Ascetic Practices

CHAPTER 2

THE ASCETIC PRACTICES

2.1. The Thera Maha Kassapa and the Thirteen Ascetic Practices

The Thera Maha Kassapa spent his monkhood observing all the thirteen ascetic

practices and he urged his companion monks to follow his suit as well.1 In consequence,

the Buddha awarded him with the title of the Foremost Monk in these Ascetic Practices. 2

Indeed, the closer we look at the way the Thera followed these thirteen practices strictly

and painstakingly throughout his life, the more admiration and the more respect we feel

for him.

The ‘ascetic practice’ is originally called dhutanga in Pali, which means any

practice by which one can destroy or get rid of such defilements as greed, hate and

ignorance. The defilements can worry, trouble and impurify the minds of beings. 3

The Buddha allowed thirteen ascetic practices for those who have strong

determination to discard every worldly pleasure which will bring forth these defilements

and who lack any care for their own life just to attain Nibbana. The following are the

mentioned ascetic practices: 4

1. Refuse-ragman’s practice (Pansukulikanga)

2. Three-rober’s practice (Tecivarikanga)

3. Alms-man’s practice (Pindapatikanga)

4. House-to-house-goer’s practice (Sapadanacarikanga)

5. One-sessioner’s practice (Ekasanikanga)

6. Bowl-fooder’s practice (Pattapandikanga)

7. Afterfood-refuser’s practice (Khalupaccabhattikanga)

8. Forester’s practice (Arannikanga)

9. Tree-rootman’s practice (Rukkhmulikanga)

10. Open-spacer’s practice (Abbhokasikanga)

11. Burning-grounder’s practice (Sosanikanga)

12. Any-bedder’s practice (Yathasantikanga)1 AN.A.I.1272 AN.I.233 Nett.A.30, Abh.A.I.58, DN.A.I.2, MN.A.I.2, SN.A.I.2, AN.A.182, Kv-mt.I.394 Sn.A.2.217, Thag.A.2.323, Vism.I.57, Miln.340

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13. Sitting-man’s practice (Nesajjikanga)

The term ‘dhutanga’ is derived from ‘dhuta’ and ‘anga’, where the former refers

to a bhikkhu who rids himself of defilements5 and the latter means ‘the cause or the

means’.6 The bhikkhu gets rid of such defilements as lust, etc., by means of the

samadhana cetana (volitional determination), that is, by means of the above dhutangani

(the ascetic practices). Any of the above-mentioned ascetic practices is, therefore,

characterized by having the following qualities.

1. as its nature, the volitional determination

2. as its function, the potentiality of killing the lustful desire which inhibits

the wholesome mind

3. as its manifestation, the freedom from such a lustful desire

4. as its proximate cause, such noble states as fewness of wishes, morality,

and so on.

2.1. The Procedure of Observing the Ascetic Practices

The general procedure7 of observing all the ascetic practices is given as follows.

In the Buddha's lifetime, the aspirant for any of these practices must go to Him to observe

the practice. In the absence of the Buddha, the aspirant can observe the practice under a

Chief Disciple. In his absence, again, the practice can be observed under an arahant, or

under a never-returner, or under a once-returner, or under a stream-winner, or under a

scholar of three pitakas, or under a scholar of two pitakas, or under a scholar of one

pitaka. Otherwise, it can be observed under a scholar of one collection of discourses or

that of one Agama or under a teacher of commentaries or under another observer of the

ascetic practices. In the absence of those people, the aspirant can go to a Pagoda, sweep

and sit on its platform to observe the practices as if uttering them before the Buddha in

person.

According to the Milindapanna,8 the worthy observer the ascetic practices are of

ten kinds, depending on the personality that they are.

1. the person who keeps faith5 Vism.I.57-596 Vism.I.597 Vism.I.598 Miln.333

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2. the person who is ashamed and afraid of misdeeds

3. the person with strong concentration

4. the person who never does wonderful mischief

5. the person who takes care of benefit

6. the person who lacks greed

7. the person who wishes for three trainings – morality, concentration and wisdom

8. the person who keeps a habit or a practice firmly

9. the person who never speaks ill of others

10. the person who spends his time developing the metta (the radiation of loving-

kindness)

In the following sections, the procedures for observing the afore-mentioned

ascetic practices will be discussed.

2.3.1. The Refuse-Ragman’s Practice (Pansukulikanga dhutanga)

With reference to this practice, the following are noteworthy:

1. Any robe that is found thrown away on the roadside, in the graveyard (in the

burning-ground) or by the rubbish pile is called pamsakula. [Derivation: pansu

(on earth) + kula (spreading cloth or cloth-like robe); or pansu (like earth) + ku

(loathsome) + ula (robe)]

2. A bhikkhu who keeps the practice of wearing this robe, i.e., who observes the

refuse-ragman's practice is called pansukulika.

3. The volition that makes the bhikkhu observe this practice is called

pansukulikanga dhutanga.

2.3.2. The Procedure of Observing the Refuse-Ragman’s Practice

A bhikkhu who decides to observe the refuse-ragman’s practice does it with either

one of the expressions: ‘Gahapatidana civaram patikkhipami’ (I refuse the robe offered

by the householders.); ‘Pansukulikangam samadhiyami’ (I observe the refuse-ragman's

practice).9

2.3.3. The Twenty-Three Kinds of Pansukula Robe

9 Vism.I.59

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Although the most popular kind of pansukula robe is a dusty one found discarded

on the roadside, there are also other kinds. There are altogether twenty-three kinds of

robe which are relevant for the refuse-ragman’s practice. They are

1. Burning-ground-rag, one thrown away in the burning-ground

2. Shop-rag, one thrown away at the door of a shop or a house

3. Street-rag, one thrown away in a street, on a road, or on a railroad

4. Rubbish-rag, one thrown away at a rubbish-heap

5. Childbirth-rag, one thrown away after wiping the impurities of a womb at

childbirth

6. Bathing-place-rag, one thrown away at a river bathing-place

7. After-return-rag, one thrown away by funeral attendants on their way back from

the burning-ground

8. After-bath-rag, one thrown away after taking a bath

9. Burnt-rag, one partially scorched by fire

10. Cattle-bitten-rag, one bitten by a cow

11. White ant-bitten-rag, one bitten by white ants

12. Mice-bitten-rag, one bitten by a mouse

13. Side-torn-rag, one torn at the side

14. Border-torn-rag, one torn at the border

15. Flag-rag, one thrown away after use as a flag or a banner

16. Oblation-rag, one wrapped around an anthill as an offering to spirits

17. Monk’s rag, one thrown away by another bhikkhu

18. Consecration-rag, one thrown away at the place where the king was anointed

19. Ehibhikkhu-rag, one which supernaturally came into existence at the end of the

Buddha’s initiating a bhikkhu by calling ‘Ehibhikkhu – Come on, monk’

20. Roadside-rag, one thrown away or fallen on a road or by a roadside

21. Wind-carried-rag, one carried by a blowing wind

22. God-given-rag, one given by devas or gods, and

23. Wave-carried-rag, one carried ashore by the waves of a sea

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The ascetic must pick up one of the above rag and discard the worn parts. He then

dyes the rag and dons it by throwing away the robes donated by the supporters.10

He is now allowed to receive any robe donated to the Order, though the thread

and the water-filter are permissible.11

2.3.4. The Three Grades of the Observers of the Refuse-Ragman’s Practice

There are three grades of bhikkhus on the basis of their observance of the refuse-

ragman’s practice.

1. The firm or strict man should only pick up a robe thrown away in the

burning-ground.

2. The moderate man picks up a robe thrown away with the intention of

offering it to a monk.

3. On the other hand, the weak or soft man accepts a robe placed at his feet.

Any of these three bhikkhus might break the practice if they happen to let

themselves don the robes given by the donors. It may be because of their mere wish to do

so or because they take into account the donors’ generosity.

2.3.5. The Advantages of the Refuse-Ragman’s Practice

The following are the advantages that the refuse-ragman’s practice brings to the

observer:12

1. The observer has behaved according to the Buddha’s spiritual guidance that he is

a bhikkhu having a refuse-rag as his resource for clothing.

2. The observer has established himself in the first order of Noble beings (Ariyans).

3. The observer has no trouble looking after the robe.

4. Regarding the robes, the observer is independent on anyone else.

5. The observer is free of any danger from thieves.

6. Lust is absent in the observer when he enjoys the robes.

7. The observer has a rag which is suitable for being a monk’s robe.

10 AN.A.II.278, Nda.I.A.118, Vism.I.6011 Vin.III.421-212 Vism.I.62

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8. The observer has a thing which the Buddha praised as ‘cheap, easily available and

faultless’.

9. The observer has the look of delightfulness due to the robes.

10. The observer has the yielding of fewness of desires and so on.

11. The robes help the observer develop right conduct.

12. The observer sets an example for the generations of bhikkhus to come.

2.4.1. The Three-Rober’s Practice (Tecivarikanga dhutanga)


1. An inner garment, an outer garment and a shoulder garment are together called

ticivarika.

2. A bhikkhu who keeps the practice of wearing only these three robes is called

tecivarika.

3. The volition that makes the bhikkhu observe this practice is called tecivarikanga

dhutanga.

2.4.2. The Procedure of Observing the Three-Rober’s Practice

A bhikkhu who decides to observe the three-rober’s practice does it with either

one of the expressions: ‘Catutthaka civaram patikkhipami’ (I refuse the fourth robe);

‘tecivarikangam samadhiyami’ (I observe the three-rober’s practice).

The observer of this practice, who gets a new piece of cloth meant for his robe,

can keep it as long as he is so sick that he cannot dye and sew it, or he cannot find anyone

else who would make it suitable, or as long as he lacks such instruments as a needle and

so on. The keeping of the cloth is faultless. But once the cloth is dyed, it cannot be kept.

If the observer kept it, he would become a thief of this ascetic practice.13

However, the Vimatitika Commentary states differently that if the observer is not

ready to wear a dyed cloth, then it can also be kept for ten days by following the

adhitthana procedures suggested by the Code.14

2.4.3. The Three Grades of the Observers of the Three-Rober’s Practice 13 Vism.I.6214 Vimati.I.313

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There are three grades of bhikkhus on the basis of their observance of the three-

rober’s practice.

1. The firm or strict man never keeps the fourth robe even when he is dying

the robe. When it is time to dye the robes, he dyes the outer garment

wearing the inner garment or he dyes the inner garment wearing the outer

garment. But he should not put on the shoulder garment. This is up to him

while in a village-monastery. In the forest-dwelling, on the other hand, he

can first dye any one of the outer and inner garments although he has no

clothes on. But he must place a robe near him so that he can hide himself

under it in case someone see him.

2. The moderate man wears an apron-like special robe while he is dying his

robes.

3. The weak or soft man wears the robe meant for common use among the

brethren, or he uses a bedspread to put on while doing the work of dyeing.

But the soft man is not allowed to bring the bedspread wherever he goes.

Alternatively, he may use the brethren’s common robe to wear off and on.

For all these three grades of bhikkhus, a yellow shoulder-cloth is permitted as a

fourth piece as long as it is one span in breadth and three cubits in length. But the

moment the observer of any kind accepts a fourth garment, he causes the breach of his

practice.15

2.4.4. The Advantages of the Three-Rober’s Practice

The following are the advantages that the three-rober’s practice brings to the

observer:16

1. The observer is contented with the body-protecting robe.

2. He can bring it along, just in the same way as a bird brings its wings.

3. He has little need of tendance.

4. He does not have to save up clothes.

5. He has lightness in travelling and livelihood.

6. He abandons the lust for extra robes.15 Vism.I.6216 Vism.I.62-63

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7. His life is simple in the sense that it is limited with what is actually needed.

8. He only has few desires.

2.5.1. The Alms-man’s Practice (Pindapatikanga dhutanga)


1. Having fallen (pata) into the alms-bowl (pinda), the alms or food is called

pindapata.

2. A bhikkhu who accepts only such kind of food is called pindapatika.

3. The volition that makes the bhikkhu observe this practice of accepting only the

food that falls into his bowl is called pindapatikanga dhutanga.

2.5.2. The Procedure of Observing the Alms-man's Practice

A bhikkhu who decides to observe the alms-man's practice does it with either one

of the expressions: ‘Atirekalabham patikkhipami’ (I refuse an excessive amount of food

such as food offered to the Order as a whole and so on.); ‘Pindapatikangam

samadhiyami’ (I observe the alms-man's practice.).

2.5.3. The Fourteen Kinds of Food refused by this Practice

There are fourteen kinds of food which must be refused by this alms-man's

practice:

1. Food offered to the Order as a whole (Sanghikabatta)

2. Food offered to one or more particular monks (Uddesabatta)

3. Food given by invitation (Nimantanabatta)

4. Food given by tickets (Salakabatta)

5. Food given on a day of the waning or waxing of the month (Pakkhibatta)

6. Food given on a sacred day (Uposatikabatta)

7. Food given on the first day of the moonlit fortnight (Patipadikabatta)

8. Food given to guests (Agantukabatta)

9. Food given to monks about to travel (Gamitabatta)

10. Food given to the sick (Gilanabatta)

11. Food given to those who minister to the sick (Gilanupathakabatta)

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12. Food given in honour of a monastery (Viharabatta)

13. Food given at a principal house (Dhurabatta)

14. Food given by donors in turn (Varaka)

If the donor offers food to the observer of this practice by saying, 'The Order

partakes of food in our house. May you also partake of it,' and he doesn't say, 'Partake of

food that has been given to the Order.', then the observer of this practice may accept it.

Food obtained from the Order17 or from the monastery18, such as fruits and so on, is also

permitted to the observer of this practice.

2.5.4. The Three Grades of the Observers of the Alms-man's Practice

There are three grades of bhikkhus on the basis of their observance of the alms-

man’s practice.

1. The firm or strict man accepts food brought forth either from in front or from

behind. He also accepts food given after he has sat down to eat in the dining-hall

after his almsround. He may give his bowl to the people who receive it outside

their door. But he is not permitted to accept a certain promised food by sitting and

waiting for it the whole day long.

2. On the other hand, the moderate man can accept a certain promised food by

sitting and waiting for it the whole day long. But he is not permitted to accept the

invitation for tomorrow's food.

3. The weak or soft man accepts the food he is invited to for tomorrow or the day

after tomorrow.

This being so, the latter two men do not get the bliss of independent life but the

strict man alone does.

2.5.5. The Advantages of the Alms-man's Practice

17 Vism.I.6318 Vin.A.IV.255

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The following are the advantages that the alms-man’s practice brings to the

observer:19

1. The observer has behaved according to the Buddha’s spiritual guidance

that he is a bhikkhu having morsels of alms as his resource for food.

2. The observer has established himself in the second order of Noble beings

(Ariyans).

3. Regarding the alms, the observer has an independent life as he is

independent on anyone else.

4. The observer has a thing which the Buddha praised as ‘cheap, easily

available and faultless’.

5. The observer has overcome the laziness for alms-gathering.

6. His livelihood is pure.

7. He fulfills the probationary conduct through this practice.

8. He does not rely on others for nourishment, and nor is he relied on by the

others.

9. He does favour to the poor (the donors).

10. He rejects conceit.

11. He checks the lust for tasty food.

12. He is free from offences against the precepts concerning a meal.

13. His conduct is in harmony with few wishes and so on.

14. He develops right conduct.

15. The observer sets an example for the generations of bhikkhus to come.

2.6.1. The House-to-House-Goer’s Practice (Sapadanacarikanga dhutanga)


1. Standing at random houses in the alms-round is dana while standing at one

house’s door after another’s in the alms-round is apadana. The series of these

successive houses in a bhikkhu’s alms-round is called sapadana.

2. A bhikkhu who keeps this house-to-house-goer’s practice is called

sapadanacarika.

19 Vism.I.63-65

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sapadanacarikanga dhutanga.

2.6.2. The Procedure of Observing the House-to-House-Goer’s Practice

A bhikkhu who decides to observe the house-to-house-goer’s practice does it with

either one of the expressions: ‘Loluppacaram patikkhipami’ (I set aside greedy behaviour

in alms-gathering.); ‘sapadanacarikangam samadhiyami’ (I observe the house-to-house-

goer’s practice).

If one wants to observe this practice, he should first see that there is no possible

danger – such as wild beasts – in his alms-gathering round. If there be any danger

awaiting, he should leave that place, whether it is a street or a village. The bhikkhu needs

to follow this direction. But the bhikkhu is not allowed to leave a place just because he

earns a small or no amount of alms in that place. The bhikkhu should also start his alms-

collecting round before the usual time so that he can choose to leave a place if there is

danger in it.

Although the observer of this practice must not go at random houses lest he

should not get little food, he is permitted to accept the offering of those who meet him in

the monastery or in his alms-round and take his bowl to give food.20

It is not by any means permissible for the observer of this practice to accept the

invitations to food. If one take the bhikkhu’s bowl and make full the bowl with food, then

the bhikkhu’s practice is not broken. Due to some or no food being gathered, he should

not go past the village. But he should go from one village to another in order. 21

2.6.3. The Three Grades of the Observers of the House-to-House-Goer’s Practice

There are three grades of bhikkhus on the basis of their observance of the house-

to-house-goer’s practice.

1. The firm or strict man never accepts food offered before he gets to a house, nor

does he accept it after he gets to a house or after he has sat down in the dining-hall

to eat on his return from his alms-round. But it is permitted that the bhikkhu hands

20 Vism.I.6521 SP.A.II.214

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his bowl to the donor at the donor’s door. In this respect, there is no one like the

Thera Mahakassapa in observing this practice.

2. The moderate man can accept food of any kind the strict man refuses, except that

he must not look forward to the food promised for that day.

3. The soft man is even allowed to wait for the food which has been promised.

The practice of the house-to-house goer is broken as soon as the bhikkhu goes

past a house, etc., with the hope that he might get more or better food in another house,

etc.

2.6.4. The Advantages of the House-to-House-Goer’s Practice

The following are the advantages that the house-to-house-goer’s practice brings to

the observer: 22

1. The observer never gets into close friendship with his supporters.

2. He is ‘cool’ like the moon.

3. He rejects meanness for his supporters.

4. He gives impartial favour to his supporters.

5. No sin abounds in him when he approaches his supporters.

6. He does not accept invitations to food.

7. He does not wish for a meal to be brought.

8. He has conduct in harmony with few wishes, and so on.

2.7.1. The One-Sessioner’s Practice (Ekasanikanga dhutanga)


1. The act of eating food at not more than one sitting is called ekasana..

2. A bhikkhu who keeps the one-sessioner’s practice is called ekasanika.

3. The volition that makes the bhikkhu observe this practice is called ekasanikanga

dhutanga.

2.7.2. The Procedure of Observing the One-Sessioner’s Practice

22 Vism.I.65

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A bhikkhu who decides to observe the one-sessioner’s practice does it with either

one of the expressions: ‘Nanasana bhojanam patikkhipami’ (I refuse to eat food at more

than one sitting); ‘Ekasanikangam samadhiyami’ (I observe the one-sessioner’s practice).

The bhikkhu who observes the one-sessioner’s practice never sits in the seat

reserved for the Elder brethren, but he finds a seat that would be suitable for him. If his

teacher or preceptor arrives in the middle of his meal, then he should stop to stand up and

pay respects to his teacher. The Thera Culabhaya once decided not to resume his meal

after he had paid his respects to his teacher who had arrived while he was eating.

2.7.3. The Three Grades of the Observers of the One-Sessioner’s Practice

There are three grades of bhikkhus on the basis of their observance of the one-

sessioner’s practice.

1. The firm or strict man never picks up more food apart from the food he has laid

his hand on. He should accept more only when his supporters tells him that it is

meant for medicine to cure him.

2. The moderate man should accept more food until he has finished eating all the

food in his alms-bowl.

3. The soft man will accept more food as long as he is sitting although he has

finished his meal.

For all these three grades of bhikkhus, eating at more than one sitting is the main

cause of the breach of the practice.

2.7.4. The Advantages of the One-Sessioner’s Practice

The following are the advantages that the one-sessioner’s practice brings to the

observer: 23

1. The observer is free from sickness.

2. He is free from tiredness.

3. He is light in movements.

4. He is strong.

5. He lives comfortably.

23 Vism.I.66-67

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6. He is not prone to committing an offence because he refuses excessive food.

7. He repels the craving for tasty food.

8. He has conduct in harmony with few wishes, and so on.

2.8.1. The Bowl-Fooder’s Practice (Pattapandikanga dhutanga)


1. The food in a single bowl is collectively called patthapida.

2. A bhikkhu who keeps the practice of eating only the food in a single bowl is

called patthapidika.


patthapidikanga dhutanga.

2.8.2. The Procedure of Observing the Bowl-Fooder’s Practice

A bhikkhu who decides to observe the bowl-fooder’s practice does it with either

one of the expressions: ‘Dutiyabhojanam patikkhipami’ (I refuse a second bowl);

‘Pattapindikangam samadhiyami’ (I observe the bowl-fooder’s practice).

When the observer of this practice drinks the rice gruel, he would find it

loathsome if he had put the curry of fish, especially rotten fish, etc into the gruel. So he

should first either eat the curry or drink the gruel. Honey, sugar and so on can be put in

the gruel because they are not loathsome. Green vegetables can also be eaten as dippers.

Care must be taken not to eat even a tree-leave, let alone a second bowl, apart from the

first bowl.

2.8.3. The Three Grades of the Observers of the Bowl-Fooder’s Practice

There are three grades of bhikkhus on the basis of their observance of the bowl-

fooder’s practice.

1. Except when he is chewing the sugar-cane, the firm or strict man does not throw

away the lumps of rice, fish, meat and cakes in a second bowl, nor does he eat by

separating the lumps.

2. The moderate man, however, may eat separating them with one hand. Hence, the

moderate man comes to called ‘Hattha-yogi’ (Hand Ascetic).

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3. The soft man may separate any of his bowl food by his hand or teeth. Otherwise,

he may eat it. He is therefore called ‘Patta-yogi’ (Bowl Ascetic).

For all these three grades of bhikkhus, any observer breaks his practice when he

enjoys eating in a second bowl.

2.8.4. The Advantages of the Bowl-Fooder’s Practice

The following are the advantages that the bowl-fooder’s practice brings to the

observer: 24

1. The observer repels the craving for taste of different kinds.

2. He repels the desire for taste in more than one bowl.

3. He sees the main purpose and right measure of food.

4. He rids himself of the trouble of carrying various dishes and so on.

5. He has the act of undistracted eating.

6. His conduct is in conformity with few wishes, and so on.

2.9.1. The Afterfood-Refuser’s Practice (Khalupaccabhattikanga dhutanga)


1. The food obtained after the bhikkhu has decided to stop his meal is called

pacchabhatta.

2. A bhikkhu who eats this food is called pacchabhattika. A bhikkhu who refuses to

eat this food is called khalupacchabhattika.


pacchabhattikanga dhutanga.

2.9.2. The Procedure of Observing the Afterfood-Refuser’s Practice

A bhikkhu who decides to observe the afterfood-refuser’s practice does it with

either one of the expressions: ‘Atirittabhojanam patikkhipami’ (I refuse extra food, that

is, the food obtained after I have decided to stop my meal); ‘Khalupacchabhattikangam

samadhiyami’ (I observe the afterfood-refuser’s practice).

24 Vism.I.67-68

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2.9.3. The Three Grades of the Observers of the Afterfood-Refuser’s Practice

There are three grades of bhikkhus on the basis of their observance of the three-

rober’s practice.

1. Since his vow or determination applies not to the first almsfood but to the refusal

of more food while he is eating it, the strict or firm man who has made his vow

does not eat a second almsfood after his first.

2. The moderate man who has made his vow finishes his meal he is eating in his

bowl, although he refuses the second bowl.

3. The soft man eats so long as he has not stood up.

For all these three grades of bhikkhus, the afterfood-refuser’s practice is broken

once any of them eats the extra food he has determined not to eat.

2.9.4. The Advantages of the Afterfood-Refuser’s Practice

The following are the advantages that the afterfood-refuser’s practice brings to the

observer: 25

1. The observer is away from offences regarding extra food.

2. He never makes his stomach full.

3. He is free of storing food.

4. He is free of worrying to search for food again.

5. His livelihood is in conformity with few wishes and so on.

2.10.1. The Forester’s Practice (Arannakanga dhutanga)


1. Any forest is called aranna.

2. A bhikkhu who observes the practice of dwelling in a particular forest is called

arannaka.

3. The volition that makes the bhikkhu observe this practice is called arannakanga.

2.10.2. The Procedure of Observing the Forester’s Practice

25 Vism.I.68-69

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A bhikkhu who decides to observe the forester’s practice does it with either one of

the expressions: ‘Gamantasenayanam patikkhipami’ (I refuse dwelling in a village);

‘Arannakingam samadhiyami’ (I observe the forester’s practice).

The bhikkhu who decides to observe this practice should leave a village-dwelling

and be in the forest at dawn. A forest monastery in which he decides to start dwelling

should be at least 500 bow-lengths26 away from the village precincts.27 If the village could

not be reached by a straight path due to obstacles such as hills, rivers, etc., although it

were so near that dwellers of the monastery could hear the voices or noises from it, then

the measurement of the distance from the village precinct and the forest monastery can be

taken by any water-path, if ever. Whosoever puts such obstacles in between the village

and the forest monastery with the intention of fulfilling the requisite measurement, is a

thief of the ascetic practice in question.28

If the observer of the practice had an ill preceptor or teacher, then he should take

his teacher to a nearby village for any medical treatment. He should then leave the village

and be in the forest at dawn. But if at dawn his teacher’s illness worsened, then he should

do his duty to take care of his teacher, paying no heed to his ascetic practice.29

The observer of the forester’s practice should spend his time pondering over the

advantages of the practice in the following way: the observer must take care to keep his

practice; the village-dwelling allows the wandering of mind, but the forest-dwelling does

not; the forest-dwelling ensures the attainment of one viveka for the observer; the

observers should never quit the forest-dwelling until he attains Arahantship; the forest-

dwelling is also praised by the Buddha; and if he persists in forest-dwelling, then it may

entice other fellow bhikkhus into the forest, too, thus bringing the above-said advantages

for them as well. 30

2.10.3. The Three Grades of the Observers of the Forester’s Practice

26 A ‘bow’ in ‘bow-length’ measures 4 cubits. See Concise Myanmar Dictionary Vol.1 (1978) p.1127 Vism.I.69-7028 Vin.A.II.30829 Vism.I.7030 Vin.A.II.93, Vin.Sangaha.25

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There are three grades of bhikkhus on the basis of their observance of the

practice.

1. The firm or strict man should always be in the forest at dawn.

2. The moderate man lives in the village for the rainy four months.

3. The weak or soft man allows himself to live in the village for the four-

month-long winter as well.

Any of these three bhikkhus might break the practice amid the term of their

forest-life if they happen to let the day dawn upon them in the village without any special

reason or with the reason that they want to sleep a moment after listening to sermons. But

the practice is not broken if they meet the dawn while listening to the sermon or while on

their way back to their forest-dwelling.

2.10.4. The Advantages of the Forester’s Practice

The following are the advantages that the forester’s practice brings to the

observer:

1. By attending to the perception of the forest, the observer can acquire

concentration not yet acquired or can maintain the concentration that he has

acquired.

2. The Buddha Himself is pleased with the practice (and thus the observer deserves

the Buddha’s praise).

3. The observer’s mind will not be distracted by the improper objects of sight and so

on.

4. The observer is free from fear.

5. The observer gains the potential to discard the attachment to life.

6. The observer enjoys the bliss of solitude that the lack of sensuous objects brings

to him.

2.11.1. The Tree-Rootman’s Practice (Rukkhmulikanga dhutanga)


1. The root or the foot of a tree is a rukkhamula.

2. A bhikkhu who lives at the tree-root is called rukkhumilika..

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rukkhmulikanga dhutanga.

2.11.2. The Procedure of Observing the Tree-Rootman’s Practice

A bhikkhu who decides to observe the tree-rootman's practice does it with either

one of the expressions: ‘Channam patikkhipami’ (I refuse a covered31 dwelling);

‘Rukkhmulikangam samadhiyami’ (I observe the tree-rootman's practice).

The bhikkhu observes the practice, resorting to a tree that grows on the frontier

between two countries or a sacred tree or a resinous tree or a fruit-bearing tree or a tree

where bats are living or a hollow tree or a tree that grows in the middle of a monastery.

But he should resort to a tree on the outskirt of a monastery.

2.11.3. The Three Grades of the Observers of the Tree-Rootman’s Practice

There are three grades of bhikkhus on the basis of their observance of the tree-

rootman's practice.

1. The strict man does not allow himself to resort to a tree he pleases. Instead, he just

makes a clearing underneath it and dwells under it removing with his foot the

fallen leaves.

2. The moderate man may let the voluntary visitors make a clearing.

3. The soft man may call upon the monastery students and ask them to make a

clearing, to level it, to spread sand on it, to make an enclosure and to fix a door so

that he can dwell there.

On a feast day, the observer of this ascetic practice must not remain at the foot of

the tree but go to a certain hidden place.

2.11.4. The Advantages of the Tree-Rootman’s Practice

The following are the advantages that the tree-rootman's practice brings to the

observer:32

31 Any dwelling covered by one of five kinds of roof – terracotta tiles, stone slab, cement, thatch, and palm leaf. See Vin.IV.30132 Vism.I.71-72

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1. The observer has attainment according to the third requisite for his ordination as

expressed in, 'A monk depending on a dwelling at the tree-root'.

2. The Buddha praised the practice.

3. He easily has the perception of impermanence due to the sight of the constant

change in leaves and foliage.

4. He is absent of meanness for a dwelling.

5. He is absent of delight in new work due to the possession of a dwelling.

6. He shares the tree with the guardian gods of the tree.

7. His conduct is in conformity with fewness of wishes and so forth.

2.12.1. The Open-Spacer’s Practice (Abbhokasikanga dhutanga)


1. An open space is called abbhokasa.

2. A bhikkhu who lives on that kind of space is called abbhokasika.


abbhokasikanga dhutanga.

2.12.2. The Procedure of Observing the Open-Spacer’s Practice

A bhikkhu who decides to observe the open-spacer's practice does it with either

one of the expressions: ‘Annanca rukkhamulanca patikkhipami’ (I refuse a roof as well as

the root of a tree); ‘Abbhokasikangam samadhiyami’ (I observe the open-spacer's

practice).

The observer of this practice may go into a roofed building with the intention of

listening to the sermons, keeping the Sabbath, doing the sacred duties, inviting the elder

thera or brethren to a meal, learning or teaching the Pali Canon, or bringing bedsteads

and stools inside. If it begins to rain when entering the ordination hall, then he is allowed

to remain there until the rain ceases. If it begins to rain when carrying a requisite that

belongs to his seniors, then he is allowed to enter a resting house by the roadside for

shelter. But the ascetic must not hasten but go with his ordinary steps to the resting house.

The rules for this observer also apply to the observer of the tree-rootman's

practice.

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2.12.3. The Three Grades of the Observers of the Open-Spacer’s Practice

There are three grades of bhikkhus on the basis of their observance of the open-

spacer's practice.

1. The strict man may not live depending on a tree, a mountain or a house. He

should live under the open sky in a hut made of tree leaves.

2. The moderate man may live depending on a tree, a mountain or a house so long as

he does not enter it.

3. The soft man may live in a cave not covered with a roof, in a pavilion of

branches, under a dyed cloth-cover, or in a hut in the field deserted by field-

watchers and so on.

For all these three grades of bhikkhus, the open-spacer's practice is broken the

moment any of them seeks a covered shelter or a tree-root for dwelling.

2.12.4. The Advantages of the Open-Spacer’s Practice

The following are the advantages that the open-spacer's practice brings to the

observer:33

1. The observer cuts off the nuisances of an abode.

2. He dispels sloth and torpor.

3. He deserves the Buddha's praise that bhikkhus wander homeless and with no

binding just in the same way deer do.

4. He is free from attachment to the dwelling.

5. He may go at his will in any of the four directions.

6. His livelihood and conduct are in conformity with fewness of wishes and so on.

2.13.1. The Burning-Grounder’s Practice (Sosanikanga dhutanga)


1. A burning ground is called sosana.

2. A bhikkhu who lives at a burning ground is called sosanika.

3. The volition that makes the bhikkhu observe this practice is called sosanikanga

dhutanga.33 Vism.I.72-73

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2.13.2. The Procedure of Observing the Burning-Grounder’s Practice

A bhikkhu who decides to observe the burning-grounder's practice does it with

either one of the expressions: ‘Na susanam patikkhipami’ (I refuse to dwell at a place that

is not a burning ground); ‘Sosanikangam samadhiyami’ (I observe the burning-grounder's

practice).

The observer of this practice should not choose a newly-fixed burning ground of a

village, for the place is not a proper burning ground yet until a dead body is burnt on it. It

is a burning ground although the place has been deserted for as many as twelve years

since a dead body was burnt there. The observer may not have there promenades and

pavilions and so forth built, bedsteads and stools arranged, water and food brought, and

live there teaching the Law. This ascetic practice is too difficult for bhikkhus to observe.

Therefore the observer should tell the Elder of the Sangha and the authorities concerned

and live without negligence so that there may not be any danger arising.

While walking to and fro, the observer should do so looking with half-closed eyes

at the burning of dead bodies. While going to the burning ground, he should leave the

main road used by the village people but he should choose a side path. He should note

any object there by daylight so that the object in illusion may not appear to him fearful at

night. For, once, a monk by the name of Piyagamika34 who observed the practice for the

sake of offerings met with such an experience. Either, he should not throw anything such

as a stone or stick at any, if ever, unhuman beings like ogres and ghosts. He should not let

a day pass without his going to the burning ground. According to the Anguttara Nikaya

holders, the ascetic may live at the burning ground well beyond midnight.

The ascetic should not partake of such foodstuffs as sesamum35, flour, peas, rice,

fish, meat, milk, oil, molasses36 and so on and nor should he enter the house of his

supporters.

2.13.3. The Three Grades of the Observers of the Burning-Grounder’s Practice

34 M.A.I.12035 The Myanmar translation works specify that ‘sesamum’ here is a fried cake of broken peanuts and sesames attached to each other as if glued. See Concise Myanmar Dictionary Vol.2 (1979) p.536 As in ‘sesamum’, ‘molasses’ here is interpreted as a semi-solid liquid derived from cooking the mixed juices of sugar cane, toddy and honey.

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There are three grades of bhikkhus on the basis of their observance of the

burning-grounder's practice.

1. The strict man lives at a burning ground where there are continual burning,

continual smell of dead bodies, and continual weeping.

2. The moderate man lives at a burning ground where there is one of these present.

3. The soft man lives at a place which just fulfils the requirements of a burning

ground.

Any observer of this practice breaks his practice when he lives at a place which is

not a burning ground.

2.13.4. The Advantages of the Burning-Grounder’s Practice

The following are the advantages that the burning-grounder's practice brings to

the observer:

1. The observer easily attains mindfulness regarding death.

2. He lives free from negligence.

3. He acquires the outward sign of the foul (Asubhanimita).

4. He dispels sensual lust.

5. He always sees the intrinsic nature of the human body.

6. The growth of agitation occurs in him.

7. He rejects the pride of good health and so on.

8. He defeats fear and fright of danger – whether serious or not.

9. He is paid respect by un-human beings such as ogres and ghosts.

10. His livelihood is in accordance with fewness of wishes and so on.

2.14.1. The Any-Bedder’s Practice (Yathasantikanga dhutanga)


1. The dwelling allotted to the observer by the distributor by saying, 'This place is

for you' is called yathasantata.

2. A bhikkhu who lives in such an allotted dwelling is called yathasantatika.


yathasantatikanga dhutanga.

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2.14.2. The Procedure of Observing the Any-Bedder’s Practice

A bhikkhu who decides to observe the any-bedder's practice does it with either

one of the expressions: ‘Sensanaloluppam patikkhipami’ (I set aside greedy behaviour as

regards dwelling); ‘Yathasantatikangam samadhiyami’ (I observe the any-bedder's

practice).

The ascetic should be content with whatsoever dwelling is allotted to him by the

distributor bhikkhu or the instructor bhikkhu.

2.14.3. The Three Grades of the Observers of the Any-Bedder’s Practice

There are three grades of bhikkhus on the basis of their observance of the any-

bedder's practice.

1. The strict man is not allowed to inquire about a dwelling he is allotted to, as to

whether it is too far or near, troubled by such beings as ogres and snakes, or

whether it is hot or cold.

2. The moderate man is allowed to inquire about the dwelling but he must not go

there to examine it.

3. The soft man may go and examine it so that he may choose another dwelling if he

does not like the present one.

For all these three grades of bhikkhus, the emergence of greedy behaviour with

regard to dwelling is the cause of the breach of the practice.

2.14.4. The Advantages of the Any-Bedder’s Practice

The following are the advantages that the any-bedder's practice brings to the

observer:

1. The observer obeys the advice given by the Buddha as 'One should be content

with what he has got'.

2. He seeks the benefit of his fellow-bhikkhus.

3. He abandons the thought of what is inferior and superior.

4. He discards approval and disapproval.

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5. He 'closes the door' of covetousness.

6. His livelihood is in conformity with fewness of wishes and so on.

2.15.1. The Sitting-Man’s Practice (Nesajjikanga dhutanga)


1. Any posture (sitting, standing or walking) apart from lying is called nisajja.

2. A bhikkhu who keeps such a posture and gives up lying is called nesajjika.

3. The volition that makes the bhikkhu observe this practice is called nesajjikanga

dhutanga.

2.15.2. The Procedure of Observing the Sitting-Man’s Practice

A bhikkhu who decides to observe the sitting-man's practice does it with either

one of the expressions: ‘Sayyam patikkhipami’ (I refuse to lie down or I give up lying

down); ‘Khalupacchabhattikangam samadhiyami’ (I observe the sitting-man's practice).

2.15.3. The Three Grades of the Observers of the Sitting-Man’s Practice

There are three grades of bhikkhus on the basis of their observance of the sitting-

man's practice.

1. The strict man should not use these three things37 – a plank with a back support or

a cushion of cloth for squatting on, or a bandage cloth.

2. The moderate man is allowed them.

3. The soft man is allowed not only them but also a pillow, a five-limbed seat, and a

seven-limbed seat. The limbs here means four legs, a back support and two arms.

2.15.4. The Advantages of the Sitting-Man’s Practice

The following are the advantages that the sitting-man's practice brings to the

observer:38

1. The observer cuts off mental bondage described by the Buddha as 'Some (bad)

monks live devoted to the pleasure of lying down, the pleasure of lying on one's

side, the pleasure of torpor.37 See Vism. (New Nissaya). I.21238 Vism.69-76

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2. He is fit for application to all subjects of meditation.

3. His postures are satisfactory.

4. He is agreeable due to his strenuous effort.

5. He develops the right attainment.

The Thera Maha Kasspa, who was the Third Chief Disciple, was the foremost

among the ascetics who observed these practices. The Thera therefore claimed to be

foremost by saying that he had no rivals but the Buddha in the Buddha's Domain among

those observing the practices.39

The Buddha also agreed that Maha Kassapa was the foremost among the ascetics

who observed the ascetic practices in the Buddha's Dispensation.40

2.15.1. Three Chief Ascetic Practices

Out of the above-said ascetic practices, the practices of the house-to-house-goer,

one-sessioner, and open-spacer are the three chief practices. For whosoever keeps the

house-to-house-goer's practice may also keep the almsman's practice very easily.

Whosoever keeps the one-sessioner's practice may also find himself ready to observe the

practices of the bowl-fooder and afterfood-refuser. The observer of the open-spacer's

practice keeps the practices of the tree-rootman and the anybedder. Thus these three

practices of the house-to-house-goer, one-sessioner, and open-spacer are the chief

practices.

2.15.2. Three Separate Ascetic Practices

The five practices of the forester, refuse-ragman, three-folder, sitting-man, and

burning grounder are related to the other practices and thus they are the separate or

unmixed ascetic practices.

2.15.3. Two Ascetic Practices Concerning the Robe

The two practices of the refuse-ragman and the three-rober are concerned with the

use of robes.

2.15.4. Five Ascetic Practices Concerning the Almsfood

39 Thag.353, Thag.A.II.44540 AN.I.23

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The five practices of the almsman, house-to-house-goer, open-spacer, bowl-

fooder, and afterfood-refuser are related to the other practices and thus they are the

separate or unmixed ascetic practices.

2.15.5. Five Ascetic Practices Concerning the Dwelling

The five practices of the forester, tree-rootman, open-spacer, anybedder, and

burning grounder are concerned with the dwelling.41

The Suttanipata Commentary also adds the sitting-man's practice to these five,

resulting in the six practices concerning the dwelling.42

The Anguttara and Visudhimagga Commentaries, on the other hand, assign the

sitting-man's practice to the group of the practices in relation with diligence.43

2.16. Four Kinds of People Concerning the Practices

There are four kinds of people concerning the ascetic practices.

Firstly, the Thera Bakula observed the dhutangani (practices) but he never urged

others to do so. In other words, Bakula was a dhuta (one who got rid of defilements by

himself) but not a dhutavada (the proponent of the dhuta-ism).

On the other hand, the Thera Upananda urged others to observe the practices

though he himself was not the observer of the practices. He was just a dhutavada but not

a dhuta.

Next, the Thera Kaludayi was neither a dhuta nor a dhutavada for he neither

observed the practices nor urged others to do so.44

Lastly, the Thera Maha Kassapa45, the Thera Sariputta46, the Thera

Pindolabharadvaja47 and the Thera Upasena48 were dhutavadas (proponents) as well as

dhutas (observers). 49

41 Vism.I.79, DN.A.III.198-942 SP.A.II.7643 AN.A.II.284, Vism.I.79, Sn.A.II.75-7644 Vism.I.7945 AN.A.I.12746 Vism.I.7847 Ud.A.II.229, Ud.12748 Vin.A.I.33749 AN.I.23

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2.17. The Ascetic Practices Available to Lay People

The Visuddhimagga firmly states that the ascetic practices are not confined to the

brethren of the Order alone; they may also be observed by the sisters of the Order, the

novices male and female, and lay devotees male and female.

The brethren are allowed to observe any of the thirteen ascetic practices, but the

sisters are allowed to observe eight of them, excluding the two practices of the forester

and afterfood-refuser because these practices have been prohibited by precept, and the

three practices of the open-spacer, tree-rootman, and the burning-grounder all of them

being impractical for sisters to carry out.

Male novices have the right to observe all the practices but the three-robers, while

female novices may observe all the practices observable by the sisters but the three-

robers. Lay devotees, male and female, may observe the practices of the sitting-man and

bowl-fooders.

Thus, the ascetic practices are forty-two in detail: - thirteen for brethren, eight for

sisters, twelve for novices, seven for female novices, two for lay-disciples male and

female. 50

2.18. How the Buddha praised the Observer of the Ascetic Practices

The ascetic practices have been praised by the Buddha and the following story

illustrates how the Buddha praised an observer of the ascetic practices.

Once, the Buddha was sojourning in the Jeta Grove Monastery when He called

and reminded the bhikkhus not to approach Him, except by the alms-bringer monk,

during the Lenten months because He wanted to enjoy solitude. Thus the bhikkhus

promised each other not to approach the Buddha, prohibiting themselves by the Pacittiya

offence. 51

In the meantime, the Thera Upasena, son of Vankanta the Brahmin, paid a visit to

the Buddha together with his follower monks. They sat at a suitable place before the

Buddha, who was quite satisfied with the Thera Upasena and his followers because of

their behaviour. He then asked the Thera how he had taught them. The Thera said in reply 50 Vism.I.8051 Vin.I.336

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that when they came to him to enter into the Order, he had taught them to follow his suit

of observing the ascetic practices such as those of the forester, bowl-fooder, refuse-

ragman, and three robbers. Those who were not happy with his teaching were not

permitted to be ordained.52

The Buddha applauded the Thera Upasena's reply by saying 'Well-done' and gave

privileged permission to the observers of those practices to approach Him whenever they

wish to. 53

2.19. Fives Intentional Reasons for Observing the Ascetic Practices

The observers of the ascetic practices have one or more of the following five

intentional reasons for observing their practices: 54

1. They may keep the practices without the proper knowledge of their advantages.

2. They may keep the practices for offerings and fame.

3. They may keep the practices through folly or craziness.

4. They may keep the practices because these practices have been praised by the

Buddha and the Disciples.

5. They may keep the practices for the sake of fewness of wishes or contentedness. 55

A bhikkhu observes the practices due to any of these reasons, of which the first

two reasons have been despised by the Buddha and only the last reason is claimed to be

the noblest one.56

2.20. The Ascetic Practices in Relation with the Character Types

The practices are especially recommended to those who have the character types

of the lustful man and the ignorant man. Non-indulgence or asceticism in these practices

puts out the fire of lust while heedfulness discards ignorance. The bhikkhu who possesses

52 Vin.I.337-340, Vin.I.A.226, Miln.33053 Miln.34154 Abh.IV.179, Abh. IV.A.99, Vin.V.233, Vin.A.177, AN.V.193, AN.A.V.64-6555 Fewness of Four Wishes: fewness of wishes for four assets, for concealment of one’s own asceticism, for concealment of one’s learning, and for concealment of one’s attainment of brahma or supramundane states. Twelve Kinds of Contentedness: 3 kinds of contentedness(contentedness with earnings, contentedness with one’s ability, contentedness with one’s modest lifestyle) multiplied by 4 assets (alms, robes, dwelling, medicine) See Researcher’s Dictionary of Categories by the Ven. Obhasabhivamsa, and SN.?339, SN.?A.150.56 Vin.V.335, Miln.338

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the character type of the angry man should observe the practices of the forester and tree-

rootman, since the forest dwellers are usually free from anger or stress.57

The Thera Maha Kassapa had observed the ascetic practices since the first day of

his ordination. He was the noblest leading figure among the observers of these ascetic

practices. It was not only in that life that he observed the ascetic practices but he kept

them in the past five hundred existences. The Thera was declared by the Buddha to be the

foremost among those who observe the ascetic practices and those who urge others to do

so.

The Thera Maha Kassapa, Foremost Observer of the Ascetic Practices in this

Buddha's Dispensation, was also elevated to the rank of the Third Chief Disciple.

Furthermore, he attained Arahantship on the eighth day of his bhikkhuhood.58

Just like the Thera Maha Kassapa, the zealous observers of the ascetic practices

are bound to have many benefits accrued in this life and life hereafter.59

57 Vism.I.7958 AN.I.23, AN.A.I.104-126, Thag.353, Thag.A.II.455, Ap.A.I.293 59 Miln.333-339

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Ascetic Practices

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