Atomun yapısı ao
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Transcript of Atomun yapısı ao
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DEMOKRĠTUS
M.Ö.460-370
LEUCĠPPUS
M.Ö.430
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Joseph John Thomson
1856 - 1940
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Hız seçici
plakalar
Cıva buharının
Kütle spektrumu
Fotoğraf filmi
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J.J. Thomson
1856 - 1940
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Robert A. MĠLLĠKAN
1868 - 1953
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ERNEST RUTHERFORD
1871-1937
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Gamma
IĢını Alfa
Parçacıkları
Beta
Parçacıkları
Elektrik
Alan
Radyoaktif
maddeKurĢun
blok
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Eguen GOLSTEĠN
1850 - 1930
Wilhelm WĠEN
1865 - 1928
J. J. THOMSON
1856 - 1940
Kanal ıĢınları
Voltaj Kaynağı
Katot
Anot
Vakum pompası
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KatotAnot
+
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J.J. Thomson
1856 - 1940
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James CHADWICK
1891 -1974
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TANECĠK KÜTLE (g) akb YÜK
ELEKTRON 9,1096·10‾28 0,00054859 – 1
PROTON 1,6726·10‾24 1,007277 + 1
NÖTRON 1,6749·10‾24 1,008665 0
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Henry MOSELEY
1887-1915
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45
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50
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51
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1 < 2 < 31 < 2 < 3
52
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53
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Max PLANCK
1848 - 1947 56
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Metal yüzeyine gelen belli
frekansa sahip ıĢık metalden
elektron koparır.
Buna fotoelektrik olay denir.
Fotoelektrik olay klasik fizik ile açıklanamaz.
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f > i
Klasik fizik Compton saçılmasını açıklayamaz.
Saçılmış foton
Yükleyen foton
Hareketsiz hedef
elektronuTepki
elektronu
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Yarık
Prizma
Helyum
lambası
Fotoğraf filmi
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Uyarılmış örnek Dedektör
Prizma
Dalga boyu
Dalga boyu
Prizma
Dedektör
Beyaz ışık
kaynağı
Örnek
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Hydrogen Absorption Spectrum
Hidrojen Soğurma spektrumu
Hydrogen Emission Spectrum
Hidrojen Işıma spektrumu
H Alpha Line
656 nm
Transition N=3 to N=2
H Alfa Çizgisi
656 nm
Geçiş N=3 den N=2 ye
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= R -1 1
n22
1
n12
Rydberg sabiti (R ) = 1,096776 x107 m-1
HĠDROJEN ATOMUNUN SPEKTRUMUNDAKĠ ÇĠZGĠLERDEN ÜÇ SERĠ
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Niels Henrik David BOHR
1885 - 1962
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Z e
ELEKTRON ÇEKĠRDEK ETRAFINDA DAĠRESEL YÖRÜNGELERDE
HAREKET EDERLER.
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n=1
n=2
n=3
n=4
n=5
K
L
M
N
O
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BĠR ELEKTRONUN ENERJĠSĠ,
BULUNDUĞU YÖRÜNGENĠN ENERJĠSĠ KADARDIR.
Z e
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Z e
HER ELEKTRON ENERJĠSĠNĠN EN DÜġÜK OLDUĞU HALĠ TERCĠH EDER,
BU HALE TEMEL HAL DENĠLĠR. TEMEL HAL KARARLI BĠR DURUMDUR.
BĠR ELEKTRONA ENERJĠ VERĠLDĠĞĠNDE, YÜKSEK ENERJĠLĠ HALE GELEN
BU ELEKTRON ENERJĠSĠNE UYGUN BĠR YÖRÜNGEYE GEÇER. BU HALE
UYARILMIġ HAL DENĠLĠR UYARILMIġ HAL KARARSIZ BĠR DURUMDUR.
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Z e
ELEKTRON YENĠ ENERJĠSĠNE UYGUN BĠR YÖRÜNGEYE GEÇER.
YANĠ UYARILMIġ OLUR.
TEMEL HAL DEKĠ BĠR ELEKTRONA ENERJĠ VERĠLĠRSE,
YÜKSEK ENERJĠLĠ BU ELEKTRON YENĠDEN KARARLI OLABĠLMEK ĠÇĠN
FAZLA ENERJĠSĠNĠ IġIK OLARAK YAYIMLAYARAK ESKĠ DÜZEYĠNE DÖNER.
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h = Planck sabiti, 6,62 x 10-34 J.s
2 = 360 (dairesel bir dönü)
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h = 6,62 x 10-27 erg.s
m = 9,11 x 10–28 g
e = 4,8 x 10–10 g1/2·cm3/2·s–1
H atomunun
birinci yörünge yarıçapı
Z = 1
n = 1
r = 0,529 x 10–8 cm = a0
a0 = 0,529 Å (Bohr yapıçapı)
= 52,9 pm
r =4 2mZe2
n2h2
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Toplam Enerji = Potansiyel enerji + Kinetik enerji
-Ze2
r
r2r
E = + mv2
2
1
E = -2
1 Ze2
r
mv2 Ze2
= mv2 =r
Ze2
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HĠDROJEN BENZERĠ TEK ELEKTRONLU
SĠSTEMLERĠN ENERJĠSĠ
r =4 2mZe2
n2h2
En = -2
1 Ze2
r
ao =4 2me2
h2
En =Z2
n22,179 .10-18 Joule
r =Z
n2
ao
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Lyman
Balmer
Paschen
n=1
n=2
n=3
n=4
n=5
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Elektron geçişleri için genel
formül
E =1
ndıĢ22,179 .10-18
1
niç22,179 .10-18
E = EdıĢ - Eiç
E =1
ndıĢ22,179 .10-18
1
niç2
1
niç2
109737 cm-11
ndıĢ2=
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BOHR MODELĠYLE TEK ELEKTRONLU SĠSTEMLERDEKĠ ENERJĠ DEĞĠġĠMLERĠNĠ AÇIKLAYABĠLMĠġTĠR.
BOHR MODELĠYLE ÇOK ELEKTRONLU SĠSTEMLERDEKĠ ENERJĠ DEĞĠġĠMLERĠNĠ AÇIKLANAMAMIġTIR.
BOHR ve SOMMERFELD ÇOK ELEKTRONLU SĠSTEMLERĠN SPEKTRUMUNDA
GÖRÜLEN ĠLAVE YARILMALARINI AÇIKLAYABĠLMEK
AMACIYLAKÜRESEL YÖRÜNGELER YERĠNE
ELĠPTĠK YÖRÜNGE KAVRAMI GETĠRĠLMĠġTĠR.
BOHR ve SOMMERFELD YENĠ MODELLERĠYLE DE BAġARILI OLAMAMIġLARDIR.
Arnold SOMMERFELD
1868-1951
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Werner HEĠSENBERG
1901 -1976
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ELEKTRON GĠBĠ ÇOK KÜÇÜK PARÇACIKLARIN
KONUMLARININ BELĠRLENMESĠNE ÇALIġILDIĞINDA
HIZLARINDA,
VEYA
HIZLARININ BELĠRLENMESĠNE ÇALIġILDIĞINDA
KONUMLARINDA
BĠR BELĠRSĠZLĠK VARDIR
P · X ≥h
4
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Louis de BROGLĠE
1892-1987
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HAREKET EDEN HER PARÇACIK DALGA
ÖZELLĠĞĠ GÖSTEREBĠLĠR.
=h
m v
PARÇACIĞIN KÜTLESĠ KÜÇÜLDÜKÇE
DALGA ÖZELLĠĞĠ ÖNEM KAZANIR.
ELEKTRONUN DA KÜTLESĠ ÇOK KÜÇÜK
OLDUĞUNDAN, DALGA HAREKETĠ YAPAR.
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I = Ψ2c
4
DALGA FONKSĠYONU
Ψ
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Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander SCHRÖDĠNGER
1887 - 1961
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0)VE(h
m8
zyx 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
BU DĠFERANSĠYEL DENKLEMĠN ÇÖZÜMÜNDEN
HEM DALGA FONKSĠYONLARI
HEM DE TOPLAM ENERJĠ DEĞERLERĠ
ELDE EDĠLĠR.
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Matematiksel fonksiyonların
çözümünden elde edilen sonuçların
hepsinin kimyasal anlam taĢıması
beklenmez
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ĠNCELENEN SĠSTEM HAKKINDAKĠ BĠLGĠLER
BĠR DALGA FONKSĠYONU (Ψ) ĠÇĠNDE BULUNUR.
(Ψx,y,z,t)
Dalga Fonksiyonu konum ve zamana bağlı olarak değerler alır
(Ψx,y,z,)
Dalga Fonksiyonu konum bağlı olarak değerler alır.
Zaman bir değiĢken değildir
(Ψx,y,z,) DALGA FONKSĠYONUNUN FĠZĠKSEL BĠR ANLAM TAġIMASI ĠÇĠN
* Fonksiyon ve türevi sürekli olmalıdır.
* DeğiĢkenin herhangi bir değerine karĢılık, fonksiyonun tek değeri olmalıdır.
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BELLĠ BĠR NOKTADAKĠ
HACĠM ELEMENTĠ ĠÇERĠSĠNDE ELEKTRONUN BULUNMA ĠHTĠMALĠ
Ġhtimal = Ψ2 dτ
ELEKTRONUN BULUNMA ĠHTĠMALĠ UZAYIN HER YERĠ ĠÇĠN DÜġÜNÜLMELĠDĠR
∫ Ψ2 dτ = 1
UZAKLIĞIN SONSUZ OLMASI HALĠNDE
HACĠM ELEMENTĠ ĠÇĠNDE BULUNMA ĠHTĠMALĠ SIFIR OLMALIDIR
lim (x,y,z) → ∞ Ψ(x,y,z) = 0
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P = ίh
2
d
dx
<
T = ίh2
2m
d2
dx2
<
H Ψ (x) = E Ψ (x)
<
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103
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104
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106
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Radyal
KısımAçısal
Kısım
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108
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z 12
34
56
109
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110
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111
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RADYAL FONKSĠYON
R (1s) = 2( )3/2 e –Zr/aoZa0
1s orbitali (n = 1 ℓ= 0)
R
r
r = 0 ise R = 2( )3/2Z
a0
r = ∞ ise R = 0
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R2(1s) = [2( )3/2 e –Zr/ao]2Z
a0
R2(1s) = 4( )3 e –2Zr/ao
Za0
RADYAL YOĞUNLUK DAĞILIM EĞRĠSĠ
r = 0 ise R2 = 4( )3Z
a0
r = ∞ ise R2 = 0
R
r
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r
4 r dr
KÜRE KATMANLARININ HACMĠ
z
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RADYAL DAĞILIM EĞRĠSĠ
4 r dr·R2
r
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Radyal
KısımAçısal
Kısım
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PĠETER ZEEMAN
1865 - 1943
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Schrödinger denkleminin çok elektronlu sistemler için çözümünde
karşılaşılan güçlüklerin nedenleri :
1. Her elektron için üçer tane olmak üzere çok sayıda koordinat
değişkeninin olması.
2. Elektronlar arası itme kuvvetleri nedeniyle elektronların hareketinin
birbirine bağımlı olması.
Problemin çözümüne en basit yaklaşım, her defasında yalnızca bir elektronun ele alınması
olabilir. Bu durumda incelenen elektronun, diğer elektronların oluşturduğu bir elektrik alanı
içinde hareket ettiği düşünülür.
Böylece her elektron, sadece kendi koordinatlarının kullanıldığı bir dalga fonksiyonu ile
gösterilebilir. Diğer elektronların etkisi sadece potansiyel enerji fonksiyonunda görülür.
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Bu yöntemde 3 tane elektronu bulunan bir sistemde, incelenecek
elektronun dışındaki iki elektronun her biri için bir dalga fonksiyonu önerilir.
Sınama amacıyla önerilen bu fonksiyonlar kullanılarak 3.elektron için bir
dalga fonksiyonu hesaplanır. Hesaplanan bu fonksiyon diğer elektronlar
için önerilen fonksiyonlarla birleştirilerek bu kez 1.elektron için bir dalga
fonksiyonu hesaplanır. Birinci elektron için hesaplanan fonksiyon, bu
elektron için önerilen ilk fonksiyondan farklıdır. Hesaplanan bu fonksiyona
birinci elektronun birinci geliştirilmiş fonksiyonu denir. İki elektron için
hesaplanmış bu dalga fonksiyonlarını diğer önerilen fonksiyonlara katarak
ikinci elektron için birinci geliştirilmiş fonksiyon hesaplanır. İşlem bütün
elektronlar için yapılarak birinci geliştirilmiş fonksiyonlar hesaplanır.
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140
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141
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142
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143
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144
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s (ℓ=0) p (ℓ=1) d (ℓ=2) f (ℓ=3)
n=1
n=2
n=3
n=4
n=5
n=6 . . . . . .
n=7 . . . . . . . . .
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MAX BORN – PAUL DĠRAC
1882 – 1970 1902 - 1984
Paul Adrien Maurice DĠRAC
1902 - 1984
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Bohr – Heisenberg - Pauli
Wolfgang PAULĠ
1900 - 1958
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PAULĠ’NĠN
DIġARILAMA ĠLKESĠ
BĠR ATOMDA
DÖRT AYNI KUVANTUM SAYISINA SAHĠP
(n, ℓ, mℓ ve ms)
BĠRDEN FAZLA ELEKTRON
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AUFBAU SIRASI
Orbitallerin enerjileri n+ℓ değerinin artmasıyla yükselir.
1s - 2s - 2p - 3s - 3p - 3d - 4s - 4p - 4d - 4f - 5s - 5p
n+ℓ = 1 2 3 3 4 5 4 5 6 7 5 6
n+ℓ, değerlerinin aynı olması halinde n sayısı büyük olan
orbitalin enerjisi yüksektir.
Bu iki kural kullanılarak orbitallerin enerji sıralaması aĢağıdaki
Ģekilde yapılır
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s < 4f
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1H 1s1
2He 1s2
3Li 1s2 2s1
4Be 1s2 2s2
5B 1s2 2s2 2p1
6C 1s2 2s2 2p2
6C 1s2 2s2 2p2
?
1s 2s 2p
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Friedrich HUND
1896-1997
MĠLLĠKAN - HUND
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HUND’UN
MAKSĠMUM SPĠN KATLILIĞI
KURALI
ELEKTRONLAR
BĠR ALTKABUKTAKĠ EġENERJĠLĠ ORBĠTALLERE
PARALEL SPĠNLĠ TEK ELEKTRONLARIN SAYISI
EN BÜYÜK OLACAK ġEKĠLDE DAĞILIR.
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ms
0
+ 1
+ 1
0
+ 1
6C 1s2 2s2 2p2
Pauli
Görmesin !
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p 1
p 2
p 3
p 4
p 5
p 6
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2He 1s2
3Li 1s2 2s1
6C 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py
1 2pz
3Li [He] 2s1
6C 1s2 2s2 2p26C [He] 2s2 2p2
6C [He] 2s2 2px1 2py
1 2pz
DEĞİŞİK GÖSTERİMLER
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24Cr [Ar] 3d5 4s1
29Cu [Ar] 3d10 4s1
47Ag [Kr] 4d10 5s1
79Au [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s1
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AUFBAU ĠLKESĠ, ĠYONLARIN ELEKTRON DĠZĠLĠġĠ
ĠÇĠN GEÇERLĠ DEĞĠLDĠR
ĠYONLAġMADA ELEKTRON KOPARMA
SIRASINI, ATOMUN BAġLANGIÇ HALĠNDEKĠ
KARARLILIĞI VE ELEKTRON KAYBETTĠKTEN
SONRA OLUġAN ĠYONUN KARARLILIĞI BELĠRLER
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30Zn [Ar] 3d10 4s230Zn2+ [Ar] 3d10
32Ge [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p232Ge+ [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p1
29Cu [Ar] 3d10 4s129Cu+ [Ar] 3d10
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John Alexander Reina NEWLANDs
1837 - 1898
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Dmitriy Ġvanoviç MENDELYEEV
1834 - 1907
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p1
p1
p1
p1
p1
p
p2
p2
p2
p2
p2
p2
p3
p3
p3
p3
p3
p3
p4
p4
p4
p4
p4
p4
p5
p5
p5
p5
p5
p5
s2
p6
p6
p6
p6
p6
p6
s1
s1
s1
s1
s1
s1
s1
s2
s2
s2
s2
s2
s2
d1
d1
d2
d2
d257
71
d3
d3
d3
d4
d4
d4
d5
d5
d5
d6
d6
d6
d7
d7
d7
d8
d8
d8
d9
d9
d9
d10
d10
d10
f1
f1
f2
f2
f3
f3
f4
f4
f5
f5
f6
f6
f7
f7
f8
f8
f9
f9
f10
f10
f11
f11
f12
f12
f13
f13
f14
f14
IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA VIIIAIIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIII B IB IIBIA IIA
1. peryot
2. peryot
3. peryot
4. peryot
5. peryot
6. peryot
7. peryot
Lantanitler
Aktinitler
p Blokd Bloks Blok
f Blok
d289
103d3 d4 d5 d6 d7 d8 d9
13 14 15 16 17 183 4 5 6 7 8 11 121 2 9 10
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John C. SLATER
1900 - 1976
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veya orbitalinde bulunan bir elektron için S perdeleme
sabitinin hesaplanmasında Ģu kurallar uygulanır
perdeleme sabitine katkısı 0,35 tir.
perdeleme sabitine katkısı 0,85 tir.
perdeleme sabitine katkısı 1,00 dir.
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Perdelenen elektron bir veya elektronu ise
perdeleme
sabitine katkısı 0,35 tir.
, perdeleme sabitine katkısı olur.
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Hidrojene benzer tek elektronlusistemlerde baş kuvantum sayısı aynıolan bütün orbitaller eş enerjilidir.
Çok elektronlu atomlarda, dış orbitallerin içorbitallere girginliği nedeniyle eş enerjili olmaözelliği bozulur.
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Baş kuvantum sayısı n aynı kaldığı halde
etkin çekirdek yükü Z* nin artmasıdır.
Baş kuvantum sayısı arttığı halde,
etkin çekirdek yükü büyük ölçüde artmaz.
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ĠYONLAġMA ENERJĠSĠ
bulunan bir atomdan bir
elektronun koparılarak yine gaz fazda temel haldeki artı bir yüklü
iyonunun oluĢturulması için gereken enerjiye birinci iyonlaĢma
enerjisi (Ġ.E.) (iyonlaĢma potansiyeli) denir.
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3Li 1s2 2s1
4Be 1s2 2s2
5B 1s2 2s2 2p1
6C 1s2 2s2 2p2
1s2s 2p
7N 1s2 2s2 2p3
8O 1s2 2s2 2p4
7F 1s2 2s2 2p3
8Ne 1s2 2s2 2p4
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13Al
13Al+
+
13Al+2
+2
13Al+3
+3
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ELEKTRON ĠLGĠSĠ
bir atom veya iyona bir elektron eklendiği zaman
açığa çıkan enerjiye elektron ilgisi denir.
Elektron ilgisi değerlerinin işareti termodinamik kuralları ile çelişkilidir.
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1 1. ELEKTRON ĠLGĠLERĠ (kJ/mol) 18
H
-74,52 13 14 15 16 17
He
+21,2
Li
-59,8
Be
-36,7
B
-17,3
C
-122
N
+20,1
O
-141
F
-337
Ne
+28,9
Na
-52,2
Mg
+21,2
Al
-19,3
Si
-131
P
-68,5
S
-197
Cl
-349
Ar
+35,7
K
-45,4
Ca
+186
Ga
-35,3
Ge
-139
As
-103
Se
-203
Br
-324
Kr
+40,5
Rb
-37,6
Sr
+145
In
-19,3
Sn
-99,5
Sb
-90,5
Te
-189
I
-295
Xe
+43,5
Cs
-36,7
Ba
+46,4
Tl
-30,4
Pb
-99,5
Bi
-91,5Po
-127
At
-270
Rn
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Kristal yapıda yüksek örgü enerjileri O-2 iyonunun kararlı
olmasını sağlar. Sulu çözeltilerde ise çözücü su moleküllerinin
dipolü bu kadar enerjiyi sağlayamaz ve O-2 iyonu protona bağlı
olarak OH− iyonu haline gelir.
O (g) + e- O-(g) H = -141,3 kJ mol-1
O-(g) + e- O-2
(g) H = + 844 kJ mol-1
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Bir atomun moleküldeki bağ elektronlarını
kendine doğru çekme gücüdür.
Elektronegatiflik, bir atomun yalnız baĢına
bulunduğu hale ait bir özelliği değildir.
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Linus PAULING
1901 - 1994
Hayali olarak düĢünülen, polar bir
A-B molekülünün bağ enerjisi ile
apolar bir A-B molekülünün bağ
enerjisi farkının eV cinsinden
karekökünün değerini, A ile B
atomlarının elektronegatiflik farkı
olarak tarif etmiĢtir.
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H
2.20
Li
0.98
Be
1.57
B
2.04
C
2.55
N
3.04
O
3.44
F
3.98
Na
0.93
Mg
1.31
Al
1.61
Si
1.90
P
2.19
S
2.58
Cl
3.16
K
0.82
Ca
1.00
Sc
1.36
Ti
1.54
V
1.63
Cr
1.66
Mn
1.55
Fe
1.83
Co
1.88
Ni
1.91
Cu
2.00
Zn
1.65
Ga
1.81
Ge
2.01
As
2.18
Se
2.55
Br
2.96
Rb
0.82
Sr
0.95
Y
1.22
Zr
1.33
Nb
1.60
Mo
2.16
Te
1.90
Ru
2.20
Rh
2.28
Pd
2.20
Ag
1.93
Cd
1.69
In
1.78
Sn
1.96
Sb
2.05
Te
2.10
I
2.66
Cs
0.79
Ba
0.89
La
1.10
Hf
1.30
Ta
1.50
W
2.36
Re
1.90
Os
2.20
Ir
2.20
Pt
2.28
Au
2.54
Hg
2.00
Tl
2.04
Pb
2.33
Bi
2.02
Po
2.00
At
2.20
Pauling Electronegativity Scale
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Robert MULLIKEN
1896 - 1986
Elektronegatifliği iyonlaĢma
enerjisi ve elektron ilgisinin
aritmetik ortalaması olarak
tanımlamıĢtır
M = 1/2 (ĠE. + E.Ġ.)
P = 1,35 M1/2 - 1,37
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H
2.20
Li
0.97
Be
1.47
B
2.01
C
2.50
N
3.07
O
3.50
F
4.10
Na
1.01
Mg
1.23
Al
1.47
Si
1.74
P
2.06
S
2.44
Cl
2.83
K
0.91
Ca
1.04
Sc
1.20
Ti
1.32
V
1.45
Cr
1.56
Mn
1.60
Fe
1.64
Co
1.70
Ni
1.75
Cu
1.75
Zn
1.66
Ga
1.82
Ge
2.02
As
2.20
Se
2.48
Br
2.74
Rb
0.89
Sr
0.99
Y
1.11
Zr
1.22
Nb
1.23
Mo
1.30
Te
1.36
Ru
1.42
Rh
1.45
Pd
1.35
Ag
1.42
Cd
1.46
In
1.49
Sn
1.72
Sb
1.82
Te
2.01
I
2.21
Cs
0.86
Ba
0.97
La
1.08
Hf
1.23
Ta
1.33
W
1.40
Re
1.46
Os
1.52
Ir
1.55
Pt
1.44
Au
1.42
Hg
1.44
Tl
1.44
Pb
1.55
Bi
1.67
Po
1.76
At
1.9
0
Allred-Rochow Electronegativity Scale
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Eguene G. ROCHOW
Her atomdaki elektronlar etkin
çekirdek yükünün etkisi altındadır.
Kovalent yarıçapı r olan bir atomun
yüzeyindeki Coulomb potansiyeli
Z*/r ile; elektrik alanı ise Z*/r2 ile
doğru orantılıdır
A. L. ALLRED
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H
s: 2.21
Li
s: 0.84
Be
sp: 1.40
B
sp3: 1.81
sp2: 1.93
C
p: 1.75
sp3: 2.48
sp2: 2.75
sp: 3.29
N
p: 2.28
sp3: 3.68
sp2: 4.13
sp: 5.07
O
p: 3.04
sp3: 4.93
sp2: 5.54
F
p: 3.90
Na
s: 0.74
Mg
sp: 1.17
Al
sp2: 1.64
Si
sp3: 2.25
P
p: 1.84
sp3: 2.79
S
p: 2.28
sp3: 3.21
Cl
p: 2.95
K
s: 0.77
Ca
sp: 0.99
Ga
sp2: 1.82
Ge
sp3: 2.50
As
p: 1.59
sp3: 2.58
Se
p: 2.18
sp3: 3.07
Br
p: 2.62
Rb
s: 0.50
Sr
sp: 0.85
In
sp2: 1.57
Sn
sp3: 2.44
Sb
p: 1.46
sp3: 2.64
Te
p: 2.08
sp3: 3.04
I
p: 2.52
Mulliken-Jaffé Electronegativity Scale
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0.529 Å
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
1
H
2.300
He
4.160
2
Li
0.912
Be
1.576
B
2.051
C
2.544
N
3.066
O
3.610
F
4.193
Ne
4.789
3
Na
0.869
Mg
1.293
Al
1.613
Si
1.916
P
2.253
S
2.589
Cl
2.869
Ar
3.242
4
K
0.734
Ca
1.034
Sc
1.19
Ti
1.38
V
1.53
Cr
1.65
Mn
1.75
Fe
1.80
Co
1.84
Ni
1.88
Cu
1.85
Zn
1.59
Ga
1.756
Ge
1.994
As
2.211
Se
2.434
Br
2.685
Kr
2.966
5
Rb
0.706
Sr
0.963
Y
1.12
Zr
1.32
Nb
1.41
Mo
1.47
Tc
1.51
Ru
1.54
Rh
1.56
Pd
1.59
Ag
1.87
Cd
1.52
In
1.656
Sn
1.824
Sb
1.984
Te
2.158
I
2.359
Xe
2.582
6
Cs
0.659
Ba
0.881
Lu
1.09
Hf
1.16
Ta
1.34
W
1.47
Re
1.60
Os
1.65
Ir
1.68
Pt
1.72
Au
1.92
Hg
1.76
Tl
1.789
Pb
1.854
Bi
2.01
Po
2.19
At
2.39
Rn
2.60
7
Fr
0.67
Ra
0.89
**
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1
H
2.20
He
2
Li
0.98
Be
1.57
B
2.04
C
2.55
N
3.04
O
3.44
F
3.98
Ne
3
Na
0.93
Mg
1.31
Al
1.61
Si
1.90
P
2.19
S
2.58
Cl
3.16
Ar
4
K
0.82
Ca
1.00
Sc
1.36
Ti
1.54
V
1.63
Cr
1.66
Mn
1.55
Fe
1.83
Co
1.88
Ni
1.91
Cu
1.90
Zn
1.65
Ga
1.81
Ge
2.01
As
2.18
Se
2.55
Br
2.96
Kr
3.00
5
Rb
0.82
Sr
0.95
Y
1.22
Zr
1.33
Nb
1.6
Mo
2.16
Tc
1.9
Ru
2.2
Rh
2.28
Pd
2.20
Ag
1.93
Cd
1.69
In
1.78
Sn
1.96
Sb
2.05
Te
2.1
I
2.66
Xe
2.60
6
Cs
0.79
Ba
0.89
*
Hf
1.3
Ta
1.5
W
2.36
Re
1.9
Os
2.2
Ir
2.20
Pt
2.28
Au
2.54
Hg
2.00
Tl
1.62
Pb
2.33
Bi
2.02
Po
2.0
At
2.2
Rn
2.2
7
Fr
0.7
Ra
0.9
**
Rf
Db
Sg
Bh
Hs
Mt
Ds
Rg
Cn
Uut
Uuq
Uup
Uuh
Uus
Uuo
Lanthanoids
*
La
1.1
Ce
1.12
Pr
1.13
Nd
1.14
Pm
1.13
Sm
1.17
Eu
1.2
Gd
1.2
Tb
1.1
Dy
1.22
Ho
1.23
Er
1.24
Tm
1.25
Yb
1.1
Lu
1.27
Actinoids
**
Ac
1.1
Th
1.3
Pa
1.5
U
1.38
Np
1.36
Pu
1.28
Am
1.13
Cm
1.28
Bk
1.3
Cf
1.3
Es
1.3
Fm
1.3
Md
1.3
No
1.3
Lr
1.3
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1H
2.20
He
2Li
0.98
Be
1.57
B
2.04
C
2.55
N
3.04
O
3.44
F
3.98
Ne
3Na
0.93
Mg
1.31
Al
1.61
Si
1.90
P
2.19
S
2.58
Cl
3.16
Ar
4K
0.82
Ca
1.00
Sc
1.36
Ti
1.54
V
1.63
Cr
1.66
Mn
1.55
Fe
1.83
Co
1.88
Ni
1.91
Cu
1.90
Zn
1.65
Ga
1.81
Ge
2.01
As
2.18
Se
2.55
Br
2.96
Kr
3.00
5Rb
0.82
Sr
0.95
Y
1.22
Zr
1.33
Nb
1.6
Mo
2.16
Tc
1.9
Ru
2.2
Rh
2.28
Pd
2.20
Ag
1.93
Cd
1.69
In
1.78
Sn
1.96
Sb
2.05
Te
2.1
I
2.66
Xe
2.60
6Cs
0.79
Ba
0.89
* Hf
1.3
Ta
1.5
W
2.36
Re
1.9
Os
2.2
Ir
2.20
Pt
2.28
Au
2.54
Hg
2.00
Tl
1.62
Pb
2.33
Bi
2.02
Po
2.0
At
2.2
Rn
2.2
7Fr
0.7
Ra
0.9
** Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo
Lanthanoids* La
1.1
Ce
1.12
Pr
1.13
Nd
1.14
Pm
1.13
Sm
1.17
Eu
1.2
Gd
1.2
Tb
1.1
Dy
1.22
Ho
1.23
Er
1.24
Tm
1.25
Yb
1.1
Lu
1.27
Actinoids** Ac
1.1
Th
1.3
Pa
1.5
U
1.38
Np
1.36
Pu
1.28
Am
1.13
Cm
1.28
Bk
1.3
Cf
1.3
Es
1.3
Fm
1.3
Md
1.3
No
1.3
Lr
1.3
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FACTOR ...or in full ...
or in SI SI
words PREFIX SYMBOL1.10
241 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 septillion yotta- Y
1.1021
1 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 sextillion zetta- Z
1.1018
1 000 000 000 000 000 000 quintillion exa- E
1.1015
1 000 000 000 000 000 quadrillion peta- P
1.1012
1 000 000 000 000 trillion tera- T
1.109
1 000 000 000 billion giga- G
1.106
1 000 000 million mega- M
1.103
1 000 thousand kilo- k
1.102
100 hundred hecto- h
1.101
10 ten deca- da
1.10-1
0,1 tenth deci- d
1.10-2
0,01 hundredth centi- c
1.10-3
0,001 thousandth milli- m
1.10-6
0,000 001 millionth micro- µ
1.10-9
0,000 000 001 billionth nano- n
1.10-12
0,000 000 000 001 trillionth pico- p
1.10-15
0,000 000 000 000 001 quadrillionth femto- f
1.10-18
0,000 000 000 000 000 001 quintillionth atto- a
1.10-21
0,000 000 000 000 000 000 001 sextillionth zepto- z
1.10-24
0,000 000 000 000 000 000 000 001 septillionth yocto- y