Around urban areas, chemical pollutantsare absorbed and detoxified by green plants.Turf and trees also serve as effective "dusttraps. " No.4 hole at M ontammy Golf Club,New Jersey.

Golf Coursesand The Environmentby PHILIP A. WOGANGolf Course Architect, Beverly, Massachusetts

MEMBERS OF THE generalpublic, watching golf, whether

on television or at tournament sites,must think that golf courses receivesubstantial support from the environ-mentalists. Golf course architects,however, know this simply is not trueand that we are becoming more andmore ensnared in environmental prob-lems.

In the late 1960s and early 1970s,environmentalism became the newwatchword. Many conditions affectingthe environment and our health neededcorrection; hence, the laws to clean up

our air, streams, etc. were enacted toprotect health. Along with this move-ment, many naturalists and wildlifeadvocates became active to protecttheir special interests.

In his new book, Environment, Tech-nology, and Health, Dr. Meril Eisenbudstates that many divergent views ofopposing environmental objectionshave been due, in part, to misinfor-mation and misrepresentation of facts.He also states that, because of inaccu-rate, emotional and misleading cover-age of environmental issues by the newsmedia, and as a result of the politicalclout of single-issue advocacy groups,

OpInIOnS concerning environmentalissues are very far apart. According toDr. Eisen bud, polarization has devel-oped hand-in-hand with politicization,and together they have often preventedprograms of environmental protectionfrom evolving rationally.

As a result of regulations advocatedby various environmental agencies,conflicts exist between different legiti-mate and quasi-environmental groupsover what constitutes desirable environ-mental objectives.

As dedicated and professional envi-ronmentalists, we consider golf coursedevelopment an improvement of man's

MARCH/APRIL 1980 II

habitat; because of the many regu-lations however, the creation of a golfcourse meets potential pitfalls. Forexample, the regulations designed toimprove or to reduce air pollution canresult in actions which are self-defeating.Consider, for example, the clearing andgrubbing operation in the early stages ofgolf course construction. In Massa-chusetts a few years ago, the StateOffice of Environmental Affairs issuedregulations that prevented any outdoorburning of trees, brush and leaves;however, the regulations permitted theuse of huge diesel-powered chipperswhich spewed out their noxious pol-lutants, contaminating the air to amuch greater degree. At the same time,this chipping operation greatly increasedconstruction costs. Because of problemsencountered in the new wave of environ-mentalism, we should present ourviews, along with supporting evidenceto back up our contention that golfcourses, on balance, benefit man'shabitat.

LET US EXAMINE golf courseconstruction to determine how it

affects the environment. In clearing

Grass provides oxygen, acts as an enormousair conditioner and beautifies the environ-ment. No. 13 hole at Knickerbocker CountryClub, New Jersey.

and grubbing, often fifty percent ormore of the area has to be cleared oftrees to provide for the golf course area.Certain beneficial effects may resultfrom this clearing. Of the wooded areasremaining between the fairways andother areas, there will be a certainamount of selective thinning andpruning. The remaining trees - thehealthy ones - would grow faster. Theremoval of dead and fallen trees, alongwith slash and dense undergrowth,would reduce the tree disease. Much ofthe wooded area in the country has beenpreviously cut over, and has never beenproperly managed. These areas wouldnow come under the supervision of thegolf course superintendent. The fair-ways, themselves, could act as fire-breaks, helping to prevent fire damageto the entire area. The cleared areasrarely used by the general public, wouldthen be available for golfers, cross-country skiers, joggers and others, andwould result in greater appreciation andenthusiasm for the natural environ-ment. The open spaces would encouragean increase in the population of the typeof wildlife that prefers this type ofhabitat. In opposition to this, those

species of plant and animal life thatprefer the dense undergrowth charac-teristic of unmanaged wooded areaswould be adversely affected. The overallenvironmental effect, however, wouldbe no less desirable than in the originalsite.

Another essential operation in thedevelopment of a golf course is thecutting and filling operation. It isnecessary to change existing contoursto develop landforms inherent in thenature of the game such as greens, tees,fairway bunkers, etc. In altering theupland contours, it is necessary toreduce steep grades and abrupt slopesto meet conditions suitable for thegame. Upland contours are altered sothat water-holding pockets are elim-inated and also to produce adequatesurface drainage. Producing moregradual sloping will reduce the effects oferosion, increase the visi bility of thetarget areas, thereby increasing thesafety of the golfers, allowing forgreater ease of maintenance. In anyconstruction there are always someshort-term detrimental effects. Theremay be a temporary change in the watertable, and ground water aquifers may be

changed or relocated. During the periodof construction of six months to a year,a certain amount of soil erosion maytemporarily pollute streams that passthrough the property. Any change in thelandforms must alter the eco-system;however, it is not long before anotherdesirable eco-system is established.

N ow, we come to the use of wetlands.Wetlands have almost become sacro-sanct and statutes have been passed inmany states to protect them fromindiscriminate use. Briefly, wetlandsare defined in many statutes by theamount of standing or slowly-runningwater that occurs near the surfaceduring normal growing seasons and bythe species of vegetation they support.Interpretation of these statutes hasbeen so strict sometimes, particularlyon local levels, that small, isolated lowareas which may hold surface drainagewater and may exhibit vegetativegrowth characteristic of wetlands, arecalled wetlands. Calling some of theseisolated, depressed areas wetlands is nomore justified than calling a sandbox adesert. Without question, wetlands,along with uplands, perform a numberof valuable functions. They help inflood control; they help to stabilize thewater table; they provide a uniquehabitat for many plants and animals.However, in order to perform thesefunctions, a wetland must be of con-siderable size.

IN CONSTRUCTING golf courses,it has been necessary and desirable

sometimes to use portions of swamps,meadows or bogs. This is true for tworeasons:

1. It has been relatively cheap landbecause it has few other commercialuses.

2. Its water can be used for irrigation,water hazards, and aesthetic values.

Constructing a golf course in a wet-land of viable size does not involveusing a large portion of the area; it does,however, infringe upon a part of it.Obviously, the habitat of that immed-iate area is altered, but it is true that ithas been replaced by another desirable,though different, habitat.

There are possible detrimental effects.A change in the wetlands may destroythe breeding ground of some forms ofswamplife and may temporarily dis-rupt the drainage of adjacent land-forms. Many of the adverse effects,however, can be minimized throughproper design and construction tech-niques. For example, much of the areathat is not required for the golf course

itself can be left untouched and incor-porated into the overall design concept.Innisbrook, in Tarpon Springs, Florida,is a good example of this approach.Larry Packard, the golf course archi-tect, created biological harmony be-tween the golf course habitat and thesurrounding cypress swamp.

Another area of environmental con-cern in golf course construction involvesstraightening, realigning, or relocatinga stream bed. This is often necessary ona small scale because it makes more landusable and makes the relationshipbetween the land and stream bed moresuitable for a golf course. It also pro-vides for easier and more efficientmaintenance of stream bed areas.

Several beneficial effects of streamchanneling:

1. An increase in the flow velocity,resulting in higher oxygen content.

2. A reduction in eutrophication.3. A more desirable habitat for cer-

tain types of aquatic life.Some adverse environmental effects:1. The disruption of stream bed or

banks, resulting in a temporary increasein the amount of erosion. This would bedue to an increased velocity flow andthe removal of erosion-controllingvegetation.

2. The removal of streamside trees,brush and other vegetation would pro-duce higher water temperatures as aresult of more sunlight, thus changingthe existing ecosystem.

3. Here again, we would have the dis-ruption of certain breeding grounds.

To the naturalist, stream channelingmeans miles of barren concrete-linedsluiceways. In golf course construction,we obviously have something differentin mind. The purpose would be torecreate a stream in another locationwhich would blend with the naturallandforms.

We have touched on a few of thefacets of golf course construction whichmight, to a greater or lesser degree,affect the environment. Let's now lookat golf course maintenance.

TWO OF THE PRACTICES neces-sary for the maintenance of a golf

course that provoke the ire of theavocational and quasi-environmen-talists are the use of fertilizers andpesticides.

Since golf courses require largeacreages of turf, it is not surprising thatthey use fertilizer. The problems result-ing from the use of fertilizer for theproduction of crops is greatly minimizedon golf courses for the following reasons:

I. Since golf courses are coveredwith a permanent crop, there is muchless need for plant food on a per-acrebasis than would be required for mostfarming operations.

2. Since turf roots absorb a highpercentage of available plant food,there is significantly less migration offertilizer contaminants, if any, into thesurrounding streams and lakes.

3. Phosphorous is an ingredient inmany fertilizer applications; however,it has been demonstrated that phos-phorous attaches itself to the soil particlesand is not redissolved in sizable amounts.It is through soil erosion that more of thephosphorous gets into water sources.Control of soil erosion with a dense,healthy turf minimizes the danger ofphosphorous pollution to an insig-nificant level.

4. Most golf course grasses requirelow concentrations of phosphorous. Inmany instances on established golfcourses, the superintendent, in hismaintenance program, often usesfertilizers containing no phosphorousin order to control the proliferation ofPoa annua -annual bluegrass.

5. Nitrogen, as an ingredient in fer-tilizer, is used to such an extent by theactive growing grass plant that verylittle is leached through the soil. This isdue partly to a low concentration ofavaila ble nitrogen and to the slow-releasing nature of fertilizer often usedby golf courses.

In a recent study conducted at TexasA&M by the USGA Green Section, itwas shown that where soluble forms offertilizer, including ammonium nitrateand ammonium sulfate, were applied,high concentrations of nitrate werefound in the leachate from experimentalgreens. These concentrations exceededstandards established by the EPA. Thestudy also showed, however, that withproper irrigation, the use of slow-release fertilizers and proper spacing offertilizer application, nitrate contami-nation of water sources could be wellwithin EP A limit~. Where greens arelocated close to water sources, drainagesystems can be designed which will con-duct the leachate away from ponds andstreams so that contamination becomesalmost non-existent.

Now what about the use of pesticides?A lot has been written, mostly negative,regarding pesticides. The use of pesti-cides is an important aid in helping toimprove the quality of life. They helpcontrol many diseases of plants, ani-mals, and humans, and they are partlyresponsible for making our agricultural

MARCH/APRIL ]980 13

Go(f courses serve as fish and wildlife sanctuaries and golf affords healthful recreation formillions afpeople. No. /4 hole at National Go(fUnks of America. Southampton. New York.

system the most productive in theworld. The pr9blem is with the injudi-cious use of these substances. Pesticidesused by golf courses have both positiveand negative effects. On the positiveside, fungicides and insecticides areused in the turf industry to keep turfhealthy and vigorous. Most fungicidesused on golf courses are quickly bio-degradable and don't move great dis-tances in the soil. Since turf has greatpowers of absorption, pesticides ap-plied directly to the plant area will beretained in the general area and will notbe carried off by surface water drainagebefore it becomes non-toxic once again.Since the turf on a golf course is notconsumed by range animals, there is nochance of pesticides entering the foodchain, nor is there a chance for accumu-lative buildup of pesticides in animaltissue. Shortly after application, mostherbicides begin to break down asoutside forces act upon them. Throughadsorption, the herbicides are attachedto particles of soil until the variousdecomposition processes begin theirwork. In turf, where there is very littleerosion, there is little, if any, relocationof the herbicides.

Some negative effects do result fromthe improper use of pesticides. Im-proper use of fungicides may damageturf, diminishing the beneficial effects.Misuse of herbicides may temporarilysterilize the soil, thereby preventing thegermination of plants. In cases wheredrifting may occur, the use of certainpesticides may contaminate areas out-side the target zone, resulting in pos-sible harm to man and wildlife. In othercases, pesticides may contaminate adja-cent ponds and streams and may pos-sibly be toxic to aquatic life as well as tothose animals using the water fordrinking. The superintendent and hisassistants can encounter health hazardsthrough the improper handling of pes-ticides.

NOW, LET'S CONSIDER the pos-itive contributions that golf course

development makes to the environment.For many years golf courses have pro-vided a pleasurable, outdoor sport andrecreational activity for millions ofpeople of all ages, and it has been ameans of improving the quality of theirlives.

The golf course enables millions toenjoy the wonders of their naturalsurroundings. Since golf courses arebuilt on a variety of landforms, such asthe links courses at the seashore, theinland courses often abutting wetlands,

14 USGA GREEN SECTION RECORD

and the mountain and desert courses, ithas enabled millions of golfers to com-municate with many different eco-logical situations and to gain a know-ledge and appreciation of these variedenvironments. Golf courses built in thepast century have been responsible forkeeping hundreds of thousands of acresin open land. Where these open landsexist near densely populated urbanareas, they have produced untold bene-fits toward improving the quality oflife.

In many communities, both privateand municipal courses serve a vitalsocial need by holding civic functionsand charitable events. In smaller com-munities, the golf club often serves asthe only social and recreational outletfor many residents and provides a social

gathering point for the community.High school and college teams areinvited to use the course for their inter-scholastic and intercollegiate matches.

During the growing season, theaverage IS-hole golf course of onehundred fifty acres provides enoughoxygen for 10,350 people. This sameacreage is responsible, too, for reducinglarge quantities of carbon-dioxide,produced mostly by burning fossil fuels.Around the urban areas, sulfur dioxide,ammonia, nitrogen oxide and otherproducts can be absorbed and detox-ified by green plants. Many plants are,of course, affected by pollution, as isanimal life, but research indicates thatturf is more tolerant of polluted air thanother plants and is able to turn these

noxious pollutants into useful plantingredients.

Turf acts as an enormous air con-ditioner. It purifies the air of chemicalpollutants, and. with grass, along withtrees, is an effective dust trap. Grass andtrees act to control the velocity of theairstream so that dust particles cansettle out. At the same time they help tomoderate the air temperature. Studieshave shown that because of evapo-transpiration, turf is usually 20 percentor more cooler than any pavement orartificial turf, and even five feet abovethe surface, the temperature is 10 degreescooler above the turf areas. Water puri-fication and conservation is anothercontribution that golf courses make tothe environment. The creation of ponds

and lakes for the dual purpose of en-hancing the beauty and playability ofthe course itself, as well as supplying asource of water for irrigation, is a valu-able conservation measure. Waterresource is a growing concern in manyparts of the country, and, therefore, anyconservation from capturing excessrunoff into reservoirs aids in waterconservation. The use of this water,through sprinkler systems, helps in thepurification, through aeration, therebyhelping to restore some of the oxygencontent of water.

Another water conservation methodis the use of sewerage effluent by anincreasing number of golf courses.Architect Bill Amick's new course,Mangrove Bay, in St. Petersburg,

Florida, has the blessing and the financ-ing of the Environmental ProtectionAgency for the wastewater distributionsystem. This subject was discussed indetail last year in Chicago at the Waste-water Conference.

IN MANY AREAS, particularly inthe North, golf courses, during the

winter periods, can be used for otherrecreational activities. A golf course isan ideal site for the increasingly popularsport of cross-country skiing. Also,other winter sports, such as ice skating,to bogganing, snow shoeing and, in anumber of cases, downhill skiing, can beundertaken. During the season whenthe golf course is in active use, manyclubs allow fishing in their ponds and

MARCH/APRIL 1980 15

streams. In many instances jogging andhiking are popular pastimes.

GOLF COURSE DEVELOPMENTcan often improve our surround-

ings by creating a greater use of sub-standard land. Many unsightly areassuch as sanitary landfills, gravel pits,and strip-mined areas, can be greatlyimproved by the creation of a golfcourse. A good example of a golf coursethat is built on sanitary landfill is, again,Mangrove Bay. The turning of worked-out gravel pits into golf courses andrecreational areas has helped to elimi-nate the visual pollution in a number ofareas. With funds earned from gravelsales, these scars on the landscape canbe eliminated. Two examples are theWampatuck Country Club, in Canton,Massachusetts, designed by Geoff

For1980,It's NationalGolf Week

Golf's annual charity program,National Golf Day, is nearing usonce again, but take a secondlook. National Golf Day hasbecome National Golf Week.

The 1980 campaign will have alocal look and the nationalRound of Champions is gone.Now each club professional willconduct his own National GolfWeek competition and willfollow the format of his choice.

The PG A of America, whichspearheads the annual drive fora host of golf charities andagencies, suggests a target con-tribution of $3. It will be theweek of June 23rd to 30th.

One of the recipients ofNational Golf Day err.National Golf Week, is theUSGA Green Section. Since1952, the PGA has contributedmore than $282,000 to the GreenSection. This money has beenused to support a number of golfturfgrass research projects andin this way the funds go backinto improving conditions forthe players.

16 USGA GREEN SECTION RECORD

Cornish, and the Colonial 901f Club inLynnfield, Massachusetts, designed bythe late Bill Mitchell. X. G. Hassenplughas designed the Laurel Green CountryClub, an executive course, on a strip-mined area in Westmoreland County,in Pennsylvania.

IN MANY PARTS OF the country,small farm holdings may not be

economically feasible to continue as afarming operation, yet the landownermay wish to keep his property as openland. Converting wooded or farm landinto a golf course is one desirableproperty use which can provide a con-tinued income and a reasonable taxresource. However, overkill with a hightax assessment, particularly near urbancenters, can discourage this type ofconversion. The landowner, in order tostay solvent, sells his property to adeveloper of industrial, commercial orresidential sites. The principle of assess-ing land as to its highest and best(economic) use, rather than its actualuse, has been a regressive policy forfarm and recreational land.

The arbitrary or frivolous oppositionby zealous members of narrow-basedspecial interest groups who want theiresoteric interests protected can preventmany projects of economic benefit tomankind from going forward. Anygroup wishing to maintain the statusquo of the open land of others becausethey are concerned about increasedtraffic flow, the possibility of a clubliquor license, or the loss of their per-sonal hunting ground has used environ-mental laws as their stalking horse. Theresulting possibility of extended delays,numerous hearings and unnecessaryplanning and engineering can cause aproposed project to be abandoned toavoid this needless harrassment andunproductive costs.

In the past 10 years laws have beenpassed that were designed to protectand improve the environment. In urbanareas, the automobiles were contami-nating our air beyond reason, paper andchemical mills were polluting our lakesand rivers, and strip miners weredespoiling the landscape. Our environ-ment needed protection, thus the laws andregulations. After the legislators enactedthe laws, the regulatory agencies -federal, state and local - interpretedthese laws and formulated all inclusiverules and regulations. Oftentimes theregulation set standards that were basedon studies and facts of doubtful validity.We know that the EPA has in the lastfew months revised some of these stan-

dards so that they more closely relateto reality. Golf course development hasbeen caught in the web of these environ-mental requirements. The intent of thelegislators was not to hamper desirableenvironmental projects, but the effectof bureaucratic interpretation has donejust that. Usually the higher echelons ofgovernment agencies are quite sympa-thetic toward the use of open land for agolf course; however, the tyranny of thebureaucratic system, particularly in thelesser offices, has made golf coursedevelopment difficult and, in somecases, marginal.

ITIS FUTILE FOR us to bemoan thefact that golf has been restricted in

its development and operations by thecurrent wave of environmentalism. Wecannot lose this battle by default. Anumber of positive actions can be takenin protecting and advancing the game.

First, on the national and state levels,the various associations in the golffield should marshal their forces in acooperative effort to influence existingand proposed legislation. This may bethrough a public relations effort alongwith some lobbying designed to benefitour field of endeavor. The purpose ofthese efforts should be directed towardthe following:

1. To have an input in new and pro-posed legislation where the game'sinterests are involved.

2. To seek relief, exceptions, andpermissible uses under existing legis-lation, as in the case of the farming.industry, with respect to wetlands.

Second, on the local level, manysuperintendents, architects, and clubmembers have appeared before conser-vation commissions, zoning boards,planning boards, and other local agen-cies on behalf of new golf course pro-jects or existing courses. At thesehearings, we should not only be able tosupport our projects as desirable, envi-ronmental developments, but also weshould be able to document, in detail,the various implications that are in-volved. We should have facts and con-cepts that would support our con-tention that the project or alterationwould be a desirable ecological change.

Third, we must continue to promoteresearch into various methods andmaterials that will diminish any harm-ful effects of our construction and main-tenance practices.

In short, we should pursue in anaggressive and positive manner ourcontention that golf benefits man'shabitat and improves the quality of life.