AQA History Paper 1 Conflict and tension

1894-1918

Part one: The causes of the First World War • The Alliance System: the Triple Alliance; Franco-Russian Alliance; relations between the ‘Entente’ powers; the crises in Morocco (1905 and 1911) and the Balkans (1908–1909), and their effects on international relations. • Anglo-German rivalry: Britain and challenges to Splendid Isolation; Kaiser Wilhelm’s aims in foreign policy, including Weltpolitik; colonial tensions; European rearmament, including the Anglo-German naval race. • Outbreak of war: Slav nationalism and relations between Serbia and Austria-Hungary; the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo and its consequences; the July Crisis; the Schlieffen Plan and Belgium; reasons for the outbreak of hostilities and the escalation of the conflict.

Part two: The First World War: stalemate • The Schlieffen Plan: the reasons for the plan, its failure, including the Battle of Marne and its contribution to the stalemate. • The Western Front: military tactics and technology, including trench warfare; the war of attrition; key battles, including Verdun, the Somme and Passchendaele, the reasons for, the events and significance of these battles. • The wider war: the war on other fronts; Gallipoli and its failure; the events and significance of the war at sea, including Jutland, the U-Boat campaign and convoys.

Part three: Ending the war • Changes in the Allied Forces: consequences of the Bolshevik Revolution and the withdrawal of Russia on Germany strategy; the reasons for and impact of the entry of the USA into the war. • Military developments in 1918 and their contribution to Germany’s defeat: the evolution of tactics and technology; Ludendorff the German Spring Offensive; the Allied advance during The Hundred Days. • Germany surrenders: impact of the blockade; abdication of the Kaiser; armistice; the contribution of Haig and Foch to Germany’s defeat.

Paper 1 Conflict and tension 1894-1918- What you should know

Map of Europe 1914

Austria- Hungary

Austria-Hungary (A-H) was a sprawling (wide) empire in central Europe. It was made up people of different ethnic cultures (Germans, Czechs, Slovaks, Serbs etc.) Each group had their own customs, traditions and language, many of these groups wanted independence from A-H • In the north the Czech people wanted to rule themselves• The Slav people in the south-west (especially the Croats , those from Croatia) wanted their

own state. • The Serbs living in the south wanted to be joined to Serbia. By 1914the main concern of the Emperor of A-H was how to keep this fragmented empire together. A-H faced problems from their neighbouring states.• Its newly independent neighbour Serbia was becoming a powerful force in the Balkans. A-H

did not want them to become anymore powerful. • Another neighbour, Russia , supported the Serbs, and had a very strong army.

The Alliance system

• Nationalism, patriotism, jingoism, rivalries , suspicions and personal ambitions of rulers, all these and more explain the causes of WW1. By 1914 the six most powerful nations in Europe were divided into two opposing alliances, the Triple Alliance (Central Powers) formed in 1882- Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy. And the Triple Entente formed in 1907- Britain, France, Russia.

• The most important aspect of the Triple Alliance was an agreement that each member of the alliance would support any other member if it was attacked. Although this agreement was secret, it seems likely that Britain, France and Russia knew about it by 1914.

Paper 1 C&T Part 1: Causes of WW1: The Triple Alliance

Germany

Germany• Before 1870 Germany was a collection of small

independent states of which Prussia was the most powerful. In 1870 the Prussian statesman Bismarck won a war against France, after which he united the country into a new German Empire. Germany took from France the industrial area of Alsace-Lorraine and, to guard against a revenge attack from the French, Germany formed the Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Italy.

• The new Germany was especially successful in industry. By 1914 German industry had overtaken Britain’s and was second in the world only to that of the USA

However, Germany’s leaders had greater ambitions, as well as concerns:• The German Kaiser felt that Germany should be a world

power and should have overseas colonies and an empire just as France and Britain had. The Germans had established two colonies in Africa, but they wanted more.

• In the 1890’s the Kaiser ordered the building of a large Navy, which soon became the world’s second most powerful fleet (second to Britain)

• German leaders were very worried by what they called ‘encirclement’, friendship between Russia to the east and France to the west was seen as an attempt to surround and threaten Germany.

• Germany was also concerned by the huge build-up of arms, especially in Russia, and was itself building up a vast army.

Italy

Like some of the other European powers, Italy wanted to set up colonies and build up an overseas empire. With this aim in mind, Italy joined Germany and A-H in the Triple Alliance. However, there is some evidence the Germany and A-H did not entirely trust their ally. In any case, Italy was not a strong industrial or military power.

Britain

• In the 19th century Britain had tried not to get involved in European politics. Its attitude became known as ‘Splendid Isolationism’ as it concentrated on its huge overseas empire. For most of the 19th century, Britain had regarded France and Russia as its two most dangerous rivals. However, by the early 1900’s the picture had begun to change.

There were three main reasons why Britain changed its attitude to Europe. • France and Britain had reached a number of agreements about colonies in North Africa in

1904. • Russia was defeated in a war against Japan in 1904. This weakened Russia so now Britain was

less concerned about her. • Above all, Britain was very concerned about Germany. The German Kaiser had made it clear

that he wanted Germany to have an empire and a strong navy, which Britain saw as a serious threat.

Britain began to co-operate more with France and signed an agreement with it in 1904. Britain signed another agreement with Russia in 1907. These arrangements did not commit Britain to joining France and Russia if war broke out but it seemed unlikely that Britain would stay out of a war if it did happen.

Paper 1 C&T: Part 1: Causes of WW1: The Triple Entente

France

Since Germany beat France in 1870, Germany had built up a powerful army and strong industries. It had an ambitious leader (Kaiser Wilhelm) France was worried about Germany growing in power , so she built up her industries and armies. France also developed a close friendship with Russia. The main concerns France had were• To protect itself against an attack from Germany• To get back the rich industrial region of Alsace-Lorraine, which Germany had taken in 1870.

Russia

Russia was by far the largest of all 6 powers, but was also the most backward. The country was almost entirely agricultural, through loans from France, Russia was beginning to develop some industries. Russia shared France’s concerns. It also had a long history or rivalry with A-H, hence why they were so friendly with Serbia, that and the fact that both Russians and Serbs were Slavs. Many other Slavs lived in the A-H empire and Russia felt they should have more influence over them. Russia lost a war with Japan in 1905, there was then a revolution against the ruler Tsar Nicholas II. He survived, but he knew Russia could not afford to lose any other conflict. The Russians began to build up a large army in case of emergencies in the future.

Tsar Nicholas II

Tsar of Russia 1894-1917

British Prime Minister ‘s

(left) Herbert Asquith PM 1908-1916 (Liberal) (Right) David Lloyd-George PM 1916-1922

President of France

President of France Raymond Poincaré 1913-1920Many PM’s served under him eg Briand, Clemenceau

Britain

Britain increasingly saw Germany as the main threat to its position as the dominant power in the world and to its policy of Splendid Isolation. However, Germany’s attempt to gain extra colonies around the world was bound to increase tensions between the two countries, especially due to trade as Germany was Britain's main trading partner. The monarchies were also related, as the Kaiser was the cousin to King George V (1910-36)

Paper 1 Section B: Part 1: Causes of WW1: Anglo-German rivalry

Kaiser Wilhelm II’s aims in foreign policy

The Kaiser’s policy of Weltpolitik was designed to ensure that aggressive diplomacy would lead to the acquisition of more colonies, backed by the development of a large navy. In the 1960’s the German historian Fritz Fischer studied the Kaiser’s letters etc, and concluded that he hoped to replace Britain as the leading power in Europe and wanted to dominate Russia by building up a powerful alliance of countries in central Europe. Not all historians agree, some say the Kaiser felt encircled by his enemies. However, most historians agree that the Kaisers unstable personality and actions increased tension in Europe between 1900-1914.

Anglo-German naval rivalry

Britain felt threatened by the Kaiser’s announcement that he was going to build a powerful navy for Germany. Britain felt they were justified in having the largest navy, as they are an island, with colonies all over the world which needed protection. Germany only has one coast, and not much of an empire so surely there was no need for them to have a large navy. However, the Kaiser did not see things the same way, he felt that Germany needed a navy to protect its growing trade, they felt the British were overreacting. In response the British raised the stakes in the naval race by launching the HMS Dreadnought in 1906. Germany responded by introducing their own ‘Dreadnought’ called the Nassau-class battleship. The naval race was well and truly on and both Britain and Germany spent millions on their new ships. In Germany in particular, war and militarism were glorified through rallies and processions.

Key person: Kaiser Wilhelm II

Born 1861, with a badly withered left arm. Some say he suffered brain damage at birth, which affected his hearing and attention span. He did not have a loving family. He became Kaiser at 27 when German industry was growing fast and Germany was becoming a world power. He was famous for his energy and enthusiasm, but he was also very unpredictable. He was keen on military parades and liked to be photographed wearing his military uniform. He appointed military people to most of the important positions in his government. He was very ambitious and wanted Germany to be recognised as the greatest power in Europe. When Germany was defeated in WW1 he fled into exile. He died in 1941

Europe

Around Europe, countries were building up the size of their armies. It was argued that this was for defence in case of attack by members of the opposing alliance. In fact, countries were afraid that war was bound to happen at some point and therefore it was better to be prepared.

Paper 1 Section B: Part 1: Causes of WW1: European rearmament

Germany

Germany’s army was not the biggest army in Europe but most people agreed it was the best trained and most powerful. The problem facing the German commanders was that if a war broke out they would probably have to fight against Russia and France at the same time. The Germans came up with the Schlieffen Plan, under this plan, they would quickly defeat France, then turn their forces on Russia which the Germans were sure would be slow to get its troops ready for war.

Austria-Hungary

A-H knew it needed the help of Germany to hold back Russia. It too relied on the success of the Schlieffen Plan so that Germany could help it to defeat Russia.

Russia

The Russian army was badly equipped, but it was huge. Given enough time, Russia could eventually put millions of soldiers into the field. The Russian plan was to overwhelm Germany’s and A-H armies by sheer weight of numbers.

France

France had a large and well-equipped army. Its main plan of attack was known as Plan 17. French troops would charge across the frontier and attack deep into Germany forcing surrender.

Britain

Britain’s military planners had been closely but secretly involved in collaboration with French commanders. This led to Britain setting up the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), consisting of 150,000 highly trained and well-equipped professional soldiers. The BEF could go to France and fight alongside the French at short notice.

What unites all of these plans was the assumption that a war, if it came, would be quick. No one planned for a war dragging on. It was assumed that none of the powers would be able to keep up a long, drawn-out war. The sheer cost of a war would led to economic collapse (of the enemy only, of course) and so the war would be over in a matter of weeks or months (when WW1 did break out, in August 1914, it was feared by many that war would be over by Christmas)

Number of ‘Dreadnoughts’ built by Britain and Germany 1906-1914

Morocco, 1905 and 1911

In 1905 the Kaiser visited Morocco in North Africa. Germany was building up its own African empire and had colonies in central and southern Africa . The French had plans to take control of Morocco, so the Kaiser, wanting to prove that Germany was the only strong power in Africa made a speech saying he supported independence for Morocco. The French were furious that he was interfering with their affairs. An international conference was held in in 1906, in an attempt to cool things down, but it in fact had the opposite effect. The Kaiser was humiliated at the conference as his views were rejected, he was also treated as if he had no right to speak on such matters. He was very concerned with how close France and Britain were, the two were usually enemies, but at the conference the two stuck together to oppose him.

In 1907, in the wake of the Moroccan crisis, Britain and France formed an alliance with Russia. The Kaiser saw this as a threatening policy of encirclement, with hostile powers surrounding Germany .

In 1911 Morocco saw another crisis. The French tried to take over Morocco again. They said they were prepared to compensate Germany if her trade suffered as a result. However, the Kaiser’s response was to send a gunboat (the Panther) to Agadir. The British feared that the Kaiser wanted to set up a naval base in Agadir, and they did not want German ships in the Mediterranean. Another conference was called. The British and French again stood firm against Germany. France took control of Morocco. Germany was given land in central Africa as compensation. Behind the scenes, Britain and France reached an agreement that the French should patrol the Med and the Royal Navy should defend France’s Atlantic and North Sea coasts.

Paper 1 C&T: Part 1: Causes of WW1: Pre-War crises

The Balkans: Bosnia, 1908

The Balkans were a very unstable area. The area had been ruled by Turkey for many centuries, with many different nationalities mixed together. Turkish power was now in decline. The new governments which had been set up in place of Turkish rule were regularly in dispute with each other. To make matters worse, Russia and A-H bordered the countries in this region. Both wanted to control this area because it gave them access to the Mediterranean.

The first Balkan crisis came in 1908. Austria took over provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Russia and Serbia protested, but they backed down when Germany made it clear that she supported Austria. Neither Serbia or Russia was prepared to risk war with Germany over this issue. However, there were some serious consequences in 1914.

28th June 1914- the Black Hand Gang assassinates the heir to the A-H throne

The 28th June was a holy day in Sarajevo, and this was year going to be even more of a celebration as the Archduke Franz Ferdinand (FF) was going to visit. His plan was for him and his wife Sophie to drive down the Appel Quay in an open top car waving to all the crowds of people who had come to see him. However, hidden among the crowds of adoring fans were 6 Bosnian Serb assassins who together were called the Black Hand Gang. They were terrorists sworn to kill the Archduke. They were nationalists who hated FF, and they hated Austria. A-H had taken over Bosnia in 1908 which fuelled nationalist hatred for the A-H empire. The members were stationed at different sections along the Appel Quay and each had different weapons that they had been trained with and cyanide to swallow if they were caught. The idea was if one failed, there would be another assassin further down the road who would not fail.

At 10.15 the dukes car passed Mehmedbasic, the first assassin, he took fright and did nothing. The next assassin Cabriolvic threw his bomb, drank his cyanide and jumped into the river. However, the bomb did not go off at the right time, it landed behind the Dukes car and exploded wounding the guards sent to protect FF. Cabriolvic’s cyanide did not work as it was out of date and he was dragged by the police from the river.

Princip discovered that the plot to kill FF had gone wrong so went to Schiller’s delicatessen to get a sandwich. FF demanded to see the wounded in hospital so it was decided to take a different route to the hospital avoiding the Appel Quay, but this was not properly explained to the driver and no armed guard went with them. The driver took a wrong turn towards Schiller’s delicatessen at the exact moment that Princip was stood outside it. He fired two shots, one hit FF in the neck, the other hit Sophie’s stomach. Both died within 20minutes. Princip swallowed his cyanide, and was immediately arrested. His poison was also out of date and was therefore not effective. All of the plotters except Mehmedbasicwere caught, but only Ilic was hanged as the others were too young. Princip died in jail in April 1918 of TB.

Within 6weeks of the assassination the First World War or Great War had begun.

Paper 1 C&T: Part 1 Causes of WW1: The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

Princip being arrested straight after the shooting.

Sarajevo is in Bosnia, part of the A-H empire, but Bosnia used to be part of Serbia, it was Serbia who gave the Black Hand Gang their weapons.

Following the news of the assassination

Most people in Europe assumed that the assassination was just a local issue involving A-H and Serbia. However, following the successful takeover of Bosnia in 1908, Austria now felt confident that Germany would support it in future disputes. Some think this made A-H too confident, and this encouraged Austria to make trouble with Serbia and Russia. Russia resented being forced to back down in 1909. It quickened its arms build-up. It was determined not to back down again. From 1912-13 there was a series of local wars. Serbia emerged from these as the most powerful country in the Balkans. This was very serious for Austria. Serbia had a strong army and it was a close ally of Russia. An extra dimension in this unstable area was nationalism. Serbia, like Russia was predominantly Slav in its nationality. The strong nationalist beliefs within Austria assumed that Slav culture was inferior. Austria believed that the hugely diverse A-H empire, containing many different cultures, languages, was designed to stay intact and dominate central and south-eastern Europe. Austria decided that Serbia would have to be dealt with. By 1914 Austria was looking for a good excuse to crush Serbia. Some of the politicians in A-H were determined to make a special example of Serbia. This feeling was encouraged by the alliance system, but Serbia did not want war, the country was recovering from the Balkan Wars of the previous two years.

Paper 1 C&T: Part 1: Causes of WW1: Slav nationalism and the effects on relations between Serbia and A-H

The July Crisis

On 23rd July A-H sent a ten point ultimatum to Serbia. Serbia, keen to avoid war, accepted nine of the points, but the last one meant they would lose control of their own justice system. Serbia offered to refer the last point to the International Court at the Hague, thinking it would be enough to satisfy A-H. However, the Austrians, with the promise of German support, felt confident in acting against Serbia. War was declared on 28th July.

This declaration of war triggered the alliances. Russia was determined to support Serbia, and on the 30th July began to mobilise its army against A-H and Germany. Germany then declared war on Russia on 1st August. At this stage the war was only between Russia and Serbia and A-H and Germany.

The Schlieffen Plan and Belgium

When France and Russia signed an alliance in 1894, Germany became concerned about the possibility of war on two fronts. In 1905 the head of the army Von Schlieffen, decided that the best way to solve the problem was to attack the French first and defeat them within 6 weeks. They would attack France through neutral Belgium and Holland, as the French would not expect the Germans to come to France this way. Later the plan was changed so the Germans only came through Belgium. Russia would take a long time to mobilise, therefore as long as the Germans took France in 6weeks, they could then move their forces to the east to destroy the Russian army.

Britain’s position

Britain had no intension of joining the war, as Britain was more concerned with its own security. It did not want strong countries in Europe, this included France. The Treaty of London, signed by all European powers in 1839, had declared that Belgium was a neutral country and that all countries signing would respect this. The Schlieffen Plan broke this treaty. Belgium neutrality was important to British interests , including trade, the British government decided to take a stand on this issue. When German troops entered Belgium on the 3rd August, Britain gave Germany an ultimatum, withdraw or Britain would declare war, Germany did not withdraw and so Britain declared war on Germany on 4th August. Austria then declared war on Russia on the 6th August, it seemed the alliance systems that were designed to keep the peace had failed and the situation spiralled out of control.

Why the Schlieffen Plan failed

As soon as war was declared the German army put its Schlieffen Plan into operation. The Plan was simple but a risk. The plan was to send German troops through Belgium , into France and to take Paris, all in 6 weeks. At first it looked as if the Plan was successful. The German army invaded Belgium on the 4th August. The Belgium's however, did the unexpected they put up a heroic fight , they even flooded their own land to slow the German tanks down. However, massive German artillery bombardments destroyed Belgium forts and soon enormous numbers of German troops were moving towards the French border. Even so, the Belgium resistance won them many friends and bought the British and the French time to get their armies ready. The BEF, led by Sir John French, landed in France and met the advancing Germans at Mons on 23rd August. This small but well-trained army gave the Germans a nasty shock. The troops at Mons were well led by lieutenant-General Douglas Haig and were using Lee Enfield riffles which could fire quickly and accurately. German reports at the time showed that they thought they were up against machine guns.Despite their early success, the British were hugely outnumbered. In fact, the best that they could do was organise a orderly retreat . They did slow the Germans down, but only the French had enough forces in the field to stop the German advancement. However, the French were having their own problems. When war broke out, the French launched a direct attack on Germany through Alsace-Lorraine. The French lost over 200,000 men in 12 days. They now re-grouped their forces to defend Paris from the advancing Germans.

Paper 1 C&T: Part 2: Stalemate: The Schlieffen Plan

The Battle of the Marne

The French may have been on the defensive in Sept 1914, but by this stage things were not going entirely well for the Germans either. The German Supreme Commander Moltke had to pull 100,000 troops out of the army advancing on Paris because the Russians had mobilised far more quickly than expected and had already invaded Germany. The Germans were also struggling to keep their troops supplied with food and equipment. Von Kluck, the German commander, decided he could not swing round Paris according to the original plan, so he advanced straight towards it. The Germans advanced on foot, the French diverted troops to Paris by rail and by taxi. While the German army were weary and overstretched, the French were fighting to save their country. The BEF and the French forces were able to stop the German advance along the River Marne. They then counter attacked and pushed the Germans back to the River Aisne. However, they could not drive them out of France entirely. Neither side could make any progress, and by 8th Sept troops on both sides were digging trenches to protect themselves from snipers and shell fire. Soon after, they added machine guns and barbed wire. Until now, it had been a war of movement, but these were the first signs of the stalemate that was to come.

Race to the sea

The Battle of Marne was a turning point. The Germans realised that they could not go through enemy lines. They decided to try to outflank the enemy’s lines. The charge began on the 12th Oct and became known as ‘the race to the sea’. As the Germans charged west towards the sea, the British and French moved troops (by rail) to block them whenever it seemed that the Germans were about to break through.

Trench Warfare

As the war of movement ended late in 1914, WW1 developed into a stalemate based on trenches. There were front line trenches where the soldiers fought the enemy from, but then there were also reserve trenches (where extra soldiers and weapons would be) and these were connected by communication trenches . Trenches tended to be dug in zig-zag lines, these were much safer than straight line trenches.

Paper 1 C&T: Part 2: Stalemate: The Western Front

Stalemate on the Western Front

By November 1914 it was a deadlock. The BEF had been decimated. The French had already suffered around 1million dead or wounded in just 10 weeks. Despite this, the French army tried to break through the German lines in Artois and Champagne in December, but they were beaten back with heavy losses. As 1914 ended, the fighting had reached a stalemate which was to last until 1918. Millions of troops were dug into a line of trenches that stretched from the sea in the west to the Alps in the east. It became known as the ‘Western Front’

Trench systems on the Western Front

Change in tactics

Trenches offered the best protection from snipers, shellfire, mines etc. However, the soldiers did not hide in the trenches for the whole of the war. Before the Great War, an attack would be led by a cavalry charge. The infantry would then follow and take charge of the captured positions and defend the position against counter-attack. Trench warfare changed the role of the infantry dramatically. The cavalry charge was replaced by the infantry charge, which became the main tactic used in the war.

Over the top

A major assault would usually proceed like the diagram on the right. The infantry charge was the only attacking strategy the generals had. They thought that if they did if often enough, with enough men, eventually it would wear down the enemy, and they could break through. However, the traditional view that the generals simply threw away lives is not supported by the evidence. As the war continued, the generals tried different ways to make the infantry charge more effective and they introduced new tactics, weapons and equipment. Steel helmets giving some protection against shrapnel from enemy shelling became standard equipment in 1916. New camouflage techniques were used to protect troops and guns. Artillery and infantry attacks were better synchronised. Troops were given gas masks.

Paper 1 C&T: Part 2: Stalemate: Conditions in the trenches

In the front line

The soldier's did not spend all their time charging the enemy trenches. Most of the infantry’s work was more routine. Infantry soldiers spent much of their time digging new trenches or repairing old ones. They carted supplies and equipment up and down communications trenches. They spent long hours on sentry duty or in secret listening posts near to enemy trenches. There were also specialist infantry called sappers. Sappers were usually ex-miners who dug tunnels below enemy trenches and placed huge mines there. The infantry also made patrols into no-mans land or raided enemy trenches to capture prisoners or particular positions. POW’s provided priceless information. If a new enemy unit was in your sector, you could soon be facing an attack.

All of these activities, plus the possibility of death, put inevitable strains on the troops and sometimes generated bitter feelings towards their commanders.

The attacking side’s artillery bombarded the front-line trenches of the enemy. This was called

a barrage

As soon as the barrage stopped, attacking troops would go ‘over the top’ (climb out their trenches)

it was now a race between them and the defenders, who had to emerge from their shelters

and set up their machine guns before the attackers got over the barbed wire of no-man’s

land.

The defenders usually had the advantage. They swept the advancing attackers with machine gun

fire, sometimes setting up a cross-fire

If the attackers did capture forward positions, they then had to hold them. This generally proved

impossible and they were usually forced back to their original positions

Weather

Millions of men and thousands of horses lived close together. In the summer the smell of the trenches was appalling owing to a combination of rotting corpses, sewage and unwashed soldiers. The soldiers were also infested with lice, or chats as they called them.

In summer the trenches were hot, dusty and smelly. In wet weather soldiers spent their time in ankle or even knee deep water. Thousands suffered from trench foot, trench fever and in the winter frostbite.

To add to all of this, the trenches were infested by rats, many grew huge due to the fact that there were so many corpses to feed off.

Adventure

Most soldiers were ordinary working class men. Most had never travelled before the war. The war gave them the opportunity to go to France, Belgium, the Middle East and Africa, places they would not have seen otherwise. Some men joined up because they were excited to go to war because they enjoyed the risk and thrill of it. War was also the ultimate challenge, it gave them the chance to prove how brave they were by putting up with pain and times of hardship.

Paper 1 C&T: Part 2: Stalemate: A soldier’s life

Discipline

Soldiers who disobeyed orders, fell asleep on sentry duty or deserted were court-martialled and could be executed. A total of 3,080 British soldiers were condemned to death by the army and 346 actually had the sentence carried out.

Leisure time

The officers worked very hard to organise tours of duty so that the troops got a chance to rest. On average a battalion could expect to spend around 10 days a month in the trenches, this included time in the reserve trenches which could be a mile from the front line. Troops would actually spend about 3 days in the most dangerous sections of the front line. However, during a major assault, like the Battle of the Somme, soldiers could be on the front line for much longer. Soldiers spent about 60% of their time out of the trenches. To fill the rest of their time, many took up correspondence courses, went sightseeing in France, played on football teams, and there was usually a concert every week.

Humour

British sense of humour went a long way in keeping up morale. Soldiers produced many humorous news sheets and leaflets etc.. Poking fun at the commanders.

Comradeship

Many battalions were made up of close friends who grew up together and join the war together. Soldiers completely relied on each other and did not want to let each other down. After the war, many soldiers said they greatly missed the sense of comradeship they had experienced during the war. Allied soldiers came from all over the world. British soldiers met Canadian, Australian, South and West African, New Zealand, Indian and Caribbean soldiers along with other British soldiers.

Patriotism

The soldiers on all sides were generally patriotic. Whatever the horrors of war, most believed they were there to do a job for their king and country and that job was worth doing well.

Comforts

During this time life expectancy was about 40 for a working-class man. Death and disease, along with poverty, hunger, illness and accidents at work were common. The army looked after its soldiers as well as it could and the British forces suffered less from disease than any other army. For the British troops. Food rations for British soldiers were generally good. Soldiers complained about always having tinned beef and jam, but knew they were far better off than French soldiers and civilians, and even the Germans. On average working-class soldiers put on around 10 kilos in weight. Soldiers received regular letters and parcels from home. In their parcels they were sent chocolates, cigarettes and alcohol. The postal service was very efficient and this was a major factor in keeping morale high.

Respect

Despite what many people believe, the soldiers had a lot of respect for their officers. Some people think that the generals wined and dined in the officers’ mess while the men lived and died in squalor in the trenches. In fact officers went over the top with their men and suffered higher death rates (17% compared with ordinary soldiers 12%). Among senior commanders 78 officers above the rank of brigadier-general from Britain and the British Empire died on active service and 146 were wounded. This is evidence that British generals were often close enough to the front line to be in danger of losing their lives.

Why did soldiers put up with all this?

People often wonder why the soldiers put up with the conditions they had to endure. However, books, films, and TV programmes often only focus on the worst aspects of being a soldier. It will probably surprise you to know that when we look at the bigger picture a different story emerges about life in the trenches.

Artillery

WW1 was a artillery war. Many people think that the machine gun caused the most casualties in the war but this is wrong. Artillery bombardments by large heavy guns fired from a distance caused more casualties than any other weapon. The artillery had 2 main jobs, 1 to destroy enemy positions and defences, and 2 to destroy enemy guns. At the start of the war the guns were not very accurate. Firing from well behind their own enemy lines, artillery often bombarded their own forward trenches before they got their range right. By the end of the war, artillery was much more powerful and accurate. By 1918 artillery tactics were extremely sophisticated. Artillery was the key weapon of the Great War. Throughout the war a vast part of European industry was given to making shells for the artillery. British performance in the war became more effective after 1916 because British industry was supplying enough guns and shells and British forces were using these weapons effectively.

Paper 1 C&T: Part 2: Stalemate: Technology of war

Machine Guns

Once the war became a stalemate the infantryman became the backbone of the British army. Their job was to try to capture enemy positions or to defend positions they already held. Machine guns in 1914 were very large and heavy so they were not very useful for attacking an enemy trench. However, they were effective as a defensive weapon as machine gun could fire 8 bullets a second. During an infantry charge it could cut down a whole brigade in minutes, this made it inevitable that any charge on an enemy trench would cost many lives. After the war British commanders, such as Haig, were often criticised for underestimating the machine gun. However, some officers did have faith in it. In 1914 British troops had the same ratio of machine guns to troops as the Germans and the British army established its first dedicated Machine Gun Corps in 1915. By 1918 most platoons had their own lightweight sub-machine guns, and these proved very effective.

Problems of new developments

As already stated, the war became bogged down in a stalemate of trench warfare by the end of 1914. The traditional view of war was that the stalemate continued because the commanders were too incompetent and inflexible to try out new weapons, technology or ideas. In fact, this idea is wrong. All the armies on the Western Front (WF) constantly improvised new weapons and tried out new tactics , but these measures often cancelled each other out.

Poison gas

The first poison gas attack was April 1915. The Germans released chlorine which caused panic as the soldiers were not expecting this so had no protection from it. From then on both sides often used gas in war. To start the aim of gas was to disable enemy troops so that later an infantry charge could be successful. Scientists went on to perfect new and more lethal gases such as mustard gas, which had a perfumed smell but burned, blinded and slowly killed its victims over 4-5 weeks. Scientist also developed effective gas masks which would be carried at all times, as a result only 3,000 British soldiers died from gas. However, gas was still a significant weapon, it had a huge psychological impact and soldiers who did not fear bombardments would often fear gas.

Tanks

The tank was a British invention. Early on in the war the tank had been rejected as it was seen as impractical. However, Churchill head of the navy, thought the idea had potential and his dept funded its development. Tanks were 1st used at the Battle of the Somme. They crushed the barbed-wire defences and sprayed the enemy with machine gun bullets. They scared the Germans and boosted British morale. However, the 1st tanks only moved at walking speed, were difficult to manoeuver and were unreliable as over half of them broke down. But in Nov 1917 at Cambrai, the tanks were actually successful (if not too successful, as the infantry could not keep up. By 1918 the Germans were using armour-piercing machine gun bullets. Tanks were impossible to miss as they were so slow and large.

Aircraft

The air force gained a glamorous reputation in WW1. All countries had heroic brilliant pilots, newspapers wrote articles about the ‘flying aces’ and movie makers glamorised them after the war, but some say this was all a myth. In 1914 planes were primitive, unreliable and dangerous, meaning that losses were high. In 1914 planes did the same job as observation balloons, but soon their speed and mobility improved and they were then used to photograph enemy trenches, these were called reconnaissance flights. Enemy planes would shoot down these reconnaissance flights which resulted in the ‘dogfight’. In the early air battles, pilots would use pistols and riffles, but in April 1915 planes were successfully fitted with machine guns. By 1918 there were spectacular aerial battles all over the WF. Planes also played apart in slowing down the German advance in 1918. In 4 years planes had advanced from simple flying machines to quite advanced pieces of military equipment. The Royal Naval Air Service and the Royal Flying Corps had gone from 37 planes to 23,000. However, planes were more valuable out at sea where the aircraft could observe and attack ships.

Putting it all together

It is important to remember that all of these weapons and developments took place as the war was being fought. They were often the result of troops trying out ideas which officers then recommended for wider use. Constant discussion between troops, officers and senior commanders meant that that way war was fought became transformed and the British army became increasingly professional.

Attempt to break the deadlock

In 1915 the British the French and the Germans all tried to break the deadlock. In early 1915 the French lost many 1000’s in an unsuccessful offensive in Champagne. The British gained some ground at NeuveChapelle in March but at a heavy cost. The Germans were driven back from Ypres in April with heavy losses.

Paper 1 C&T: Part 2: Stalemate: Key battles on the Western Front

1916: The year of attrition – the Battle of Verdun

In Feb 1916 the Germans began a determined battle to capture strategic French forts surrounding Verdun. The Germans recognised that the French were leading the Allied effort at this stage of the war. The German commander, Falkenhayn, came up with a strategy of attrition (to wear down the enemy’s strength until resistance was no longer possible). His strategy was to ‘bleed France white’. The tactic failed, as both sides suffered equal losses. For 6months both sides poured men and resources into this battle. Attacks were followed by counter attacks and by July 1916 some 700,000 men had fallen. The French led by General Petain, held out, but by the summer they were close to breaking point. Huge losses had weakened both sides, but the Germans had greater resources.

The Battle of the Somme 1916

To relieve the pressure, the British led by Field Marshal Douglas Haig launched their long-planned offensive at the Somme. After a week long artillery bombardment of the German trenches, British troops advanced . On the 1st day there were 57,000 British casualties. The fighting continued until Nov 1916 with the loss of 1.25million men. Back in Britain, politicians and the general public were horrified at the losses. But to the military leaders , it was what was needed to happen in a war of attrition. Haig briefed the government that ‘the nation must be taught to bear losses’. The nation did accept them and in doing so played a key role in victory. This battle was the most controversial in WW1 , the famous phrase was coined due to this battle, that lions were led by donkeys. After the victory of the war in 1918, many came to believe that the battle was a regrettable necessity.

Battle of Passchendaele, 1917

This battle is also known as the third Battle of Ypres. It began in July 1917 and illustrates how new technology could become hopelessly outmanoeuvred by weather conditions. The British detonated huge mines at Messines which destroyed the German artillery positions and killed 10,000 German soldiers at a stroke. However, the infantry advance which followed became hopelessly bogged down when heavy rain created nightmare conditions, particularly around the ruined village of Passchendaele. Even when tanks were used at Cambrai in Nov 1917 it was the same story, 350 tanks made good progress but were unable to hold the ground they had captured. Casualty figures for this battle are disputed, but there were nearly a quarter of a million casualties on the Allied side, and even more on the German side.

Major battles on the Western Front 1915-1917

Fighting on the WF, Middle East and the Eastern Front

Whilst there was fighting on the WF, there was also fighting in other places too such as, in the east where Russia was trying to defend herself. There was also fighting in the Middle-East where 700,000 Indian troops were supporting the British against Turkey or the ‘Turks’

Paper 1 C&T: Part 2: Stalemate: The war on other fronts

Gallipoli and its failure

With no prospect of ending the stalemate on the WF, ministers looked for alternatives. Churchill, first Lord of the Admiralty, persuaded the British government that an attack should be mounted on the Dardanelles Strait, a narrow stretch of water linking the Aegean Sea and the Sea of Marmara which then gave them access to the Black Sea, this was an attack on the Turks, and would enable supplies to get through to Russia during their campaign. As Britain had the most powerful navy, the plan was an attractive one. In March 1915 the warships began their assault, and bombarded the strong forts that lined the strait. But as the British entered the strait a combination of mines and shell fire from the forts on the shore doomed the attack. The Allied commanders decided that they would have to launch a land assault to capture the peninsula before the naval operation could succeed.

The land attack on Gallipoli

In April a hastily assembled force of British, French and ANZAC (Australian and New Zealand Army Corps) attacked the Helles beach. The Turks, supported by the Germans, had strengthened the defences and had dug trenches on the hills overlooking the beaches where the Allies were likely to land. The Allied troops fought bravely, and did capture a few trenches, but it quickly became clear that they would not be able to remove the Turks from the peninsula. The Allied troops also dug in, but conditions for both sides were dreadful. In the blistering summer heat, and with decaying corpses everywhere disease spread. Neither side could break the deadlock, even with more troops. Another landing at Suvla Bay, but that also failed to break through the Turks defences. Only one aspect of the Allies’ campaign was successful – the submarines. They were able to get through the minefields of the strait to attack Constantinople Harbour and sank many Turkish ships. But the main fleet never attempted to get through.

Withdrawal

By November 1915 there were a few problems for the Allies- Frostbite being one. The troops were ill-equipped for the harsh winter. By December it was clear that there was no prospect of success. The decision was taken to pull out. The withdrawal was well-organised, but the campaign was seen as a failure, and Churchill was humiliated and was forced to resign from his position and from the government. After this he became an officer and served in the trenches.

A map showing the Dardanelles strait and the Gallipoli campaign

Convoys

The British began to defend their ships against U-boats by introducing the convoy system. Slow-moving merchant ships sailed in groups, protected by fast-moving destroyers. Soon the amount of shipping destroyed by U-boats began to fall. The British also began to use massive underwater anti-submarine nets and laid minefields.

Paper 1 C&T: Part 2: Stalemate: The war on the sea

Submarines

There were no decisive battles at sea during WW1, but the events that took place there were vitally important for both sides. For example, Britain and Germany both needed crucial supplies to be brought in by sea. Before the war the build up of arms had anticipated the importance of the navies. During the war torpedoes were developed so that they could be launched from ships, submarines or from the air. Improvements in radio meant that ships could keep in better contact with each other and with the shore. Crucially, submarines were new to warfare. Both sides had them, but the Germans were quick to use them more effectively than the British.

Blockade

The British navy’s main activity was to mount a blockade on German ports. The aim was to stop essential supplies of food and war materials reaching Germany. Many German ships were blocked in their own ports. As war went on the blockade hit harder. By 1918 many Germans were starving and there was a mutiny in the German navy. Indeed, the blockade was one of the factors which led to the German surrender in November 1918.

U-boat campaign and the USA joins

The Germans fought back using U-boats. They sank ships that were bringing supplies to Britain from the British Empire and from the USA. In 1915 a British liner, the Lusitania, was sunk after being hit by torpedoes from a German U-boat, killing 1,198 passengers, including 128 US citizens. Angry protests from the USA, still officially neutral, led the Kaiser to order the German navy to stop attacking American ships. He did not want the USA to enter on the Allied side. However, in early 1917 the Germans were so desperate that they started attacking American ships again. The plan nearly worked. By May 1917 Britain was left with only 6 weeks supply of some basic goods. However, in April 1917 President Woodrow Wilson was able to persuade congress to declare war on Germany.

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The Battle of Jutland 1916

In the North Sea on 31st May 1916 the only major sea battle of the war began. The German fleet, led by Admiral Scheer, had the initial advantage with powerful guns. This British Grand Fleet under Admiral Beatty was under great pressure and in danger of defeat. However, the other part of the fleet under Admiral Jellicoe arrived just in time. The fighting continued during the night, but by morning the German fleet had gone back to the safety of port. The British had lost 14 ships and 6,000 sailors. The Germans had lost 13 ships and 2,500 sailors. The Germans had done better in the sense that the British ships lost were larger and more important than the German ones. However, after Jutland the Germans never came out to fight again. The fleet remained trapped in port and the British controlled the sea for the rest of the war.

USA joins the war

For the first few years of the war, the USA was officially neutral. However, the Democrat government Wilson was supplying loans and equipment to the Allies. In 1915, Germany angered by the US helping the Allies, started a policy of attacking shipping in the Atlantic that was thought to be carrying war materials to Europe. The sinking of the Lusitania in 1915 was significant because the Germans had broken international codes of practice by attacking a passenger ship. However the Allies were also in the wrong, the ship should have only been carrying passengers which would have made the ship safe from attack however, it was also carrying illegal war cargo. The British denied the ship was carrying war cargo and the Germans wanted to avoid war with the US, so from then on the policy of attacking shipping was strictly controlled. However, by Feb 1917, the war was not going well for the Germans, and in their desperation they restarted their campaign of unrestricted submarine warfare. This act coupled with the discovery that Germany hoped to ally with Mexico against the US was the final straw. The USA declared war on Germany on 6th April 1917. Psychologically this was a major blow to Germany. The US navy was the 3rd largest in the world. Its destroyers could be used on convoy duty to protect merchant shipping routes in the Atlantic. This would help Britain’s critical shortage of food. The US government was also willing to lend Britain money to buy war materials. But in the short term, the US contribution was minimal, their troops had to be trained, equipment had to be manufactured and assembled. It was not until summer 1918 that America was able to make a decisive contribution in Europe, when about 1million troops landed in France.

Paper 1 C&T: Part 3: Ending the War: Changes to the Allied forces

The Russian Revolution

In March 1917 the Tsar was forced to abdicate. A temporary government (the Provisional Government) took over, and although its policy was to keep Russia in the war, its armies became less and less effective. Then in Oct 1917, there was a 2nd revolution in Russia, now the Bolsheviks under Lenin were in charge. It immediately declared that it was not going to fight and opened negotiations with Germany. Peace was declared between the two nations in March 1918 with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. This treaty was harsh on Russia as they were forced to lose substantial areas of territory which provided food and raw materials needed for industry. The Germans could now focus on the WF, so they transferred 100’s of 1000’s of troops over to the WF. The Germans now had the opportunity to attack the WF before US troops and equipment had arrived in decisive numbers.

Military developments in 1918

Despite the good news of the Russian surrender, the Allies’ blockade of German ports had starved the economy of raw materials and all the people of food. The US was also sending tanks, heavy guns and roughly 50,000 soldiers a month to France. The Allies also had an increasing amount of tanks that were able to deal with the terrain, plus military tactics had developed from 1916 onwards were they were able to utilise the latest technology to replace the rigid trench warfare. The British government had also ordered better searchlights, anti-aircraft guns and planes so the Germans could no longer easily attack. By Oct 1918 there had been an huge increase in the size of the Royal Flying Corps which had over 20,000 aircraft. Germany now needed a quick victory and the surrender of Russia gave the Germans one last opportunity to break the stalemate and win the war.

Ludendorff and the German Spring Offensive, 1918

In March 1918 the German Commander Ludendorff launched a great gamble to win the war. It started with the typical bombardment and gas attacks. However, instead of the usual wave of infantry, he followed up with attacks by smaller bands of specially trained and lightly equipped ‘storm troops’ who struck during a heavy fog along the entire front line. The Germans broke through the Allied lines in many places, advanced 64km and Paris was now in range of heavy gunfire. The ‘Ludendorff Offensive’ seemed to be working and there was a real possibility that Germany could take victory over France. However, this offensive cost them 400,000 men and they now had no reserves to call on. The troops in 1918 were less disciplined than they had been in 1914, they were also poorly fed and equipped. Many of the planned German advances were slowed due to the soldiers looting food and supplies. They were also facing a well fed and supplied army.

The Allied advance during the Hundred Days

Between May and August the Germans made no further progress and it was clear that they had run out of time and resources. The Germans may have ended trench warfare but it was the Allies who benefitted from it. On the 8th

August the Allies counter-attacked along much of the WF. This later became known as the German army’s ‘Black Day’. By late September the Allies had reached the Hindenburg Line. By Oct the Germans were in full retreat. This period was known as the ‘Hundred Days’.

Morale drops in Germany

By Nov 1918 Germany’s allies were surrendering. In the northern ports German sailors mutinied. In Berlin crowds marched through the streets protesting against lack of food.

Paper 1 C&T: Part 3: Ending the War: Germany surrenders

The abdication of the Kaiser

It was not easy for the Kaiser to agree to abdicate. However, by Nov 1918 this was seen as the only option to restore order in Germany. Riots had spread from Kiel naval base to many German cities. The army generals, realising that there was no hope of winning the war, wanted the Kaiser to give more power to the politicians so that they could negotiate a fairer end to the fighting. It was widely believed that the Kaiser was standing in the way of achieving peace. It was only after the Social Democrats (SD) threatened to resign from the government that the Kaiser abdicated. On 9th Nov 1918 Germany became a republic and shortly afterwards held an election to decide on the President.

The armistice

Negotiations about a ceasefire, or armistice, had been going on for a few weeks. The German government expressed a willingness to proceed on the basis of Wilson’s Fourteen Points. These listed in general terms the possible ingredients of a peace settlement. The Fourteen Points were drawn up in January 1918 well before the outcome of the war was certain. Wilson had tried to look at the situation from the point of view of fairness, principles and the needs of millions of displaced and starving people in several European countries. For example his Fourteen Points stated that people should rule themselves, and not be part of huge multi-national empires. However, after the abdication of the Kaiser, the situation was critical. Friedrich Ebert, a SD, became Chancellor and later President. German delegates were driven across the front line to Marshal Foch’s private train parked in a railway siding. The Germans were given a list of the Allied demands. There was to be no negotiation, and the list did not fully reflect Wilson’s fair-minded Fourteen Points. The Allied demands included reparations to pay for the costs incurred in the war and a severe reduction in Germany’s army and navy. There were many practical demands that were designed to ensure that Germany could not re-start the war. For example:• All territory occupied by Germany in France, Belgium, Luxemburg and Alsace-Lorraine was to be evacuated in a fortnight, and everything in the Rhine within a month. • It stipulated that 5,000 guns, 25,000 machine guns and 1,700 planes were handed over, as well as 5,000 lorries and 5,000 railway engines • All Allied prisoners were to be released• Most of the German navy (including all submarines) had to be surrendered• In the east all German troops were to be withdrawn from occupied territoryThe armistice was signed at 5am on 11th Nov, to come into affect at 11am Paris time (noon German time). Those signing the armistice were later known to the German’s as the ‘November Criminals’, the event was also referred to as the ‘stab in the back’. However Ebert had no choice but to sign, but the army generals did not see it this way. Across Europe, both victorious and defeated nations were relieved to hear the news . In Britain and France there were street parties and much rejoicing. Discussions started in January 1919 at Paris about the peace settlement, leading to the signing of the Treaty of Versailles on the 28th June 1918 exactly 5 years after the bullet that killed the Archduke Franz Ferdinand.

People celebrating the armistice in London

Marshal Foch 1851-1929

• Distinguished career before 1914• One of the leading French generals in the early years of the

war • Late 1916, after the failure of the Allied offensives, he was

removed from his position as the French commander of Army Group North

• In 1917 he was recalled to become Chief of the General Staff• Spring 1918, appointed as Commander-in-Chief of all the

Allied armies. Spearheaded the planning that halted the German offensive at that time.

• Summer 1918, given the title of Marshal Foch, and planned with Haig the grand offensive against Germany from August 1918 onwards.

• His exact contribution has been a matter of debate, and the evidence made less clear because of disputes during the war involving the French government and other military leaders

• After the war he received many decorations and honours from Allied countries.

Paper 1 C&T: Part 3: Ending the War: Haig and Foch

Sir Douglas Haig 1861- 1928

• Military career before WW1• Commanded British armies from 1915 to the end of the war• His reputation was adversely affected by the huge casualties

at the Somme in 1916• Overall strategy proved successful in 1918• Actively promoted new strategies and technologies which

helped the Allied victory• Spring 1918, led determined resistance against the German

Offensive • In August 1918, working under the overall command of

Marshal Foch, led the British army against the main German armies

• Captured nearly 200,000 prisoners and nearly 3,000 guns• In spite of huge British casualties (greater per day than the

Somme) Haig was decorated after the war and seen as a war hero.