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![Page 1: Approach to Infection in the Organ Transplant Recipient Ajit P. Limaye, M.D. University of Washington Seattle, WA.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022081420/56649ce45503460f949b14ba/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Approach to Infection in the Organ Transplant Recipient
Ajit P. Limaye, M.D.
University of Washington
Seattle, WA
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General Concepts
Infection risk assessment PRE-transplant
PPD, h/o TB exposure
Travel/residence history (endemic mycoses, Strongyloides, T. cruzi)
Baseline serologies
Vaccination review
Infection history (recurrent Staph, etc)
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General Concepts (cont.)
Signs and symptoms of infection are muted by immunosuppression
Specific, predictable risk periods for specific pathogens (unusual timing may be a clue to exposure)
Link between immunosuppression and infection risk
Consider the possibility of donor-derived infection (viral, fungal, bacterial, mycobacterial, etc.)
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Prophylaxis
CMV: 3 months of antiviral (valganciclovir [valcyte],
valacyclovir [valtrex]) for D+R- and R+
PCP: 6-12 mo TMP/SMX (or dapsone, pentamidine)
UTI: 1-3 mo TMP/SMX (or quinolone) for K txp
Candida: all KP, selected liver transplant recipients
1-3 mo fluconazole
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Evaluation of the Patient
Baseline patient data critical for appropriate work-up
Donor/recipient serologies (CMV, EBV, HSV, VZV, Toxoplasma)
Underlying disease
Time post-transplant
Allograft function
Prophylactic medications
Rejection (and its treatment)
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Evaluation of the Patient (cont.)
Early and aggressive diagnostic investigation- adequate tissue- routine “staging”
Appropriate notification and coordination with pathology and microbiology laboratories
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“Timetable” of Infections After Organ Transplantation
General guidelines, NOT absolute
Epidemiology altered by prophylaxis
Unusual timing may be a clue to unusual exposure
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Early Period (first post-transplant month)
Nosocomial/”surgical” infections
Multi-drug resistant organisms (e.g., GNR, MRSA, VRE)
Importance of adjunctive therapy (anatomical problems, adequate drainage)
Opportunistic infections are uncommon (except Aspergillus, Candida, HSV— in absence of prophylaxis)
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Middle Period (from post-transplant months 2-6)
Greatest risk period for “classic” opportunists (e.g., PCP, Aspergillus, Toxoplasma, Cryptococcus, etc.)
Immunomodulating viruses (e.g., CMV, EBV, HHV-6)
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Late Period (after the 6th post-transplant month)
“Typical” community-acquired infections in patients with good allograft function
Continued risk of opportunistic infections in patients with poor allograft infection and/or chronic rejection
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Selected References
1. AST Guidelines for the Prevention & Treatment of Infections in Solid Organ Transplant Recipients. Am J Transplant 2009 (supplement 4)
3. Fishman JA. Infection in organ transplant recipients. N Engl J Med 2007;357(25):2601-14
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Case: fever & abdominal pain in a kidney transplant recipient
A 54 yo woman 3 mo s/p kidney transplant presents with 10 days of fatigue, weakness, vague abdominal symptoms.
Serologies: CMV D+R-, EBV+, VZV+, HSV1+/2-
Meds: tacrolimus, MMF, pred, Bactrim, Amlodipine.
PE: T 38.2, tired-appearing, non-focal except mild abdominal tenderness
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cont. Fever & abdominal pain in a kidney transplant recipient
• Differential diagnosis?
• What diagnostic testing (labs & other studies) would you order?
• Treatment? Complications of treatment?
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CMV After Organ TransplantationEpidemiology
Typically occurred 1-3 months post-transplant (in the absence of prophylaxis)
Later disease in the era of routine antiviral prophylaxis (4-12 months)
May result from primary infection, reactivation, or super-infection
Most important risk factors for infection and disease are: donor/recipient serostatus, organ transplanted, and immunosuppression
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CMV After Organ Transplantation Clinical Aspects
Manifestations
• “CMV syndrome” (~60%) vs Tissue-invasive CMV (~40%)
CMV syndrome: systemic febrile illness without specific localizing symptoms
Tissue invasion/focal organ involvement (pneumonitis, enteritis, hepatitis, nephritis, retinitis)
Associated with increased risk for other opportunistic infections (fungal infections, PTLD)
“Bi-directional” association with allograft rejection Independently associated with increased risk of death
(mediated through indirect effects)
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CMV After Organ Transplantation Diagnosis
CMV disease = CMV infection AND compatible symptoms or histopathology)
Ubiquitous virus (distinguishing CMV “excretion” from CMV disease is critical)
Most useful screening tests for diagnosing CMV infection are:
1. buffy coat CMV pp65 antigen 2. blood/plasma PCR3. buffy coat viral culture
Demonstration of CMV by histopathology and/or culture from affected site is the “gold standard” for diagnosis
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CMV After Organ TransplantationTreatment
Typical duration of therapy = 3-4 weeks, guided by
blood CMV levels
(? longer for GI disease)
IV Ganciclovir is standard therapy
Oral valganciclovir for SELECTED cases
Foscarnet for ganciclovir-resistant CMV disease
? CMV-IG or IVIG (often used in combination with antivirals for CMV pneumonitis)
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CMV After Organ TransplantationPrevention
• Major strategies– Prophylaxis– Preemptive therapy
• Agents– High dose acyclovir (800 mg QID)– Valacyclovir (2 g QID)– Oral ganciclovir (1g TID)– Valganciclovir (900 mg BID)
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What’s New About CMV?
Changing epidemiology/late disease
Ganciclovir resistance
Individualizing/tailoring therapy
Valganciclovir
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What’s New About CMV?Changing Epidemiology
• Emergence of “late” CMV infection & disease
• Median onset of CMV disease is now ~4-5 months post-transplant (compared to ~1.5 months post- transplant in the past)– result of effective prophylaxis– D+R- and patients treated for rejection are at
greatest risk– implications: education/coordination with referring
providers re: diagnosis/testing/treatment
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What’s New About CMV?Ganciclovir Resistance
• Newly recognized problem• Occurs late, KP and lung recipients at highest risk• Almost exclusively in D+R- patients• Diagnostic tests are limited (must suspect on the basis
of slow clinical and/or virologic response)• Treatment includes: foscarnet + ganciclovir, decrease
immunosuppression, ?CMVIG• ?Reduced incidence with valganciclovir
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What’s New About CMV?Individualizing Therapy
• Change from previous “one size fits all” approach (i.e., 2-3 weeks of IV ganciclovir)
• Identification of risk factors for relapse after therapy
[Sia et al J Infect Dis 2000, Humar et al J Infect Dis 2002]– High viral load– Kinetics of viral load reduction (time to viral clearance)– Persistent viral load at end of therapy
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What’s New About CMV? Individualizing Therapy
Implications for managing CMV disease• obtain baseline (pre-treatment) viral load• monitor viral load on therapy (Q week)• treat until viral load has cleared
– minimum of 14-21 days– may require prolonged duration in some patients
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What’s New About CMV?Valganciclovir
• FDA-approved for treatment of CMV retinitis in HIV-infected patients
• Better bioavailability than oral ganciclovir• Theoretically better compliance? (QD vs tid, fewer pills)• Price is ~same as oral ganciclovir• Toxicity (similar to oral gcv, higher rate leukopenia)• What is the “correct” dose?
– trials used 900 mg po QD– many centers anecdotally using 450 mg po QD
• Possibly lower risk of resistance?
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Case: skin lesion in an OLT recipient
It’s Friday 4:00 pm before a long weekend. A 54 yo man who is 2 mo s/p OLT is found to have a small non-painful skin ulcer on his leg during a routine post-txp f/u visit. No trauma to site. He was recently discharged after long hospital stay, and wants to go back to her home in Eastern Washington.
Post-op course: delayed graft function, hemodialysis-dependent, rejection treated with steroid pulse and ATG
Serologies: CMV D+R-, EBV+, HSV-, VZV+
Meds: pred, tacrolimus, MMF, valcyte
PE: T-38.4, chronically-ill appearing, skin lesion as shown
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Case: Skin lesion in a liver transplant recipient
It’s Friday 4:00 pm before a long weekend. A 54 yo man who is 2 mo s/p OLT is found to have a small non-painful skin ulcer on his leg during a routine post-txp f/u visit. No trauma to site. He was recently discharged after long hospital stay, and wants to go back to her home in Eastern Washington.
Post-op course: delayed graft function, hemodialysis-dependent, rejection treated with steroid pulse and ATG
Serologies: CMV D+R-, EBV+, HSV-, VZV+
Meds: pred, tacrolimus, MMF, valcyte
PE: T-38.4, chronically-ill appearing, skin lesion as shown
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What is the differential diagnosis?
What should be the pace of the work-up (in- versus out-patient, etc.)?
What diagnostic w/u should be done?
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Aspergillosis After Organ Transplantation Epidemiology
Overall incidence is low (1-5%) and varies significantly according to organ transplanted and center
Lungs~ heart/lungs > livers > kidney/pancreas > heart > kidney
Sporadic cases and outbreaks have been described (especially in association with hospital construction or renovation)
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Aspergillosis After Organ Transplantation Epidemiology
• Corticosteroids, antilymphocyte antibodies, allograft dysfunction, neutropenia, renal failure, smoking (especially marijuana), CMV infection, intra-op and post-op variables are risk factors
Specific risk factors vary according to organ transplanted
Peak onset is within the first several months post-transplant
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Aspergillosis After Organ Transplantation Clinical Aspects
Pulmonary disease is most common (cough, fever and pulmonary infiltrate)
No specific clinical or laboratory findings
Evaluation for dissemination is mandatory
10-20%% mortality
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Aspergillosis After Organ Transplantation Diagnosis
Diagnosis is complicated by “ubiquity” of the organism in the environment and by occasional “colonization” or contamination of cultures
NEVER ignore Aspergillus in a transplant patient (requires thorough evaluation for invasive disease)
Biopsy of affected site for histopathology and culture is “gold standard”
Serum/BAL/CSF galactomannan, PCR
Evaluation for dissemination is mandatory for all patients
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Aspergillosis After Organ Transplantation Treatment
Voriconazole (Vfend) now considered treatment of choice
Major drug interactions
Hepatotoxicity, visual symptoms
Combination therapy
Vori + Caspo
Ampho + Caspo
Modulation of immunosuppression, especially corticosteroid dose
? surgical excision for localized disease
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Aspergillosis After Organ Transplantation Prophylaxis
Preemptive therapy for documented Aspergillus colonization
Targeted prophylaxis History of disease or colonization
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What’s new about Aspergillosis?
Antifungal agents
Extended spectrum azoles [voriconazole, posaconazole]
Combination therapy (echinocandin + either polyene OR azole)
Newer diagnostic tools (Galactomannan, B-1,3-D-Glucan, PCR)
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A 31 yo man from Montana receives a cadaveric
kidney transplant. Post-transplant course uneventful,
good allograft function. Immunosuppression:
tacrolimus, steroids, MMF.
8 months post-transplant– admitted for evaluation of fevers, weight loss, and pan-
cytopenia– blood cultures positive for Histoplasma capsulatum
(disseminated disease)– treatment with amphotericin (good clinical response)
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The next appropriate step after clinical management of the patient is:
1. No further steps are necessary
2. Surveillance renal allograft biopsy
3. Increase maintenance immunosuppression
4. Celebrate the fact that Histoplasmosis was diagnosed and appropriately treated
5. Evaluate for donor-transmitted infection
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Seattle, WA
Vaughn, MT
Histoplasma capsulatum Endemic Areas, U.S.
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Next Steps in the Investigation
Contact the organ procurement organization (OPO)– Report suspicion of donor transmission– Additional donor information
• donor clinical history
• clinical findings
• autopsy results
– Status of other recipient(s)
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Kansas City, KSKansas City, KS
Seattle, WA
Portland, ORVaughn, MT
Olympia, WA
Eugene, OR
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Limaye et al N Engl J Med 2000
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Difficulties in recognizing organ-transmitted infections
• Prolonged period between transplant and infection
• Naturally-occurring community-acquired infections– distinguishing community-acquired from organ-transmitted
• Distribution of organs across broad geographic regions– better organ preservation techniques– new rules for organ allocation
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The Boston Herald May 23, 2005
Transplant shock as 3 die from hamster virus; Victims include 2 from Bay State
Washington PostJuly 2, 2004
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• 40 persons received organs or other tissues from HCV seronegative donor (HCV PCR+)
• Index case occurred 1.5 yr AFTER donor death--reported by primary provider
• Recipients located in 16 states and 3 countries
• 8 of 30 (27%) recipients developed hepatitis C infection
• 3 of 8 recipients diagnosed with acute Hep C (before the index case) NOT recognized as transplant-transmitted
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Limitations of current “system”
• Voluntary reporting• Lack of a centralized database (all via regional
OPO’s)• No repository for isolates from suspected cases• Limited donor screening
– blood donor screening >> organ donor screening
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CASE: Back pain and fever after liver transplant
A 53 yo man who is 8 mo s/p liver transplant comes to clinic for evaluation of low grade temps and back pain. Post-txp course: rejection x 2 (requiring pred pulse, ATG), and episodes Candida/Staph bacteremia. He as had some low grade temps and feels tired
Meds: pred, csp, aza, diltiazem
Serologies: CMV D+R-, EBV-, HSV-, VZV+
PE: 38.4, tenderness over lower spine.
Labs: nothing exciting
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cont. Back pain in a liver transplant recipient
• What is the differential diagnosis?
• What is he at high risk for?
• What work-up would you do?
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Post-transplant Lymphoproliferative Disorder (PTLD): Epidemiology
Incidence varies with type of organ transplanted (heart/lung ~ small bowel > lung > liver > kidney)
Closely linked to EBV
Risk factors include: EBV seronegativity, CMV mismatch (i.e., D+R-), and anti-lymphocyte antibodies
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PTLD Clinical Aspects
Fever of unknown origin with no localizing signs or symptoms
Focal mass, ulcer (esp. GI tract) or infiltrate (commonly localized to the allograft)
Multifocal or disseminated disease (CNS, GI, pulmonary)
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Post-transplant Lymphoproliferative Disease (PTLD) - Diagnosis
Requires biopsy of affected site(s) for histopathology and EBV markers
Histopathologic appearance may be similar to allograft rejection (EBV markers are helpful)
? markers of systemic EBV replication (EBV DNA PCR from serum or blood)
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Post-transplant Lymphoproliferative Disease (PTLD) - Treatment
Reduction in immunosuppression
Interferon-, chemotherapy, radiation, anti-CD20 antibodies (“Rituxan”), anti-IL6 antibodies, adoptive immunotherapy
Surgical resection of localized disease
No definite role for antiviral therapy for established disease
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45 yo man undergoes KP tx, immuno=OKT3 + FK/MMF/Pred
1 & 6 mo Biopsy-confirmed rejection episodes, solumedrolpost-tx pulses. Baseline creat ~1.5
14 mo Elevated creat=2, biopsy: patchy tubulitis, ?tubular post-tx epithelial cell inclusions, ICC: “positive” for CMV,
Rx IV gcv--no improvement.
ISH: neg for HSV/VZV/CMV/Adeno but + for BK
Immunosuppression reduced.
15 mo Repeat biopsy: inflammation, persistent post-tx inclusions, no rejection. ICC positive for BK virus.
19 mo Creat 4.9, hemodialysis begunpost-tx
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BK Virus
• Polyoma virus (BK, JC, SV40)
• Non-enveloped, ds DNA
• Small genome (~5000 bp)
• Acquired by respiratory route at young age
(~80-100% of adults seropositive)
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hematogenousdissemination
Primary infection Kidney & Urothelium (latency)(respiratory route) (Chesters P et al. JID 1983;147:676)
Immunocompetent
- asymptomatic, transient shedding
- prevalence depends on sensitivity of assay
Immunocompromised
- persistent shedding, occasional disease
- frequency, extent, and duration >> immunocompetent
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BKVN: Epidemiology & Incidence
• Single prospective study
[Hirsch et al NEJM August 2002]
• Rarely reported prior to ~1995 (“cyclosporine era”)
- verified by clinical experience
- confirmed by retrospective pathology reviews
• Incidence estimates range from 1-5%
- wide variability among centers (differences in immuno-
suppression, definitions, follow-up)
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Incidence & Timing of BKVN
Hirsch et al. NEJM 2002;347(7):488
• Prospective study of 78 K tx recipients (Basel, Switzerland)• FK/Aza/Pred (47%), Csp/MMF/Pred (53%)
Manifestation Incidence Median Onset
Decoy cells 23 (30%) 16 (2-69 wks)
BK viremia 10 (13%) 23 (4-73 wks)
BKVN 5 (8%) 28 (8-86 wks)
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BKV nephropathy: Pathogenesis
Latency in renal tubular cells & uroepithelium
- immunosuppression
Viral reactivation(“decoy cells”, viruria)
- tubular injury
- ?other factors (host, viral)
BKV nephropathy- interstitial nephritis
- acute tubular injury/necrosis
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BKV nephropathy: Clinical Features
• Late complication (median onset ~9 mo. post-tx)
• Not associated with extra-renal signs or symptoms
• Most patients have a history of rejection
• Most common presentations:- failure to respond to anti-rejection therapy- unexplained renal dysfunction
• High rate of graft loss (~50%)
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BKV nephropathy: Diagnosis
Non-invasive (presumptive)• urine cytology (“decoy cells”)• PCR (urine, blood)--DNA or mRNA• EM (urine)
Invasive (definitive)• biopsy (can be focal sampling error)
- inclusions- immunocytochemistry with commercial antibodies (JC, BK, and SV40 will be positive)- in situ hybridization- PCR
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BKV nephropathy: Treatment• Non-standardized, no controlled trials
• Increased immunosuppression progressive renal dysfunction/graft loss
• Reduce and/or modify immunosuppression- stabilization of renal function- can precipitate rejection (especially dual tx recipients)- poor long term outcome (chronic allograft nephropathy)
• ?antiviral therapy (eg. cidofovir, leflunomide, IVIG)
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Case: pneumonia 6 yr s/p kidney tx
A 58 yo woman who is 6 yr s/p a renal tx (idiopathic GN) presents to clinic in January for evaluation of a cough and low grade fever. The illness began ~5 d earlier with the sudden onset of myalgias, fever, and nasal congestion. Over the last day, he has developed productive cough and mild R-sided chest pain.
PE: ill-appearing, T 38.2, BP 158/92, HR 100, RR 20, mild pharyngeal erythema, decreased breath sounds and crackles R lower lung fields.
Labs: WBC 16,000 (90% PMN), Creat 1.5 (at baseline), lytes and LFT’s normal, CXR as shown
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Case: Pleuritic chest pain in a kidney tx recipient
A 52 yo Phillipino man presents to clinic for evaluation of pleuritic chest pain and diarrhea. He received a cadaveric renal transplant 1 yr earlier. About 2 months earlier, he self-discontinued all immunosuppressive meds before leaving for a mong long rip to the Phillipines. Two weeks PTA, he received pulse steroids and ATG for severe rejection. He now presents with fever, mild cough and pleuritic chest pain.
PE: cushingoid, febrile, o/w unremarkable
Labs: Creat 3.5, WBC 5.0, LFT’s normal
Chest CT shown
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cont. pleuritic chest pain and cavitary lung
lesion in a kidney tx recipient
Differential Diagnosis?
Diagnostic w/u?
General treatment principles?
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