Florentine (Early) Florentine (Early) RenaissanceRenaissanceQuattrocento ItalyQuattrocento Italy

Causes of the Renaissance• Greater individual wealth (merchant and artisan class)• Lower population (due to previous plague years) lead to little competition for resources• Printing press and printmaking techniques lead to greater availability of education and spread of ideas. Removed power from clergy. Re-exposure to literature and philosophy of ancient Greece.• Increased international trade lead to growth of cities, and increase in the number of very wealthy individuals• Wider variety of art patrons lead to wider variety of art subjects.

Gutenberg and his press

Humanism• Renaissance-era Humanism:1. Discover the beauties of life in the here and now (not the hereafter)2. Reaffirmation of man “nothing more wonderful than man”3. Invention of the printing press spreads ideas from the people, to the people4. Investigation of ancient texts and writers from Classical Greece and Rome (i.e. Plato, Aristotle, Ovid, etc)5. Promoted a revival of interest in the affairs of the everyday world, such as science, engineering, mathematics, and medicine6. Reassertion of the faith of men and women in themselves7. Reinforce the role of individuals in all spheres8. Emphasis on individual improvement and excellence rewarded with fame and honor.9. Emphasis on civic duty

Vitruvian ManLeonardo da Vinci

Power in Quattrocento Italy• In the 1400s, Italy was still divided into politically volatile city-states, with shifting power relations among them.• Some regions were republics, while others (such as Milan and Naples) were ruled by individuals.• The city-states of this time that were ruled by an individual are referred to generically as princely courts, for though they were ruled by rulers with various titles (such as duke, marquis, count, cardinal, pope, or condottiere [mercenary warlord]), all them had the imperial powers of a monarch.• These “princes” often appointed a court painter. At the time, most artists were still considered middle-class craftsmen. Being appointed the court painter was a significant elevation of social status (in addition to providing a steady income). • Princes selected their court painters carefully, as the quality of work done by their painter reflected upon their own reputation.• In addition to portraits, sculptures, and frescoes, court painters were in charge of the tapestries, costumes, masks, and decorations for the frequent lavish social functions of court life.

Italy c. 1400

The Medicis• By the time of his death in 1429, the Florentine banker Giovanni di Bicci de Medici had established a vast family fortune. • His son, Cosimo de Medici, was a great patron of the arts and of learning in the broadest sense (in one example, he spent the equivalent of $20 million on the first library since ancient times). • Florence was supposedly a republic, but in fact it was ruled indirectly by Cosimo. Although he did not hold public office, he used his wealth to control politics through bribery and threats.• Cosimo’s son, Piero, was in perpetually ill health, and only ruled for five years after his father before his own death.• Piero’s son Lorenzo was was a member of the Platonic Academy of Philosophy, and gathered about him a variety of artists and gifted men in all fields. He spent lavishly on buildings, paintings, and sculptures. • Although Lorenzo continued to rule Florence in the same style as his grandfather Cosimo, Lorenzo was not as gifted at banking as his forefathers, and the family business shrank dramatically under his tenure.

Cosimo “the Elder” de Medici

Piero “the Gouty” di Cosimo de Medici

Lorenzo “the Magnificent” de Medici

Teachings of the Neo-Platonic Academy1. The eternal absolutes of truth, goodness, and beauty existed only in the divine mind.2. Such absolutes are not wholly within human grasp.3. Mortals, by learning, observation, and creativity, could catch occasional glimpses of the absolutes4. TRUTH could be obtained by pursuing scientific knowledge5. GOODNESS could be obtained through performing and observing good deeds and through the experience of love, first physical then spiritual6. BEAUTY could be obtained through nature and experiencing great works of art

Plato and Aristotle

East Doors of the Baptistery of San Giovanni (Florence Cathedral)

• In 1401, the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore (Florence Cathedral) held a competition to design the new East doors of the baptistery (the south doors were done by Andrea Pisano in 1330). • The artwork would be commissioned by the wool merchants guild.• Each prospective artist had to submit a relief panel depicting Abraham’s near sacrifice of his son Isaac in a similar French Gothic quatrefoil frame.• This scene is a metaphor for God’s sacrifice of his son, Christ.• It also represents covenants (binding agreements between God and humans). Baptism (in the baptistery) initiated a person into these covenants.• It may also represent the sacrifice of the civic duty to protect the city to ensure freedom, as Florence was at the time under siege by Visconti, the duke of Milan.

North (originally East) Doors of the Baptistery of San Giovanni. Lorenzo Ghiberti

Baptistery of San Giovanni, Florence, ItalyGilded bronze. 1401-1402.

Ghiberti vs. Brunelleschi Sacrifice of IsaacFilippo Brunelleschi

Sacrifice of IsaacLorenzo Ghiberti

Sacrifice of Isaac• Ghiberti’s panel won out for a number of reasons:1.It was cast in only two pieces of bronze, whereas Brunelleschi’s was cast in several pieces. This meant lighter doors, less materials expense, and better durability against the elements of weather. 2.Brunelleschi’s depiction emphasizes movement and passion, whereas Ghiberti’s depiction is more contemplative and graceful.3.Ghiberti’s composition has a greater sense of depth4.Ghiberti’s depiction of Isaac recalls the nudes of Classical Greece (as does his acanthus leaf decoration of the altar Isaac kneels on).

Brunelleschi

Ghiberti

Gates of Paradise• In 1425, Ghiberti’s patrons moved his original doors to the north entrance, and commissioned him to make a new set of completely gilded doors for the east entrance.• The artist Michelangelo later described these new doors as being “so beautiful that they would do well for the gates of Paradise,” and the nickname Gates of Paradise stuck.• Ghiberti’s rival, Brunelleschi, had recently developed the system of linear perspective, which Ghiberti adopted in these panels.• Ghiberti abandoned the quatrefoil frame of the previous doors, and made ten larger panels, instead of 28 smaller ones.• The panels depict episodes from the Old Testament.• In addition to linear perspective, Ghiberti used depth of relief to create a sense of depth (closer objects are in higher relief, whereas further items are in shallower relief).

East Doors of the Baptistery of San GiovanniLorenzo GhibertiBaptistery of San Giovanni, Florence, ItalyGilded bronze. 1425.

Isaac & His Sons• This is one of the panels from Ghiberti’s Gates of Paradise.• Instead of the panel serving as an architectural space, Ghiberti depicted architecture in the background.• The elegant architectural elements in the background lend a sense of dignity and importance.• Synoptic narrative – the same characters appear several times within the same frame to depict the story.-Left: Women attend the birth of Esau and Jacob-Center: Isaac sends Esau and his dogs to hunt game-Right: Isaac blesses the kneeling Jacob as Rebecca looks on• Sense of realistic space enhanced by showing some figures from behind.

Isaac & His SonsLorenzo Ghiberti

East doors of the Baptistery of San Giovanni, Florence, Italy

Gilded bronze. 1425.

Or San Michele• The Or San Michele was an early 14th century building that connected the Palazzo della Signoria (seat of the Signoria, Florence’s governing body) and the cathedral.• At various times, Or San Michele housed a church, a granary, and the headquarters of Florence’s guilds.• City officials had assigned niches on the building’s four sides to specific guilds, instructing each guild to place a statue of its patron saint in its niche.• After nearly a century, only five of the fourteen niches were filled, so city officials issued a mandate requiring the guilds to comply.• The niches house sculptures by some of the leading artists of the 1400s, including Ghiberti and Donatello.

Or San MicheleFlorence, Italy

Four Crowned Saints• Commissioned by the Florentine guild of stone- and wood-cutters.• The sculpture depicted the four patron saints of the guild, who were sculptors that refused to sculpt a Roman god for the Roman emperor Diocletian (ruled 284-305), and were subsequently put to death.• At the time, Florence was under siege by King Ladislaus of Naples. These saints were the perfect role models for 15th century Florentines whom city leaders exhorted to stand fast in the face of Ladislaus’ armies.• The recessed niches of Or San Michele allowed di Banco to face the figures towards each other, making it seem as though they are interacting and sharing the same unified space (as opposed to previous jamb figures, which all faced the same direction). • As the man on the right speaks, the two men on the left listen closely, and the third man looks into space, pondering the meaning of the man on the right’s words, creating a psychological unity.• The emotional intensity of the two inner figures is based on third century Roman emperor portrait busts.• The bearded heads of the outer saints reveal a familiarity with second-century imperial portraiture.

Four Crowned SaintsNanni di Banco

Or San Michele, Florence, Italyc. 1410

Saint Mark• One such niche sculpture is the depiction of Saint Mark by the sculptor Donatello (full name Donato di Noccolo Bardi)• Commissioned by the guild for linen makers and tailors.• Donatello utilized the classical contrapposto pose• The folds of St. Mark’s robes seem to flow with the movement of his body, giving the sense that the figure is a nude human wearing clothing, not a stone statue with arbitrarily incised drapery. • The robe does not conceal but rather accentuates the movement of the arms, legs, shoulders, and hips. • The focus on the flowing drapery is appropriate given the guild for whom the work was commissioned.• The life-like statue almost seems ready to move out of the niche.

Saint MarkDonatello.

Or San Michele, Florence, Italy.

c. 1411. Marble, 7’ 9”.

St. George• This statue was commissioned by the guild for armorers and sword-makers.• It originally had a bronze helmet, and held a bronze sword (both fashioned by guild members).• The figure appears tense, ready to defend Florence against invading armies.• Below the statue, Donatello installed a relief depicting St. George fighting a dragon. The background details are lightly incised lines, creating an sense of depth similar to atmospheric perspective.

Saint GeorgeDonatello

Or San Michele,Florence,

Italyc. 1410

Mary Magdalene• Also known as Penitent Mary Magdalene• Depicts an aged and withered Mary Magdalene, clad in nothing but a garment of her own hair.• Was probably originally commissioned by an housed in the Baptistery of San Giovanni, Florence.• Was remarkable for its physiological realism and heightened emotionalism.

Mary MagdaleneDonatello

Woodc. 1455

Donatello’s David• Commissioned by the Medici family for display in their courtyard.• Donatello revived the free-standing nude sculpture, which had been considered indecent and/or idolatrous during the middle ages.• Instead of a Greek god, Donatello depicted David, the young biblical hero who slayed the giant Goliath.• David was seen as a symbol for Florence, which had survived several sieges by outside forces.• The Medici either identified with Florence, or saw themselves as responsible for its prosperity, and that is why they commissioned a statue of David.• The incorporation of the classical contrapposto pose and proportions would have appealed to the Medici, as humanists.

DavidDonatelloc. 1440Bronze5’ 2”

Verrocchio’s David• Verrocchio was a prominent sculptor as well as painter.• His version of David (also commissioned by the Medici family) is less classically idealized than Donatello’s.• Verrocchio’s David is a sturdy, wiry young apprentice clad in a leather doublet who stands with jaunty pride over the head of Goliath.• The easy balance of the weight and the lithe, still thinly adolescent musculature, with prominent veins, show how closely Verrocchio read the biblical text, and how clearly he knew the psychology of brash young men.• The Medici family later sold Verrocchio’s David to the Florentine government for placement in the Palazzo della Signoria.

DavidAndrea del Verrocchioc. 1465Bronze4’ 1”

Hercules & Antaeus• What story is being depicted here? In what medium have we seen this story before?• Also commissioned by the Medici family.• Small in size.• The Greek subject matter and emphasis on anatomy indicate the Medici interest in humanist art.• Hercules is also related to the city of Florence because he had been included on the city’s seal since the 1300s. Again, the Medici family sought to associate themselves with the glory and success of their city.• Unlike the two David statues, this statue depicts the human form in violent motion.

Hercules &AntaeusAntonio del Pollaiuoloc. 1470Bronze1’ 6”

Gattamelata• The most expensive sculptures of the era were the larger-than-life equestrian bronze statues.• This statue depicts a recently-deceased Venetian condottiere Erasmo da Narni, nicknamed Gattamelata (“honeyed cat”). • The family of Gattamelata commissioned the piece to be made by Donatello.• The Venetian senate formally authorized its placement in the square in front of the church of Sant’Antonio in Padua, Gattamelata’s birthplace.• Donatello likely studied the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius in Rome, but Donatello did not make the horse disproportionately small. Gattamelata dominates the horse through character and will instead of size.• The sculpture was elevated on a high platform.• This image shows the ideal Renaissance individualist – intelligent, courageous, ambitious, and frequently of humble origin, who could, by his own resourcefulness and on his own merits, rise to a commanding position in the world (represented by the orb below the horse’s foot).

GattamelataDonatello. 12’ 2”.Piazza del Santo, Padua, Italy. Bronze. C. 1445.

Bartolomeo Colleoni• Another condottiere who fought for the Venetians was Colleoni, who wished to have an equestrian statue of himself to rival the fame of Gattamelata, and left funds in his will to pay for the commission.• The artist Verrocchio presented a different interpretation of a military leader.• Placed on a pedestal even taller than Gattamelata’s.• The horse appears mid-stride, leaning forward with one foot in the air.• Colleoni twists his torso and seems to stand up in the stirrups of the saddle.• Both horse and rider are depicted with an exaggerated tautness – the animal’s bulging muscles and the man’s fiercely rigid body together convey brute strength.• Donatello’s Gattamelata depicted grim wisdom; Verrocchio’s Bartolomeo Colleoni is a portrait of merciless might.

Equestrian Statue of Bartolomeo ColleoniAndrea del VerrocchioCampo dei Santi Giovanni e Paolo,Venice, Italy.c. 1480. Bronze. 13’ high.

Painter Training• In Renaissance art, certain themes, motifs, and compositions appear with great regularity, fostered by training practices that emphasized the importance of tradition.• Although many artists developed their own individual styles, tradition and convention still dominated.• Aspiring artists began their training by copying master paintings (imitation). They would closely study works by the greatest artists, and repeatedly copy them to learn their style and techniques.• Once an artist developed their technical skills, they stopped copying artworks exactly, and began making their own compositions. However, they would still incorporate stylistic elements and techniques learned from the great artists (emulation). • Although imitation still provided the foundation for the practice of emulation, an artist used features of another’s art only as a springboard for improvements or innovations. • Thus, developing artists went beyond previous artists and attempted to prove their own competence and skill by improving on established masters (in effect “competing” with the masters).• Eventually, artists would develop their own distinct style.

Artist copying a master painting in the Louvre (Paris).

Adoration of the Magi• The Late Gothic International Style of Simone Martini persisted during the first half of the 1400s.• This altarpiece was painted by Gentile da Fabriano, the leading International Style artist of the time, by the Strozzi family (one of the wealthiest in Florence) for their family chapel in the church of Santa Trinita in Florence.• The elaborately carved and gilded frame shows off the family’s wealth, as does the use of elaborate costumes, gold leaf, and rich colors in the image.• The image focuses on the Magi praising the Christ child and the Virgin Mary, but it also depicts all of the pomp and chivalric etiquette of the Late Medieval era, which would have appealed to the wealthy family.• Although this is primarily an example of International Style painting, the artist did incorporate the more naturalistic use of varied angles and fore-shortening to create a sense of depth (such as with the horses, or the man kneeling to remove the spurs from the magus). • The bottom left predella panel may be the first night-time version of the Nativity, lit from within (the radiant Christ-child).

Adoration of the Magi by Gentile da FabrianoStrozzi Chapel altarpiece, Santa Trinita, Florence,

Italy. 1423. Tempera on wood. 9’ 11” x 9’ 3”.

Tribute Money• The young artist Masaccio (who unfortunately died at age 27) painted a series of frescoes for the Brancacci family’s chapel.• In Tribute Money, Masaccio used synoptic narrative to show the story of a Roman tax collector asking for tribute money (center), Jesus instructing Peter to check inside the mouth of a fish, where he finds a coin (left), and then pays the tax collector (right).• Although similar to Giotto’s style, Masaccio improves upon Giotto by lighting the entire scene with a consistent light source. The light is to the right, and hits the figures at an angle, creating a strong sense of three-dimensional form.• Instead of having the figures all lined up in the same plane, the figures circle around Jesus, and Peter with the fish appears further back into space.• The landscape itself is spacious in its depth (atmospheric perspective).• Masaccio used linear perspective in the building on the right, and located Jesus’ head on the vanishing point.• The Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Eden is another fresco from the Brancacci family chapel.

Tribute Money, Masaccio. Brancacci chapelSanta Maria del Carmine, Florence, Italy,

c. 1425. 8’ 4” x 19’ 7”.

Holy Trinity• Vanishing point is at Christ’s feet, about 5 feet off the ground and at eye level to the viewer.• God the Father presents Jesus to the viewer, with the dove of the Holy Spirit in between, and the Virgin Mary and John the Evangelist on either side.• The two outer figures are the donors who funded the painting (Lorenzo Lenzi & his wife).• The scene takes place under an illusionary triumphal arch• Below is painted a tomb with a skeleton and the inscription, “I was once what you are, and what I am you will become.”• By placing the vanishing point at the viewer’s eye level, the illusion is more convincing. The tomb seems to jut out towards the viewer, and the barrel vault seems to recede into space.• The ascending pyramid of figures leads viewers from the despair of death to the hope of resurrection and eternal life through Christ’s crucifixion.

Holy TrinityMasaccio. 1425.

Santa Maria Novella, Florence.

21’ 10’ x 10’ 5”

Annunciation• This fresco was painted with a simple clarity by the monk Fra Angelico (“fra” = brother).• This was painted in the Dominican monastery of San Marco in Florence. It is located at the top of the stairs leading up to the monks’ cells.• Dominican monks devoted their lives to prayer and work, and their abbey was mostly spare and austere to encourage the monks to immerse themselves in their devotional work.• This painting is appropriately simple in nature, and includes the admonition, “As you venerate, while passing before it, this figure of the intact Virgin, beware lest you omit to say a Hail Mary,” to remind the monks not to be distracted.• The two figures appear on a plain loggia (an architectural feature that refers to a gallery or corridor at ground level, sometimes higher, on the facade of a building and open to the air on one side, where it is supported by columns or pierced openings in the wall), resembling the portico of the abbey’s cloister.

Annunciation. Fra Angelico.San Marco, Florence, Italy, c. 1440.Fresco, 7’1 x 10’ 6”.

Madonna & Child with Angels• Also painted by a monk, Fra Filippo Lippi.• Fra Filippo Lippi was an orphan, raised in the monastery adjacent to the church of Santa Maria del Carmine, where he was exposed to Masaccio’s frescoes. • He was unsuited for monastic life, and indulged in misdemeanors ranging from forgery and embezzlement to the abduction of a petty nun, Lucretia, who became his mistress and the mother of his son. Only the intervention of the Medici family on his behalf saved him from severe punishment.• He became known for his linear style, which emphasized the contours of his subjects.• This later work of his depicts Mary as a beautiful young mother, seated in prayer in an elegant Florentine home.• The realistic landscape includes recognizable features of the Arno valley.• The figures all reflect a level of personality that indicates they were likely based on live models.

Madonna and Child with AngelsFra Filippo Lippic. 1460.Tempera on wood2’ 11” x 2’ 1”

Resurrection• Piero della Francesca was a Tuscan artist. He painted a scene of the Resurrection for the town hall of his birthplace, the Palazzo Comunale of the city Borgo San Sepolcro.• The city chose this subject for its city hall (instead of the usual battle or landscape scene) because the name of the city refers to the Holy Sepulchre (San Sepolcro), the tomb in which Jesus was buried. The legend was that two 10th century saints had brought fragments of the Holy Sepulchre to the town. • Francesca framed the fresco with two painted columns.• The figures create a triangular composition.• The vanishing point is low in the composition, creating the illusion that the viewer is looking up at the scene from below.• The Roman guards have fallen asleep in foreshortened poses (the man 2nd from left may be a self-portrait of the artist). • Christ rises from the grave, holding the flag of victory over death, his muscular body reflecting the influence of classical Greek nudes. His tired eyes and facial expression communicate his suffering on the cross. • Christ is depicted from straight on, instead of below, violating the perspective of the rest of the composition to create an iconic quality.

Resurrection. Piero della Francesca.Palazzo Comunale, Borgo San Sepolcro, Italy, c. 1465.

Fresco. 7’ 4” x 6’ 6”

Legend of the True Cross• Francesca is well known for the cycle of frescoes he painted for the Church of San Francesco, Arezzo.• The cycle included several frescoes depicting various miraculous events in the history of the “true cross” (upon which Jesus was crucified), from its legendary origin as a tree in the Garden of Eden, to its miracles performed after Christ’s death.• The following website has interactive information on the artwork: http://projects.ias.edu/pierotruecross/pieroimages.html

Legend of the True CrossPiero della Francesca

Church of San Francesco, Arezzo.c. 1450.

Birth of the Virgin• Domenico Ghirlandaio was renowned for his opulent depictions of wealthy Florentine life.• This fresco was one of a cycle of frescoes depicting scenes from the lives of the Virgin Mary and John the Baptist for the choir of Santa Maria Novella.• In this fresco, St. Anne reclines in an ornately decorated palace, while ladies in waiting wash the newly born Mary.• To the left, a somber procession of women approaches, lead by a female member of the powerful Tornabuoni family (probably Ludovica, the daughter of the work’s patron, Giovanni Tornabuoni). • As with the Northern Renaissance, it was common for patrons to be depicted in artworks, along with important religious figures.• However, unlike the humble depictions of Northern patrons, Italian patrons were often depicted in the center of the artwork, stealing the show from the saints.• Each fresco in the cycle contains a prominently placed female member of the Tornabuoni family, representing their important role in society.

Birth of the VirginDomenico Ghirlandaio.

Capella Maggiore, Santa Maria Novella, Florence, Italy.c. 1490. Fresco.

Giovanna Tornabuoni• This image probably depicts Giovanna Tornabuoni, wife of Lorenzo Tornabuoni.• It was painted after her death (she died in childbirth in 1488), indicated by the epitaph in the background which quotes the ancient Roman poet Martial.• The depiction shows a proud but sensitive and beautiful young woman, dressed in elegant fabrics.• This portrait tells viewers much about the advanced state of culture in Florence, including the breeding of courtly manners, the value of beauty, and the importance of classical literature.• The quote behind her reads: “If art could depict character and soul, no painting on earth would be more beautiful.”

Giovanna Tornabuoni (?)Domenico Ghirlandaio.

Oil & tempera on wood.1488. 2’ 6” x 1’ 8”.

Battle of San Romano• This painting was one of three acquired by Lorenzo de Medici for his bedroom chamber. Documents have suggested that only one of the paintings was commissioned by Lorenzo, and the other two were bought already painted. As such, the exact date of this painting is unclear.• The painting depicts the 1432 Battle of San Romano, during which the Florentines were victorious over the Sienese.• The man on the white horse is Niccolo da Tolentino, a friend and supporter of Cosimo de Medici.• The fruit in the upper left are “mela medica” (medicinal apples), which represent the Medici family (as “Medici” means “doctors” in Italian). • Uccello was trained in the International Style, which is evident in the processional style of this work.• However, he was also interested in the new development of perspective, and used linear perspective to create a sense of depth (observe the fallen soldier and spears that follow the orthogonal lines to the vanishing point). • In the distance, rolling hills rise up to reach the top of the picture frame.

Battle of San RomanoPaolo Uccelloc. 1455. Tempera on wood.6’ x 10’ 5”.

Birth of Venus• Botticelli was a student of Fra Filippo Lippi, and his style reflects the elegant, linear style of Lippis.• Commissioned by the Medici family. Based on a poem by Angelo Poliziano, a leading humanist of the day.• Zephyrus (the west wind), carrying Flora (goddess of springtime and flowers), blows Venus, born of the seafoam, to the shore of her sacred island, Cyprus, where the nymph Pomona runs to meet her with a brocaded (decoratively woven) mantle.• The movement of the wind is felt in the lightly flowing fabrics and hair, rippling water, and falling flowers. • A depiction of a nude female Greek goddess would have been unacceptable during the medieval era, but in the humanist Renaissance, under protection of the Medici family, it was not.• Neo-Platonists believed that those who embraced the contemplative life of reason would immediately contemplate spiritual and divine beauty whenever they beheld physical beauty, thus making the subject matter acceptable.• Botticelli did not directly imitate classical antiquity, but used the myths in a way still tinged with medieval romance.

Birth of VenusSandro Botticellic. 1485. Tempera on canvas.5’ 9” x 9’ 2”.

Primavera• Commissioned by the Medici family (represented again by the apples). Primavera = Spring.• Venus stands at center, encircled by a halo-like opening in the trees behind her.• To the left are the dancing Three Graces, clad in thin garments. Left of them is Mercury, who turns away from the others to point upwards with his staff, the caduceus.• To the far right is Zephyrus, in ice-cold blue, abducting the nymph Chloris, whom he transforms into Flora, the goddess of springtime (wearing a floral gown). • The sensuality of the representation, the appearance of Venus in springtime, and the abduction and marriage of Chloris all suggest the occasion for the painting was the wedding of Lorenzo de Medici’s cousin in May 1482.• The painting also shows the Neo-Platonists’ view that earthly love is compatible with Christian theology: Venus as the source of love provokes desire through Cupid. Desire can lead either to lust and violence (Zephyrus) or, through reason and faith (Mercury), to the love of God.• This painting reminds the newlyweds to seek God through love.

PrimaveraSandro Botticellic. 1482. Tempera on wood.6’ 8” x 10’ 4”.

Christ Delivering the Keys…• The remaining paintings in this PowerPoint are NON-Florentine Italian Renaissance of the 1400s.• This was commissioned by Pope Sixtus IV of Pietro Vannucci, who was known as Perugino after his birth city of Perugia.• This event was the basis for the papacy’s claim to infallible control over the Catholic church.• In the background is a central plan temple in the middle, and triumphal arches on either side. The arches are based off the Arch of Constantine.• Although anachronistic, the arches serve to connect St. Peter to Constantine, the first Christian emperor of Rome, and builder of the great basilica over St. Peter’s tomb.• The figures in the foreground are an imaginary mix of apostles and Renaissance contemporaries.• Perugino used linear perspective to create a sense of depth (vanishing point is in the doorway of the central plan temple).

Christ Delivering the Keys of the Kingdom to Saint PeterPerugino. Sistine Chapel, Vatican, Rome, Italy.1483. Fresco. 11’ 5” x 18’ 8”.

Damned Cast Into Hell• Commissioned by Pope Alexander VI• Saint Michael and the hosts of Heaven hurl the damned into Hell, where, in a dense, writhing mass, they are vigorously tortured by demons.• Signorelli was a master of foreshortening the human figure and depicting bodies in violent movement.• Each individual figure was based on a study of a model, but Signorelli was able to incorporate all of them together in a convincing group.• The skin of the demons is painted in greens and blues, signaling the putrification of flesh.

The Damned Cast Into HellLuca Signorelli. C. 1500.

San Brizio chapel, Orvieto Cathedral, Orvieto, Italy. Fresco. 23’ wide.

Camera Picta• The Camera Picta (meaning “painted chamber”) is a room in the ducal palace of Mantua.• Like other “princes” of princely courts, the duke of Mantua (Ludovico Gonzaga) believed an impressive palace was an important expression of his authority.• In the Camera Picta, Mantegna created the first completely consistent illusionistic decoration of an entire room.• Tromp l’oeil – (pronounced “tromp loyee”) French for “deceives the eye”. A painting intended to create the optical illusion of three-dimensionality or space.• Similar to the Second Style of ancient Roman wall painting (as in Pompeii). • Even the ceiling has a tromp l’oeil oculus, which includes putti and a peacock looking down upon the people in the room.• The peacock was a symbol of Juno (Hera), and oversaw all legal marriages (the room was also known as the Room of the Newlyweds).

Camera PictaAndrea MantegnaPalazzo Ducale,Mantua, Italy.c. 1470. Fresco.

Dead Christ• Like the Camera Picta, this painting shows off the artist’s mastery of perspective, and his enjoyment of challenging himself with difficult perspective problems.• Although the painting seems to be a strikingly realistic study in foreshortening, in actuality the feet have been reduced in size, so as not to block the view of the rest of the body, and the head has been enlarged.• Tempering naturalism with artistic license, Mantegna presented both a harrowing study of a strongly foreshortened cadaver and an intensely poignant depiction of a biblical tragedy.

Dead Christ or Foreshortened ChristAndrea Mantegna. C. 1500. Tempera on canvas.2’ 2” x 2’ 7”.

Dome of the Florence Cathedral• After losing the commission of the bronze doors of the Baptistery of San Giovanni to Ghiberti, Filippo Brunelleschi turned his interest towards architecture (although he did continue to do some sculptural works as well). • In 1402, he travelled with his friend, Donatello, to Rome, where he was captivated by its ruins and ancient architecture.• His understanding of architecture helped him develop his system of linear perspective.• Earlier generations of architects made plans to add a dome to the crossing of the Florence Cathedral, but it was Brunelleschi who had the technical skill to make it happen.• The dome has two layers. The outer layer is based on a gothic pointed arch, using ribs to support the vault. It is supported by an octagonal drum at its base, and topped with an oculus and lantern.• The inner structure is comprised of vertical marble ribs and horizontal sandstone rings, connected with iron rods. The inner and outer shells were connected with a series of arches.• The structure reinforces itself, and requires no external buttressing.

Dome of the Florence CathedralFilippo Brunelleschic. 1430. Stone masonry.

Ospedale degli Innocenti• Ospedale degli Innocenti means Hospital of the Innocents, and was a hospital for orphans and foundlings (abandoned children). • The Guild of Silk Manufacturers and Goldsmiths commissioned Brunelleschi to design and build the hospital/orphanage.• As was traditional with charitable buildings, a loggia was built out front to provide shelter.• Brunelleschi designed the loggia to be light and airy, with an arcade supported by smooth, Corinthian-capped columns.• Each bay in the arcade was as wide as the 20-foot supporting column was tall, creating a pleasing geometric harmony.• The ceiling of the portico was a series of pendentive domes, which were half as high as the columns.• The bays on each were slightly wider, creating a frame.• The glazed blue terracotta medallions depicting children were added later by Andrea della Robbia. The medallions are a reminder of the human side of humanism – the most powerful and wealthy guild of the city cared for the most helpless members of society.• The hospital/orphanage was located next to the church of the Santissima Annunziata (Holiest Annunciation), which housed a miracle-working painting of the Annunciation.

Loggia of the Ospedale degli Innocenti(Hospital of the Innocents)Brunelleschi. Florence, Italy. Begun 1418.

Santo Spirito• One of two basilican churches designed by Brunelleschi (the other is San Lorenzo). • This cruciform building is designed using modules based on the size of the dome-covered crossing square. The repetition of a standard unit created a sense of rhythm and harmony.• The aisles, subdivided into small squares covered by shallow, saucer-shaped vaults, run all the way around the flat-roofed central space.• The church was not completed until after Brunelleschi’s death, and the subsequent architects made a few changes to Brunelleschi’s original design.-The aisle was originally intended to cross in front of the entrance, but it would have required four doorways, instead of the traditional and symbolic three.-Successor builders also modified the appearance of the exterior walls by filling in the recesses between the projecting semicircular chapels, to make the wall appear flat.• Height of nave = 2x width. Arcade = clerestory in height.• Decorated with Brunelleschi’s trademark use of dark stone (“petra serena”) and white stucco walls. No space left for frescoes to detract from the austere clarity of the design.

Santo SpiritoBrunelleschi. Florence, Italy. Designed 1436. Begun 1446.

San Lorenzo• This is the other basilican church designed by Brunelleschi.• For the Medici family, Brunelleschi worked on their parish church of San Lorenzo, building a sacristy (room for keeping ceremonial attire and vessels) as a burial chapel for Giovanni de Bicci de Medici (now known as the Old Sacristy), and rebuilding the basilican nave.• Like Santo Spirito, Brunelleschi designed this nave on a series of regular modules.• The columns are similar to the Hospital of the Innocents, smooth with a Corinthian style top. Above the capital, Brunelleschi added an impost block before the springing of the archway.• The arcade is also repeated on the arched openings of the side chapels, as well as the lunettes above them.• Again, Brunelleschi decorated the church simply, using the contrasting dark gray stone and white stucco walls.

San LorenzoBrunelleschi.

Florence, Italy. C. 1440.

Pazzi Chapel• Although wealthy families could build their own chapel as a side-arm within their church, the wealthiest families built their family chapel as a complete, stand-alone building next to their church.• The families endowed chapels to ensure the well-being of the souls of family members. The chapels served as burial sites and as spaces for liturgical celebrations and commemorative services.• The popularity of such chapels increased after the pope recognized the existence of Purgatory in 1215. • The loggia in front was probably added after Brunelleschi’s death to accommodate more Franciscan monks, who used the chapel as their chapter house (meeting hall). • Inside, the chapel is the first independent Renaissance building conceived as a central-plan structure.• Contains aspects typical to Brunelleschi, such as modular plan, petra serena & white stucco, and pendentives.• The medallions (tondi) on the pendentives are glazed terra cotta by Lucca della Robbia (uncle of Andrea), and depict the four evangelists. The tondi on the pilaster-framed wall panels depict the apostles.

Pazzi ChapelBrunelleschiSanta Croce, Florence, Italy.Begun 1433.

Palazzo Medici-Riccardi• Palazzo = palace• The commission for the Medici palace was awarded to Michelozzo di Bartolommeo instead of Brunelleschi, as Brunelleschi’s proposal was deemed too ostentatious by Cosimo, who preferred to rule from “behind the scenes.” However, Brunelleschi’s stylistic influence on Bartolommeo is evident.• The palace was later bought by the Riccardi family in the 1700s, hence the hyphenated name.• The outer wall features rusticated masonry on the ground floor, to emphasize its strength. • Each story decreases in size and roughness, making it seem lighter as it goes up.• The building is capped with a large, heavy cornice.• Although his design incorporates ancient Roman elements, it combines them in a way that is innovative and new.• How does the interior court show Brunelleschi’s influence?• How is this building different from Gothic architecture?

Palazzo Medici-RiccardiMichelozzo di Bartolommeo

Florence, ItalyBegun 1445.

Palazzo Rucellai• Alberti was the first Renaissance architect to study Vitruvius, an ancient Roman writer who wrote a treatise on architecture.• Alberti wrote his own treatise called On the Art of Building.• He disliked the combination of the column and the arch. He believed an arch was a wall opening, which should be supported by a section of wall (pier), not a separate sculptural element.• Alberti designed the Palazzo Rucellai, and his pupil Bernardo Rossellino constructed it from his sketches.• Crowned by a classical cornice, each story is defined by pilasters with a different order of capital.• The flat, low profile pilasters emphasize the flatness of the building (as opposed to the deep roundness of the famous building off which this building is based).

Palazzo Rucellai. Florence, Italy. C. 1470.Leon Battista Alberti and Bernardo Rossellino.,

Santa Maria Novella• The Rucellai family also commissioned Alberti to design the façade of the 13th century Gothic church of Santa Maria Novella in Florence. • Alberti styled the building after an Italian Romanesque church, with a small, pediment capped temple front supported by a pilaster framed arcade.• However, he also strongly believed that harmonic numerical ratios were the source of beauty, a more Renaissance notion (which he shared with Brunelleschi).• The building is the same height as it is wide. The cornice across the middle divides the building perfectly in half, making the bottom half twice as wide as it is tall. The upper structure is ¼ the size of the total façade, and the entire façade could be fit perfectly into a square.• This façade is the first instance of the use of the scrolls that simultaneously unite the broad lower and narrow upper levels and screen the sloping roofs over the aisles.

Santa Maria NovellaLeon Battista Alberti.Florence, Italy, 1470.

Sant’Andrea in Mantua• The Marquis Ludovico Gonzaga (a famed condotierre, who ruled Mantua, a “princely court”) heard of Alberti’s work in Florence, and commissioned him to redesign and replace the 11th century church of Sant’Andrea. • The façade Alberti designed combined two major ancient Roman architectural motifs: the triumphal arch, and the temple front.• Alberti’s concern for proportion led him to equalize the vertical and horizontal dimensions of the façade, leaving it considerably shorter than the church behind it.• Even so, the façade does match the architecture behind it in some ways: the pilasters are the same height as those on the nave’s interior walls, and the large barrel vault over the central portal, with smaller barrel vaults branching off at right angles, introduces on a smaller scale the arrangement of the church’s nave and chapels.• The pilasters on the façade run uninterrupted through the levels.• Alberti criticized the use of colonnades to mark off the side aisles of churches, as the colonnades blocked the view of the ceremonies for worshippers in the side aisles. He instead made one large open nave, with private side chapels branching off at right angles.

Sant’AndreaAlberti.Mantua, Italyc. 1470.