please feel free to share your views inthe comments section.

Heraclitus of Ephesus (Ancient Greek: Hrkleitos ho Ephsios;c. 535c. 475 BCE) was apre-SocraticGreek philosopher, a native of the Greek cityEphesus, Ionia, on the coast ofAsia Minor. He was of distinguished parentage. Little isknown about his early life and education, but he regarded himself as self-taught and a pioneerof wisdom. From the lonely life he led, and still more from the riddling nature of his

philosophy and his contempt for humankind in general, he was called "The Obscure," and the"Weeping Philosopher."

Heraclitus is famous for his doctrine of change being central to the universe, as stated in hisfamous saying, "You cannot step twice into the same stream." He believed in the unity ofopposites, stating that "the path up and down are one and the same," existing things beingcharacterized by pairs of contrary properties, and other explorations of the concept ofdualism. His cryptic utterance that "all things come to be in accordance with this Logos,"(literally, "word," "reason," or "account") has been the subject of numerous interpretations.

Contents[hide]

http://www.hinduexpressions.com/2010/05/mahabharata-karna-and-his-friendship.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ephesushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia_Minorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unity_of_oppositeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unity_of_oppositeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logoshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraclitushttp://www.hinduexpressions.com/2010/05/mahabharata-karna-and-his-friendship.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ephesushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia_Minorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unity_of_oppositeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unity_of_oppositeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logoshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraclitus

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1 Life

2 Works

3 Ancient characterizations

3.1 The obscure

3.2 The weeping philosopher

4 Philosophy

4.1 Logos

4.2 Ta Panta rhei, "everything flows"

4.3 Hodos ano kato, "the way up and the way down"

4.4 Dike eris, "strife is justice"

4.5 Hepesthai to koino, "follow the common"

5 Influence

5.1 Plato

5.2 Stoics

5.3 Church fathers

6 Notes

7 Further reading

8 See also

9 External links

[edit] LifeThe main source for the life of Heraclitus is Diogenes Lartius, although some havequestioned the validity of his account as "a tissue ofHellenisticanecdotes, most of themobviously fabricated on the basis of statements in the preserved fragments."[1]Diogenes saidthat Heraclitus flourished in the 69th Olympiad,[2] 504-501 BCE. All the rest of the evidence

the people Heraclitus is said to have known, or the people who were familiar with his work confirms thefloruit. His dates of birth and death are based on a life span of 60 years, theage at which Diogenes says he died,[3] with the floruit in the middle.

Ephesus on the coast of Asia Minor, birthplace of Heraclitus

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Heraclitus&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtiushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_periodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_periodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floruithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympiadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympiadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floruithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floruithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Efez_agora_odeon_prytaneion_RB.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Efez_agora_odeon_prytaneion_RB.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Heraclitus&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtiushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_periodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floruithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympiadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floruit

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Heraclitus was born to an aristocratic family inEphesus, present-dayEfes, Turkey. His fatherwas named either Blosn or Herakn.[2] Diogenes says that he abdicated the kingship(basileia) in favor of his brother[4] and Strabo confirms that there was a ruling family inEphesus descended from the Ionian founder, Androclus, which still kept the title and could sitin the chief seat at the games, as well as a few other privileges .[5] How much power the king

had is another question. Ephesus had been part of the Persian Empire since 547 and was ruledby asatrap, a more distant figure, as the Great King allowed the Ionians considerableautonomy. Diogenes says that Heraclitus used to play knuckleboneswith the youths in thetemple ofArtemisand when asked to start making laws he refused saying that theconstitution (politeia) wasponra,[6] which can mean either that it was fundamentally wrongor that he considered it toilsome.

With regard to education, Diogenes says that Heraclitus was "wondrous" (thaumasios, which,as Plato explains in the Theaetetus and elsewhere, is the beginning of philosophy) fromchildhood. Diogenes relates thatSotion said he was a "hearer" ofXenophanes, whichcontradicts Heraclitus' statement (so says Diogenes) that he had taught himself byquestioning himself. Burnet states in any case that "... Xenophanes left Ionia before

Herakleitos was born."[7] Diogenes relates that as a boy Heraclitus had said he "knewnothing" but later claimed to "know everything."[8] His statement that he "heard no one" but"questioned himself," can be placed alongside his statement that "the things that can be seen,heard and learned are what I prize the most." [9]

Diogenes relates that Heraclitus had a poor opinion of human affairs.[2] He believed thatHesiod andPythagoras lacked understanding though learned[10]and thatHomerandArchilochus deserved to be beaten.[11] Laws needed to be defended as though they were citywalls.[12]Timon is said to have called him a "mob-reviler." Heraclitus hated the Athenians andhis fellow Ephesians, wishing the latter wealth in punishment for their wicked ways.[13] SaysDiogenes: "Finally, he became a hater of his kind (misanthrope) and wandered the mountains... making his diet of grass and herbs."

Heraclitus' life as a philosopher was interrupted by dropsy. The physicians he consulted wereunable to prescribe a cure. He treated himself with aliniment of cow manure and baking inthe sun, believing that this method would remove the fluid. After a day of treatment he diedand was interred in the marketplace.[14]

[edit] Works

Diogenes states that Heraclitus' work was "a continuous treatise On Nature, but was dividedinto three discourses, one on the universe, another on politics, and a third on theology."Theophrastus says (in Diogenes) "... some parts of his work are half-finished, while other

parts make a strange medley."[4]

Diogenes also tells us that Heraclitus deposited his book as a dedication in the great temple ofArtemis, the Artemisium, one of the largest temples of the 6th century BCE and one of theSeven Wonders of the Ancient World. Ancient temples were regularly used for storingtreasures, and were open to private individuals under exceptional circumstances; furthermore,many subsequent philosophers in this period refer to the work. SaysKahn:[1] "Down to thetime ofPlutarch and Clement, if not later, the little book of Heraclitus was available in itsoriginal form to any reader who chose to seek it out." Diogenes says:[4]"the book acquiredsuch fame that it produced partisans of his philosophy who were called Heracliteans."

As with other pre-Socratics, his writings only survive in fragments quoted by other authors.

[edit] Ancient characterizations

[edit] The obscure

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At some time in antiquity he acquired this epithet denoting that his major sayings weredifficult to understand. Timon of Phlius calls him "the riddler" (ainikts) according toDiogenes Lartius,[4] who had just explained that Heraclitus wrote his book "rather unclearly"(asaphesteron) so that only the "capable" should attempt it. By the time ofCicero he had

become "the dark" (Ancient Greek ho Skoteins)[15]because he had spoken

nimis obscur, "too obscurely", concerning nature and had done so deliberately in order to bemisunderstood. The customary English translation of follows the Latin, "theobscure."

[edit] The weeping philosopher

Diogenes Lartius ascribes to Theophrastusthe theory that Heraclitus did not complete someof his works because ofmelancholia.[4] Later he was referred to as the "weeping philosopher,"as opposed to Democritus, who is known as the "laughing philosopher."[16] IfStobaeus[17]writes correctly, Sotionin the early 1st century CE was already combining the two in theimaginative duo of weeping and laughing philosophers: "Among the wise, instead of anger,Heraclitus was overtaken by tears, Democritus by laughter." The view is expressed by thesatirist Juvenal:[18]

The first of prayers, best known at all the temples, is mostly for riches .... Seeing

this then do you not commend the one sage Democritus for laughing ... and the

master of the other school Heraclitus for his tears?

The motif was also adopted by Lucian of Samosata in his "Sale of Creeds," in which the duois sold together as a complementary product in the satirical auction of philosophers.Subsequently they were considered an indispensable feature of philosophic landscapes.Montaigne proposed two archetypical views of human affairs based on them, selectingDemocritus' for himself.[19] The weeping philosopher makes an appearance in WilliamShakespeare's The Merchant of Venice.[20]Donato Bramante painted a fresco, "Democritus

and Heraclitus," in Casa Panigarola in Milan.[21]

[edit] Philosophy

[edit] Logos

Main article: Logos

"The idea that all things come to pass in accordance with thisLogos"[22] and "theLogos iscommon,"[23] is expressed in two famous but obscure fragments:

ThisLogos holds always but humans always prove unable to understand it, both beforehearing it and when they have first heard it. For though all things come to be in accordance

with thisLogos, humans are like the inexperienced when they experience such words anddeeds as I set out, distinguishing each in accordance with its nature and saying how it is. Butother people fail to notice what they do when awake, just as they forget what they do whileasleep. (DK22B1)

For this reason it is necessary to follow what is common. But although theLogos is common,most people live as if they had their own private understanding. (DK22B2)

The meaning ofLogos also is subject to interpretation: "word", "account", "plan", "formula","measure", "proportion", "reckoning."[24] Though Heraclitus "quite deliberately plays on thevarious meanings oflogos",[25] there is no compelling reason to suppose that he used it in aspecial technical sense, significantly different from the way it was used in ordinary Greek ofhis time.[26]

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The laterStoics understood it as "the account which governs everything,"[27] and Hippolytus,in the 3rd century CE, identified it as meaning the ChristianWord of God.[28]

[edit] Ta Panta rhei, "everything flows"

( ta panta rhei) "everything flows" either was not spoken by Heraclitus or did

not survive as a quotation of his. This famous aphorism used to characterize Heraclitus'thought comes from Simplicius,[29] a neoplatonist and Plato'sCratylus. The word rhei,adopted by rhe-o-logy, is the Greek word for "to stream, and to the etymology ofRheaaccording to Plato's Cratylus."[30]

Heraclitus by Hendrick ter Brugghen

The philosophy of Heraclitus is summed up in his cryptic utterance:[31]

, . Potamoisi toisin autoisin embainousin, hetera kai hetera hudata epirrei"Ever-newer waters flow on those who step into the same rivers ."

The quote from Heraclitus appears in Plato'sCratylus twice; in 401,d as:[32]

Ta onta ienai te panta kai menein ouden"All things move and nothing remains still"

and in 402,a

[33]

" " Panta chrei kai ouden menei ... kai ... dis es ton auton potamon ouk an embaies"Everything changes and nothing remains still .... and ... you cannot step twice into the samestream"

Instead of "flow" Plato uses chrei, to change chros.

The assertions of flow are coupled in many fragments with the enigmatic river image: [34]

" , ." "We both step and do not step in the same rivers. We are and are not."

Compare with the Latin adages Omnia mutanturand Tempora mutantur(8 CE) and theJapanese taleHjki, (1200 CE) which contains the same image of the changing river.

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[edit] Hodos ano kato, "the way up and the way down"

In [35] the structure an kat is more accurately translated as a hyphenatedword: "the upward-downward path." They go on simultaneously and instantaneously andresult in "hidden harmony".[36] A way is a series of transformations: the , "turnings of fire,"[37] first into sea, then half of sea to earth and half to rarefied air.

The transformation is a replacement of one element by another: "The death of fire is the birthof air, and the death of air is the birth of water." [38]

This world, which is the same for all, no one of gods or men has made. But it always was andwill be: an ever-living fire, with measures of it kindling, and measures going out.[39]

This latter phraseology is further elucidated:

All things are an interchange for fire, and fire for all things, just like goods for gold and goldfor goods.[40]

Heraclitus considered fire as the most fundamental element. He believed fire gave riseto the other elements and thus to all things. He regarded the soul as being a mixture of

fire and water, with fire being the noble part of the soul, and water the ignoble part. Asoul should therefore aim toward becoming more full of fire and less full of water: a"dry" soul was best. According to Heraclitus, worldly pleasures made the soul "moist",and he considered mastering one's worldly desires to be a noble pursuit which purifiedthe soul's fire.[41]Norman Melchert interpreted Heraclitus as using "fire" metaphorically, inlieu ofLogos, as the origin of all things.[42]

[edit] Stoics

Stoicism was a philosophical school which flourished between the 3rd century BCE andabout the 3rd century CE. It began among the Greeks and became the major philosophy ofthe Roman Empire before declining with the rise ofChristianity in the 3rd century.

Throughout their long tenure the Stoics believed that the major tenets of their philosophyderived from the thought of Heraclitus.[56] According toLong, "the importance of Heraclitusto later Stoics is evident most plainly in Marcus Aurelius."[57] Explicit connections of theearliest Stoics to Heraclitus showing how they arrived at their interpretation are missing butthey can be inferred from the Stoic fragments. Long concludes to "modifications ofHeraclitus."[58]

The Stoics were interested in Heraclitus' treatment of fire. In addition to seeing it as the mostfundamental of the four elements and the one that is quantified and determines the quantity(logos) of the other three, he presents fire as the cosmos, which was not made by any of thegods or men, but "was and is and ever shall be ever-living fire."[59]This is the closest hecomes to a substance, but it is an active one altering other things quantitatively and

performing an activity Heraclitus describes as "the judging and convicting of all things."[60]Itis "the thunderbolt that steers the course of all things."[61] There is no reason to interpret the

judgement, which is actually "to separate" (krinein), as outside of the context of "strife isjustice" (see subsection above).

The earliest surviving Stoic work, theHymn to Zeus ofCleanthes,[62]though not explicitlyreferencing Heraclitus, adopts what appears to be the Heraclitean logos modified. Zeus rulesthe universe with law (nomos) wielding on its behalf the "forked servant", the "fire" of the"ever-living lightning." So far nothing has been said that differs from the Zeus ofHomer. Butthen, says Cleanthes, Zeus uses the fire to "straighten out the common logos" that travelsabout (phoitan, "to frequent") mixing with the greater and lesser lights (heavenly bodies).This is Heraclitus' logos, but now it is confused with the "common nomos", which Zeus usesto "make the wrong (perissa, left or odd) right (artia, right or even)" and "order (kosmein) thedisordered (akosma)."[63]

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The Stoic modification of Heraclitus' idea of the Logos was also influential on Jewishphilosophers such as Philo of Alexandria, who connected it to "Wisdom personified"{Sophia?}as God's creative principle. Philo uses the term Logos throughout his treatises onHebrew Scripture in a manner clearly influenced by the Stoics

Why won't cannibals eat divorced women?They're very bitter.

Why do cannibals prefer eating readers to writers?Because writers cramp but readers digest.

What did the cannibal do after he had dumped his girlfriend?Wiped his ass.

Did you hear about the cannibal who passed his uncle in the woods?

Two cannibals just finished a big meal and one turns to the other while rubbing hisstomach with his fist and say, "You know, I just ate my mother-in-law, and she still

doesn't agree with me!"What's the definition of Trust?Two cannibals giving each other a blowjob.

Two cannibals are eating a clown. One says to the other, "Does this taste funny toyou?"

When do cannibals leave the table?When everyone's eaten.

The first cannibal asked the 2nd cannibal, "Aren't you done eating yet?" The 2ndcannibal replied, "I'm on my last leg now."

Did you hear about the cannibal who loved fast food?He ordered a pizza with everybody on it.

One cannibal to another: I never met a man I didn't like!

What is a cannibal's favorite type of TV show?A celebrity roast.

Have you heard about the cannibal restaurant?Dinner costs an arm and a leg.

Where do cannibals shop for fine furniture?Eatin' Allen's.

What do cannibals eat for dessert?Chocolate covered aunts.

What is a cannibal's favorite game?Swallow the leader.

What do cannibals make out of politicians?Bologna sandwiches.

What did the cannibal get when he was late for dinner?The cold shoulder.

A man gets captured by cannibals and every day they poke him with spears and usehis blood to wash down their food. Finally the guy calls the chief over and

says, "You can kill me or you can eat me, but I'm tired of getting stuck for drinks."

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Did you hear about the cannibal who was expelled from school for buttering up histeacher?

Two cannibals were sitting by a fire. The first says, "Gee, I hate my mother-in-law."The 2nd replies, "So, try the potatoes.

Cannibal's recipe book: How to Serve Your Fellow Man.

A cannibal visited his neighbor to admire his new refrigerator. "What is the storagecapacity?" the man asked.

"I'm not exactly sure," the neighbor replied. "But it at least holds the two men thatbrought it."

A tourist goes to Africa and asks his tourist guide while walking in the jungle, "Are wesafe here? Aren't there cannibals around here?"

And the tourist guide says, "Yes. You can be sure there is no cannibals in Africa."And the tourist says, "But there may be still some cannibals."

And the tourist guide says, "No, rest assured. We ate the last one last Monday."

Two cannibals meet one day. The first cannibal says, "You know, I just can't seem toget a tender Missionary. I've baked them, I've roasted them, I've stewed them, I'vebarbecued them, I've tried every sort of marinade. I just can't seem to get themtender."

The second cannibal asks, "What kind of Missionary do you use?"

The other replied, "You know, the ones that hang out at that place at the bend of theriver. They have those brown cloaks with a rope around the waist and they're sort ofbald on top with a funny ring of hair on their heads."

"Ah, ha!" the second cannibal replies. "No wonder ... those are FRIARS!"

Two cannibals, a father and son, were elected by the tribe to go out and getsomething to eat. They walked deep into the jungle and waited by a path. Beforelong, along came this little old man. The son said, "Oh dad, there's one."

"No," said the father. "There's not enough meat on that one to even feed the dogs.We'll just wait."

Well, a little while later, along came this really fat man. The son said, "Hey dad, he'splenty big enough."

"No," the father said. "We'd all die of a heart attack from the fat in that one. We'll justwait."

About an hour later, here comes this absolutely gorgeous woman. The son said,"Now there's nothing wrong with that one dad. Let's eat her."

"No," said the father. "We'll not eat her either."

"Why not?" asked the son.

"Because, we're going to take her back alive and eat your mother."

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