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AP HUMAN GEOGRAPHYEXTRA EXPLANATIONS REVIEW

UNIT 4 – POLITICALU4 - Apartheid Apartheid- a policy or practice of separating or segregating groups

Who was affected: The black people of South Africa also known as the Afrikaans. The white people ( mainly Dutch) caused the apartheid.

History: The apartheid was a system of legal racial segregation enforced by the National Party government in South Africa between 1948 and 1994, under which the rights of the majority black inhabitants of South Africa were curtailed and minority rule by whites

was maintained. Racial segreation in South Africa was present during colonial times but the apartheid made it offical. Residential areas were segreated and most natives( the Afrikaans) were removed from their homes forcibly and deprived of their citzenship, and forced to join one of ten independent tribal governments.

Demographics* The Dutch were the minority in South Africa* The population was classified into 4 groups Black, White, Asian and Colored.* The white minority controlled over 80% of the land* There are 11 languages of south Africa* Afrikaans English IsiNdebele IsiXhosa IsiZulu Sepedi Sesotho Setswana SiSwati Tshivenda Xitsonga* English Is the main language of business and communication throughout the country.

Affect it had on the country

* Apartheid had a major effect on women, who suffered from both gender and racial discrimination.* Whites were generally better educated had better jobs and more money. The majority of Africans didn't spend much time at school and many lived in rural areas and were unskilled.* Education for whites was promoted so the gap grew. Whites had jobs reserved for them so basically blacks were trapped at lower levels of employment by lack of skill. The economy did raise standards for all, but the rate of improvement for blacks was low.* Blacks usually assigned the worst areas to inhabit.

How were the women affected during the apartheid?* Throughout South Africa, women were not guaranteed equal pay by law.* White women had the highest level of health care, while black women had the lowest level of health care. Malnutrition was particularly bad among the black population.* Black women in particular were kept out of urban areas.* Women in South Africa already had to deal with the fact that they should be dependent on and inferior to men. For black women, there was an added burden: that of their skin color.* Many black women in south Africa had 3rd sector jobs but the pay was extremely low and didn’t leave them with much. They were domestic workers.

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U4 - Boundaries

Boundary - Vertical planes between states that cuts through rocks below, and the airspace above the surface.

Types of boundariesPhysical/Natural - Boundaries created with naturally occurring features, such as mountains, deserts, and waters.Example: The border between Argentina and Chile is a physical boundary because the Andes Mountains separate

the two countries.

Ethnographic/Cultural - A boundary line that coincides with differences in ethnicities, such as language and religion.

Example: Ireland has an ethnographic boundary because the lines were drawn according to different religious groups. India is another example with an ethnographic boundary. The borders were drawn according to religion.

Geometric - A political boundary defined and delimited as a straight line or arc.

Example: The boundary between the U.S. and Canada west of the Great Lakes is a geometric boundary.

Boundary – Origins Classification

Relic – A boundary that has ceased to function but can still be detected on the cultural landscape. It no longer exists as an international boundary.

Example: The Berlin Wall between East and West Germany

Superimposed - boundary imposed on an area by a conquering or colonizing power that is unconcerned about pre-existing cultural patterns. It ignores the existing cultures and is usually established by a higher authority to satisfy the demands of the superpower.

Example: The division of African countries by the British.

Antecedent – A boundary that already existed before the present settlement in that area occurred. The cultural landscape emerged and stayed in place while people moved in to occupy the surrounding area.

Example: 49th parallel separating the U.S. and Canada.

Subsequent – A boundary that is established after the settlement with an attempt to accommodate cultural differences. It developed with the evolution of the cultural landscape and is adjusted as the cultural


landscape changes.Example: the border between China and Vietnam is the result of a long term process of adjustment and

modification.

Boundary – DisputesAllocational - Disputes that usually involve conflicting claims to the natural resources of a region, which lie near on

in between the boundaries.Example: Oil dispute between Iraq and Kuwait.

Definitional - Dispute that focuses on the legal language of the boundary agreement. The countries fight over the interpretation of boundary treaty terminology. Usually one country will sue the other in the International Court of Justice.

Example: The boundary between Chile and Argentina was supposed to follow the highest peaks of the Andes Mountains; however, they almost went to war after discovering oil and gas deposits in the disputed area.

Locational – Dispute that focuses on disagreement of interpretation, delimitation or demarcation of a boundary. Delimitation is the drawing of boundaries on official maps, aerial and satellite images. Demarcation is the physical marking boundaries with the placement of barriers, fences and walls.

Example: The dispute between Jews and Muslims in Palestine about where the boundary should be.

Operational – Dispute that focuses on all administration of a boundary and how a boundary should function.Example: the United States and Mexico disagree over the issue of illegal immigration into the U.S.

Establishing Boundaries

Define - formal written agreement like a treaty setting up the border Delimit - draw boundary on a mapDemarcate - mark the border using some visible means

Administrate - after all is said and done, you must run and control and administrate the use of the border


U4 - Breakup Yugoslavia Breakup of YugoslaviaThe term Breakup of Yugoslavia refers to a series of conflicts and political upheavals resulting in the dissolution of the Yugoslavia

The country was a conglomeration of six regional republics and two autonomous provinces that was roughly divided on ethnic lines and split up in the 1990s into several independent countries. These eight federal units were the six republics: Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and two autonomous provinces within Serbia: Kosovo and Vojvodina.

Note that the country, even when one country, divided people into provinces based on their background. Many of the provinces used a slightly differing


language as well.

The country broke apart largely along those lines.

Many ethnic groups felt more loyalty to their ethnic group / nation than to their state. This major devolutionary pull eventually broke the country apart in a series of wars.

The Major Groups and their Religious BackgroundsCroatians - Roman CatholicsSerbians - Eastern OrthodoxBosnians - MuslimsSlovenes - Catholic (predominantly)

The country broke apart primarily along religious lines (although a little was also ethnic) and is the best example of a shatterbelt / Balkinization.

Balkinization tends to imply the breakup of the country was violent.

Other Examples:-Czechoslovakia-Russia / USSR-India and Pakistan were once a part of the same colony of England but then separated along religious lines

Other Examples of countries facing devlolutionary forces but that have not broken apart so not a shatterbelt:-Belgium-Spain-United Kingdom-Nigeria went through a civil war based of ethnic and religious lines but stayed intact.

Ethnic Cleansing

Ethnic cleansing was a common phenomenon in the war. This typically entailed intimidation, forced expulsion and/or killing of the undesired ethnic group as well as the destruction or removal of the physical vestiges of the ethnic group, such as places of worship, cemeteries and cultural and historical buildings. Often includes the frequent use of torture

Both Bosnia and Kosovo were conflicts that involved ethnic cleansing from the Serbs against the Bosnians and the Albanians of Kosovo

Other Examples:Ethnic cleansing also occurred in Rwanda (remember our powerpoint) and has occurred in other countries in Africa as a result of tribalism. You can also see the article on Sudan in this wiki.


U4 - Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces

What is a centripetal force? A centripetal force is a force or attitude that tends to unify people and enhance support for a state (p.239). They provide stability, strengthen the state, help bind people together, and create solidarity.

There are several examples of what a centripetal force in a state can be. Religion is a centripetal force in many states. For example, Hinduism in Nepal and India brings people together as they feel a sense of unity. Islam in Pakistan and Bangladesh, as well as Buddhism in Bhutan, is another example of religion as a centripetal force.

The term centripetal force comes from the Latin words centrum, meaning "center", and petere, meaning "tend towards" or "aim at". They are forces that unite and bind a country together - such as a strong national culture, shared ideological objectives, and a common faith.

Examples:

Cultural homogeneity, national culture:

France used to be a classic case of this, but immigration over the last 3 decades has changed this formerly white, Roman catholic, Francophone country, and produced serious centrifugal forces


A strong commitment to building a new nation; nationalism:

Israel in 1948 - people with very different backgrounds, but desiring to create the state of Israel; helped by a common religion, and war

One religion can be an extremely strong centripetal force:

Roman Catholicism (in Italy, in Mexico, in Brazil, in the Republic of Ireland) Hinduism in India Judaism in Israel Islam in several countries

One language is another strong unifier, since it is through language that culture is transmitted and acquired:

Israel - the modern Hebrew language was created to unify people from many different countries who came to live in the new Jewish homeland USA - immigrants through the 19th century learned American English Indonesia - created a national language, Bahasa Indonesia, to unify a tremendously fragmented country

A powerful external threat can unite citizens:

USA since 9.11.2001 USA during the Cold War - fear of Communism USSR during the Cold War - fear of "Capitalists" Citizens of the American Colonies united in opposition to British control in 18th century

A “charismatic” leader:Yugoslavia - Tito India - Mohandas Ghandi> Nehru> Indira Ghandi> Rajiv Ghandi; in combination with nationalism Germany 1930s - Adolf Hitler

Infrastructure: The transportation system in the US unites the people. The railroads in India unite the people.

Physical Geography:Pakistan is a good example for demonstrating how physical geography is a centripetal force. Pakistan as a river valley is isolated by mountains and deserts. These geographic features act as barriers that keep the people of Pakistan inside.

LanguageLanguage acts as a specific centripetal force because it unites people through a common form of communication. English in the U.S, Hindi in India, Bengali in Bangladesh, and Punjabi in Pakistan, eliminate miscommunication.

Transportation and Communication

When there is good transportation in a state, there is easy access to all that is in the state. This makes life easier for people and helps reduce problems that would harm an easy-flowing society. Public transportation in the U.S and railroads in India are examples of this. Communication helps keep everyone in touch when it comes to important decision making. Having a good transportation/communication system helps to create a more dependable infrastructure for a country.

Nationalism

Loyalty and devotion to a nationality helps to emphasize the common culture in a state through things such as mass media. It also promotes government, beliefs, and symbols (i.e. flags & songs). Communism once used symbols like the hammer and sickle to unite the people. The U.S has the national anthem, sung in schools and public events, to unite the state.

Compact State

A compact state’s distance from the center to any boundary doesn’t vary greatly when it is a compact state. This makes internal communication easy in states such as Burundi, Rwanda and Poland; therefore it strengthens a country’s infrastructure. Compact shapes are beneficial to smaller states since it helps establish good communication in all regions.

What is a centrifugal force? A centrifugal force is the exact opposite of a centripetal force. It is a force or attitude that tends to divide a state. Centrifugal forces lead to Balkanization (the process by which a state breaks down through conflicts among ethnicities—as threat to world peace, not just in a small area), as happened in the Balkans during WWI. Centrifugal forces are closely related not only to Balkanization, but also to devolution, which is also the breaking apart of a state. Centrifugal forces destabilize and weaken a state by disrupting the internal order of the state.

Just as centripetal forces were in abundance, centrifugal forces are as well. Many examples of centripetal forces can also apply to centrifugal forces because they are in different context within varying states. For example, the religion of Hinduism in India acts as a centripetal force, but in Pakistan it is a different situation. Religious Muslims groups of Shiite and Sunni, act as a

centrifugal force because they fight amongst each other and break apart the state rather than unify it. Other examples of religion as a centrifugal force in a state include Islam and Hindu in India and Bangladesh, Buddhist and Hindu in Sri Lanka, Islam and Hindu in Kashmir, and Jains and Hindu in India.

The term centrifugal force comes from the Latin words centrum, meaning "center"’ and fugere, meaning "to flee". They are forces that divide a country - such as internal religious, linguistic, ethnic or ideological differences.

Examples

Different religious beliefs can be the dominant centrifugal force in a country:

Muslims and Hindus in India

Different languages can also be important causes of unrest :

Canada - Francophones, especially in Quebec, will not be satisfied till they have a totally independent country.

Cultural diversity - in some countries important differences in several aspects of culture create powerful divisions and centrifugal forces:

the former Yugoslavia - shattered into 5 separate countries and probably more to come typified diversity in culture, with Serbs, Croats, and Muslims the main groups Sri Lanka - Hindu Tamils wage terror against the Sinhalese Buddhists

Irredentism - an external country may seek to expand its territory by appealing to peoples of the same culture living as a minority in a nearby country:

Pakistan and Afghanistan - the Pushtun/ Pathan China and Xizang Tibet "Turkestan" - the Uzbeks Iran-the Azeri

Physical Geography:Just like physical features, such as mountains and rivers, can unify a country. They can also separate a country. Mountains divide communities in Nepal.

LanguageThere are over 2,000 languages spoken in the African continent alone, with as many as 8,000 dialects. This acts as a centrifugal force because it creates a rupture in communication. Conflicts can easily begin due to a lack of communication.

Ethnic groups

There are at least 2 million ethnic and tribal groups in African States. Each group has differing sets of cultural styles of living and beliefs. Not having the same beliefs is a way to easily break up states. Conflicts begin and wars occur. This difference in lifestyles is a major step away from further developing a country, especially if they are in a stage 1 or stage 2 of the demographic transition.

Multinational State

If a state has 2 or more ethnic groups that are aiming for self determination, this can be considered a centrifugal force. States that want self determination are not united and they wish to separate and form their own country. This is an exact model of a centrifugal force and its result can be seen in what was Yugoslavia. The conflicting ethnic groups caused world wars and eventually broke up into several countries. Former Soviet Union is also an example of a multinational state that experienced the effects of centrifugal forces. It broke up into 15 independent countries

Physical Boundary

Physical boundaries, like mountains and bodies of water, cause an obvious split within states. Mountains in Nepal cause a separation among communities in the state. There is great difficulty in communicating and traveling between communities which further exemplifies the breaking apart of a state.


U4 – European Union

Basic Info

Your browser may not support display of this image. The European Union is a supranational and intergovernmental union of 25 (27 as of 1st January 2007) independent, democratic member states. The EU has developed a single market through a standardized system of laws which apply in all member states, guaranteeing the freedom of movement of people, goods, services and capital within them. The European Union is also the world's largest confederation of independent states, established under that name in 1992. With a total population of 491 million (July 2009), the EU has set up agencies to protect consumers against unfair business practices, provide job counseling, plan public health issues, and to set global rules of trade among nations (WTO). It started in November 1, 1993 with the Maastricht Treaty which created the European Union and led to the creation of the euro (official currency for most of Europe) and the pillar structure of the European Union. The EU has more powers over its member states than other international bodies. Evidently, the EU runs on a system between supranationalism and intergovernmentalism.

Intergovernmentalism is a method of decision-making in international organizations where power is possessed by the member-states and decisions are made by unanimity.

In supranationalism power is held by independent appointed officials or by representatives elected by the legislatures or people of the member states. Member state governments still have power, but they must share this power with other actors. Furthermore, decisions are made by majority votes, hence it is possible for a member state to be forced by the other member states to implement a decision against its will.

Free Trading

The EU is a supranational organization which contains self-governing countries that form international associations for purposes of trade, military assistance, or mutual security. The EU has eliminated most barriers to trade throughout Western Europe. European countries that are not members of the EU, like Switzerland, depend heavily on trade with the EU. Trading bloc is a group of neighboring countries that promote trade with each other and erect barriers to limit trade with other blocs. Since the EU is a trading bloc, EU members would tax goods produced in other countries. The EU is also an example of a customs union which is a free trade area with a Common External Tariff. The participant countries set up common external trade policy, but in some cases they use different


import quotas. Purposes for the EU establishing a customs union normally include increasing economic efficiency, establishing closer political and cultural ties between the member countries.

Currency

If the fifty states in the U.S. had its own currency then a six-state drive to Disneyland would mean that we would need six different kinds of currency to pay for gas and food along the way. Things would be complicated and it would make businesses out of state so tedious and expensive that they will not bother to ship their goods across the state. Collecting taxes would also be a problem with fifty different currencies. This is why the EU invented the euro which is the only legal currency in most of the countries in EU. There are no more liras, deutschmarks, or francs. The euro is designed to help build a single market by, for example, easing travel of citizens and goods, eliminating exchange rate problems, price stability and low interest rates, and providing a currency used internationally and protected against shocks by the large amount of internal trade within the euro zone. But the UK, Sweden, and Denmark voted not to join the euro currency. UK said no especially because they thought that the English pound sterling was the most important currency on Earth for centuries and did not feel like giving that title up.

Extended History about the EU

Within a short time after the end of WWII, France and West Germany were arguing over the rights to the Ruhr Valley, which is the center of Europe's coal and steel industries. The brilliant Frenchmen, Jean Monnet and Robert Schuman, came up with the idea of European nations joining together to control coal and steel production. This became known as the Schuman Plan. France, Belgium, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands accepted this plan and became The Six which formed the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). But because every country charged its own tariffs, The Six came up with a treaty at Rome in 1955 that created the European Economic Community (EEC). The EEC removed many trading barriers and tried to create a single European market that would ensure the free movement of goods and services between member nations. At the same time, The Six created the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM) because they feared nuclear energy and were terrified at the possibility of atomic weapons due to Japan.

By the late 1960s, the ECSC, EEC, and the EURATOM merged to create the European Community (EC). Important institutions and bodies of the EU include the European Commission, the European Parliament, the Council of the European Union, the European Council, the European Court of Justice and the European Central Bank for which EU citizens elect leaders every 5 years. Before 1987, Denmark, Ireland, UK, Greece, Spain and Portugal had joined the EC. The members decided that they would meet to vote on political/economic issues that might affect them. Therefore, they created the Maastricht Treaty which created the EU. The EU expanded again in 1995 with three new members: Austria, Finland, and Sweden. And by 2004, the total went up to twenty-five with the addition of ten new members: Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Malta, and Cyprus.

Primary Structure of the European Union*Court of Justice (in Luxembourg)Court assures that the EUs laws and treaties are enforcedOne judge is appointed per member stateTreaty of Nice increases number of justices from fifteen to twenty-fiveCourts responsibilities are not changed by the Treaty of NiceEuropean Commission (in Brussels)Proposes new laws and policies

Negotiates international treaty agreementsOne Commissioner is appointed by each member countryTreaty of Nice increases number of Commissioners from fifteen to twenty-fiveTreaty of Nice sets maximum seats at twenty-seven

*PresidentPresident of the Commission, most important figure in EUDecides the Commissions priority issuesTakes part in meetings of the European CouncilTakes part in the major debates of the European ParliamentTakes part in political negotiations with other government leadersIs appointed by the governments of the member states for five-year termTreaty of Nice expanded presidents power she or she can now assign policy issues to certain commissioners or ask

them to resignCouncil of Ministers (in Brussels)Votes on laws and policies proposed by European Commission and European ParliamentVotes on budget mattersMade up of Ministers who are also cabinet members in the governments of their home countriesTreaty of Nice increases membership from 87 to 171 and lowers the percentage of votes needed to pass certain

laws

*European ParliamentDebates laws/policies but cannot vote on themRepresentatives elected directly by citizens in member countries every five yearsTreaty of Nice increases number of members from 626 to 732Treaty of Nice increases its power so it can also now propose some laws and policiesMeets in Strasbourg, Brussels, and Luxembourg

The European Union (EU) is an economic and political union between 27 member countries, located in Europe.

The European Union is composed of 27 sovereign Member States: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.

There are three official candidate countries, Croatia, Macedonia and Turkey. Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia and Iceland are officially recognized as potential candidates.

With over 500 million citizens, the EU combined generates an estimated 28% share (US$ 16.45 trillion in 2009) of the nominal gross world product and about 21.3% (US$14.8 trillion in 2009) of the PPP gross world product

The EU has developed a single market through a standardized system of laws which apply in all member states, ensuring the free movement of people, goods, services, and capital.

Sixteen member states have adopted a common currency, the euro, constituting the Eurozone. The EU has developed a limited role in foreign policy, having representation at the World Trade Organization, G8, G-20 major economies and at the United Nations. It enacts legislation in justice and home affairs, including the abolition of passport controls by the Schengen Agreement between 22 EU and 3 non-EU states.

EU has three centers for its organization/governing operations

Since its origin, the EU has established a single economic market across the territory of all its members. Currently, a single currency is in use between the 16 members of the eurozone.

Single marketFurther information: Four Freedoms (European Union)The European Central Bank in Frankfurt governs the eurozone's monetary policy.

Two of the original core objectives of the European Economic Community were the development of a common market, subsequently renamed the single market, and a customs union between its member states. The single market involves the free circulation of goods, capital, people and services within the EU, and the customs union involves the application of a common external tariff on all goods entering the market. Once goods have been admitted into the market they cannot be subjected to customs duties, discriminatory taxes or import quotas, as they travel internally

The free movement of persons means citizens can move freely between member states to live, work, study or retire in another country. This required the lowering of administrative formalities and recognition of professional qualifications of other states.

The creation of a European single currency became an official objective of the EU in 1969. However, it was only with the advent of the Maastricht Treaty in 1993 that member states were legally bound to start the monetary union no later than 1 January 1999. On this date the euro was duly launched by eleven of the then fifteen member states of the EU. It remained an accounting currency until 1 January 2002, when euro notes and coins were issued and national currencies began to phase out in the eurozone, which by then consisted of twelve member states. The eurozone has since grown to sixteen countries, the most recent being Slovakia which joined on 1 January 2009.

Problems-smaller countries worry that their power will be diminished by the larger countries-the countries economies are tied together tying their fates together and making it more difficult for countries to determine their own economic future-Turkey wishes to join but the Greeks have animosity towards the Turks and the Turks have human rights issues in regards to their treatment of the Kurds in their country. Also Turkey is seen as culturally different from Europe and many Europeans wonder how far their union should extend.-there are questions about how much the wealthier countries should help the poorer countries when the poorer ones get in trouble-many citizens of the member countries are starting to rebel against a stronger EU


U4 - Gerrymandering

Inventor: Elbridge Gerry, the governor of Massachusetts from 1810 to 1812. He developed the idea of Gerrymandering where most areas were the general shapes of a salamander, supposedly.Gerrymandering is a form of redistribution in which electoral district boundaries are deliberately modified for electoral advantage. Gerrymandering may be used to help or hinder particular electoral districts, such as members of a political, racial, linguistic, or religious group. Gerrymandering is used most often in favor of ruling a specific political party. The two aims of gerrymandering are to maximize the effect of supporters’ votes and to minimize the effect of opponents' votes. Packing, a strategy used in gerrymandering, is to concentrate as many voters of one type into a single electoral district to reduce their influence in other districts. In some cases this may be done to get representation for a community of common interest. A second strategy, cracking, involves spreading out voters of a particular type among many districts in order to deny them a sufficiently large voting block in any particular district. The strategies are usually combined, creating a few "forfeit" seats for packed voters of one type in order to secure even greater representation for voters of another. Redrawing the balanced electoral districts can create a 3 to 1 advantage for a party. Two strategies of gerrymandering are maximizing the effective votes of supporters and minimizing the effective votes of opponents both of which are related to packing and cracking. Gerrymandering is effective because of the wasted vote effect. By packing opposition voters into districts they will already win, increasing excess votes for winners, and by cracking the remainder among districts where they are moved into the minority, increasing votes for the eventual losers, the number of wasted votes among the opposition can be maximized.The effects of gerrymandering are the reduction in electoral competition and voter turnout, the increased political party advantage and campaign costs, and the less descriptive representation of other groups. Gerrymandering in an election can reduce the competitiveness in it since large groups can add votes to decrease competition in a district. As the chance of influencing electoral results by voting is reduced, voter turnout is likely to decrease. Political campaigns are also less likely to expend resources to encourage turnout. Gerrymandering is designed to increase the number of wasted votes among the electorate; so the relative representation of particular groups can be greatly changed from their actual share of the voting population. This effect can prevent a gerrymandered system from achieving proportional and descriptive representation, as the winners of elections are increasingly determined by who is drawing the districts rather than the preferences of the voters.Any unusual facts if relevant: the name gerrymanderis the combination of the inventor Elbridge Gerry and Salamander. Salamander referred to describe the appearance of a torturous district Gerry created in order to disadvantage his electoral opponents and is also the general shape of his system to maximize his votes.

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U4 - Global Warming

Global warming is the gradual increase of the temperature of the earth's lower atmosphere as a result of the increase in pollution due to greenhouse gases brought on by the Industrial Revolution and post-Industrial Revolution manufacturing and society. This warming has been attributed to the Greenhouse Effect brought on predominantly by the use of fossil fuels and deforestation. It is generally agreed that a shift from carbon-based fuels to renewable non-carbon based fuels would decrease the effects of global warming.

Industrial RevolutionSince the 18th century to the middle of the 19th century a shift from agriculture to manufacturing, mining, and transport that started in United Kingdom that eventually spread around the world, the Industrial Revolution created a substantial need for and use of fossil fuels to produce products on a mass scale. It should not be ignored that a vast change to society was enormous both financially and in capitalist economies.

Greenhouse EffectThe Greenhouse Effect is caused by the atmosphere near the earth's surface being warmed through a process where visible, shortwave light comes from the sun to the earth, passes through a blanket of thermal, or greenhouse gases, which include ozone, methane, water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and ozone. The Earth's surface reflects the infrared radiation toward space but not all of it passes through the thermal blanket. Some is trapped and reflected downward, keeping the planet at an average temperature suitable to life, about 60°F (16°C).

Human activity since the Industrial Revolution has increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, leading to increased radiative forcing from CO2, methane, tropospheric ozone, CFCs and nitrous oxide. The concentrations of CO2 and methane have increased by 36% and 148% respectively since 1750. These levels are much higher than at any time during the last 650,000 years, the period for which reliable data has been extracted from ice cores. Less direct geological evidence indicates that CO2 values higher than this were last seen about 20 million years ago. Fossil fuel burning has produced about three-quarters of the increase in CO2 from human activity over the past 20 years. Most of the rest is due to land-use change, particularly deforestation.

CO2 concentrations are continuing to rise due to burning of fossil fuels and land-use change. The future rate of rise will depend on uncertain economic, sociological, technological, and natural developments.

Fossil fuel


A factor that contributes to global warming is the burning of fossil fuels, which include coal and petroleum products.

Renewable FuelsRenewable fuel sources fall into two main categories: carbon-based and non-carbon-based. Wind power, solar power, geothermal energy and nuclear power fall into the latter category. A carbon-based renewable fuel is biomass. Biomass is commonly plant matter grown to generate electricity or produce heat. It is composed of a mixture of organic molecules containing hydrogen, usually including atoms of oxygen, often nitrogen and also small quantities of other atoms, including alkali, alkaline earth and heavy metals. These metals are often found in functional molecules such as the porphyrins which include chlorophyll which contains magnesium.

DeforestationDeforestation is the clearing of the world’s forests for livestock pastures, farming or plantation commodities or the for sale trees as paper products or fuel. At the same time, these forests have not been properly reforested resulting in damage to habitat and biodiversity loss. The World Resources Institute http://www.wri.org/ estimates that 22 percent of the world's original forest cover remains intact in three large areas: the Canadian and Alaskan boreal forest, the boreal forest of Russia, and the tropical forest of the northwestern Amazon Basin and the Guyana Shield (Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela, Columbia, etc.) About one half of the forests that covered the Earth are gone. Each year, another 16 million hectares disappear.

Global Climate ChangeThe predominant source for energy to the Earth is the Sun. The global climate changes due to variations in solar intensity. Part of the climate system is the oceans, and the fluctuation of their temperatures that produce movement through redistributing heat around the Earth. The redistribution effects weather patterns, which subsequently cause the gradual changes on land surfaces. Changes to vegetation growth or loss—both in farming and non-farming—have been recorded due to Global Climate Change. The melting of the glaciers in both northern latitudes and at higher elevations has also been documented.

Effects of Global WarmingEcological systemsIn terrestrial ecosystems, the earlier timing of spring events, and poleward and upward shifts in plant and animal ranges, have been linked with high confidence to recent warming. Future climate change is expected to particularly affect certain ecosystems, including tundra, mangroves, and coral reefs. It is expected that most ecosystems will be affected by higher atmospheric CO2 levels, combined with higher global temperatures. Overall, it is expected that climate change will result in the extinction of many species and reduced diversity of ecosystems.Social systems

http://www.wri.org/

http://www.wri.org/

There is some evidence of regional climate change affecting systems related to human activities, including agricultural and forestry management activities at higher latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere.

Future climate change is expected to particularly affect some sectors and systems related to human activities. These include:

* Water resources in some dry regions at mid-latitudes, the dry tropics, and areas that depend on snow and ice melt* Agriculture in low latitudes* Low-lying coastal systems* Human health in populations with limited capacity to adapt to climate change

It is expected that some regions will be particularly affected by climate change, including the Arctic, Africa, small islands, and Asian and African megadeltas. Some people, such as the poor, young children, and the elderly, are particularly at risk, even in high-income areas.

The LDCs may be affected the most by these partially because of location (many LDCs are in the mid-latitudes) and partially because LDCs are more affected by changes in their environment and have less resources to deal with those changes.

GeoengineeringGeoengineering is an effort to change the environment by altering the chemicals in the atmosphere to reduce the effects of global warming. Some geoengineering techniques are based on carbon sequestration, ocean iron fertilization and solar radiation management techniques. Most techniques appear to have a minimal effect.

Kyoto ProtocolIn an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, The Kyoto Protocol has been recognized by 37 industrialized countries and the European community. It is linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, and it recognizes that the principal responsibility for the increase emissions is due to industrial activity in developed countries. Designed to assist countries to fight the adverse effects of climate change, the Kyoto Protocol promotes the development of techniques that can reduce the effects of global climate change. Seen as an important first step to stabilize greenhouse gas emissions, it provides an essential framework for a future agreement on climate change.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)A chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) is an organic compound that contains carbon, chlorine, and fluorine, produced as a volatile derivative of methane and ethane. A common subclass is the hydro chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), which contain hydrogen, as well. They are also commonly known by the DuPont trade name Freon. The most common representative is dichlorodifluoromethane (R-12 or Freon-12). Many CFCs have been widely used as refrigerants, propellants (in aerosol applications), and solvents. The manufacture of such compounds is being phased out by the Montreal Protocol because they contribute to ozone depletion.

UN Millennium GoalsIn 2000, the United Nations (UN) released the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). There are eight millennium goals, one of which is to ensure environmental sustainability by “Integrating the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programs; reverse loss of environmental resources,” and by “Reducing biodiversity loss, achieving, by 2010, a significant reduction in the rate of loss.”


U4 – Guns, Germs, and Steel

Jared Diamond’s Guns, Germs, Steel offers the most compelling explanation. Diamond focuses on the importance of geography. Diamond argues that there are surprisingly few domesticable animals and crops. Regions of the world with domesticable animals and crops developed agriculture. And agriculture was the key towards getting guns, germs and steel. And these are the keys to the success of the Europeans.

PlantsThe uneven distribution of domesticable plants and animals led some parts of the world, Eurasia in particular to develop agriculture.Today two cereals, wheat and rice, account for 41% of all total calories consumed in the world.Wheat is native to just the fertile crescent, around modern Turkey and Iraq.Rice from China.

The major cereals are wheat, corn, rice, barley, and sorghum.4 out 5 of these are from Euroasia (sorghum is from North Africa which is effectively party of EuroAsia rather than Africa).The indigeneous versions of wheat, rice, barley and sorghum are very similar to the domesticated versions. Corn is from MesoAmerica and the wild version is very different. It consequently took much longer to domesticate.Many plants are surpisingly difficult to domesticate.Diamond argues that the domesticated plants are evidence of the domesticable plants and that these were not evenly distributed across the globe.

East and West Note:


Agriculture and other ideas also spread faster in Euroasia because it’s major axis is East-West, along a similar latitude, meaning a similar climate, so crops, animals and ideas could move more easily across Euroasia than through the Americas or Africa where the major axis is North-South.

AnimalsBig, domesticated animals are important they provide meat, milk, fertilizer, transport, clothing (e.g. wool and leather), military assault capacity, power (e.g. plowing).There are surprisingly few domesticated animals.

In the world today there are five major cases: sheep, goats, cows, pigs and horses.Add in some less important cases: Arabian camel, Bactrian camel, Llama and Alpaca, Donkey, Reindeer, Water Buffalo, Yak, Bali cattle, Mithan we have a total of 14.The wild ancestors of these animals were not spread evenly across the globe.None of the ancestors to these animals was indigenous to sub-Saharan Africa.Only the Llama/Alpaca had a wild ancestor indigenous to South or North America.13 of 14 were indigenous to Euroasia.

Without domesticated animals it’s much harder to develop mass agriculture and from there cities and civilizations.

GermsFarming also leads to getting germs. People with farms can maintain livestock. Livestock give us germs. Many of our diseases come from animals. Measles from pigs. Smallpox and anthrax from cattle. People also started to become sedentary and lived in towns and cities and farming and the development of farming led to higher population growth (especially during the second farming revolution).

Germs are everywhere (including this computer). By getting germs, we force our immune system to work. Those with weak immune systems die and those with stronger immune systems live. The plague wiped out a third of Europe but there is evidence that some of those survivors of the plague have a stronger immune system.

Even with the advantages of guns, steel and horses, conquest of North and South America might have been a close call had it not been for germs.The major infectious diseases in humans all evolved from diseases of animals:Smallpox Flu Tuberculosis Malaria Plague Measles CholeraEuropeans lived next door and often in the same barn as the animals and were repeatedly decimated by these diseases but for that very reason they evolved some immunitySmallpox in S. America where it may have killed 90%, yes 90% of the population.

When the Europeans came to America, the Aztecs and Incans got the diseases Europeans had been exposed to over and over again over hundreds of years. As a result, both societies got wiped out.The population of the area of Mexico went from 25 million to 1 million within 50 years of the Spanish meeting up with the Aztecs.

Bands, Tribes, Chiefdoms and StatesSocieties that get ahead thanks to the advantages of good farming will rise up from the level of band to the level of state. As they rise up to a higher level, they will get more complex, larger in numbers and more differentiated in jobs thanks to new technologies that require differing skillsets.Type Band Tribe Chiefdom State

Numbers Dozens Hundreds Thousands Over 50,000

Relations Kin Clans Class Class

Ethnicity 1 1 1 More than 1

Government Equal Equal Centralized and Hereditary Centralized

Bureaucracy none none 1 or more levels Many levels

Monopoly of Force No No Yes Yes

Conflict Resolution Informal Informal Centralized Laws,judges

Hierarchy No No Main village Capital

Food Production No No-yes Yes-intensive Intensive

Economy Reciprocal Reciprocal Redistributive Redistributive Taxes

Control of Land Band Clan Chief Various

Stratified No No Yes, by kin Yes

Public Works No No Yes Yes

Widespread Literacy No No No Yes


U4 - Iraq Iraq-once part of the Ottoman Empire-once a colony of England (post WWI)-Saddam Hussein was their dictator leader during the 1980s and 90s-Iraq invaded Kuwait sparking the first Gulf War-Iraqi government is sanctioned (isolated from doing trade to a large degree)-fear (supposed) of WMDs (weapons of mass destruction) caused a second war and subsequent occupation of Iraq by

America-American troops have been occupying Iraq now for a longer period of time that all of WWII and the occupation of Europe

thereafter

Government-Iraq now has a federal form of government because it is a multinational state facing devolutionary forces which threaten to tear it apart (centrifugal)

Demographics of IraqAn April 2009 estimate of the total Iraqi population is 31,234,000.

Ethnicities:Around 75%-80% of Iraq's population is Arab; the other major ethnic groups are the Kurds at 15%-20%, who mostly live in the north and northeast of the country.


Religion:* Islam, 97%; Christianity or other, 3%.Estimate of the Muslim proportions of the population are:* Shia 60%-65%, Sunni 32%-37% (source: CIA World Fact Book).

Language:

Linguistically, the adherents of Shia Islam in Iraq predominantly speak Arabic and a bilingual minority speak Persian, while the Iraqi Turkmen speak South Azeri and the Feyli Kurds speak Feyli, a dialect of Kurdish, almost all belong to the Twelver school. Adherents of Sunni Islam include Arabic speakers, Iraqi Turkmen (who are mostly Hanafi school), and Kurds (who are Shafi school).

Arabic and Kurdish are official languages. English is the most commonly spoken European language.

Iraqi Refugees who Fled During the War and Sanctions:

In November 2006, the UNHCR estimated that 1.8 million Iraqis had been displaced to neighboring countries, with nearly 100,000 Iraqis fleeing to Syria and Jordan each month, while another 1.6 million were displaced

internally.100 A May 2007 article noted that in the previous seven months, only 69 people from Iraq had been granted refugee status in the United States.

Tribalism

At least three-quarters of the Iraqi people are members of one of the country's 150 tribes. Iraq's society is very feudalistic, with most of the population identifying him/herself with one tribe. Tribes have become an increasingly important part of Iraqi society. Even those Iraqi citizens without a tribal background often turn to neighborhood shaykhs for representation or assistance with the government.

Tribal Culture and Women

The tribal society brings along some other consequences: individuals are protected, yet at the same time limited by the tribe. This fact is very visible for women and children. Women belong to the family and do not have much right to choose about their own future. Deciding whether to work or not, choosing a profession, choosing their spouses is not in their hands. What is decisive is the family's approval. If one defects from the existing social structure, it means that one is immoral. Since immorality would ruin the honour of the family, the respective family member should be punished. In Sulaymaniyah one woman's nose was cut in order to set an example. She was accused of having an immoral relationship which, however, was not proven. After 1990 there were quite a high number of honour crimes in Iraq, which according to Iraqi law were not punishable. If a woman transgressed a social norm, e.g. by being with a man without marriage or eloping from her husband without permission of the family, the tribal law prescribes capital punishment for this behaviour. This punishment is tolerable according to the Iraqi criminal code. It should give the families the right to instruct their children ethically with the methods they choose, be it punishment at home, be it not letting their children attend a specific school. The result is a circle of social relations at home, with the brothers having superiority to the sisters and the father having superiority to the rest of the family.

The Rest of the Middle East

-Iran is Shia and favors the Shia of Iraq often giving them weapons and support-Saudi Arabia and other neighbors are Sunni and give them support-Turkey is worried about the Kurds in Iraq. They think that if they get too much power they will support the Kurds in Turkey with weapons and supplies and try to form an independent state taking part of Turkey and Iraq (Kurds are a stateless nation)


U4 - Israel and Palestine

http://lewishistoricalsociety.com/wiki2011/100


Basics-

-Israelis are predominantly Jewish and the religion is a major centripetal force as is the threat of an outside force-Palestinians are Muslims with a higher NIR and they are refugees that live within the Palestinian territories. They are ethnically Arabs-Israel is a country in the Middle East / southwest Asia that was created after WWII. It was formerly a colony of England's and before that a part of the Ottoman empire for hundreds of years

Borders Lebanon in the north, Syria in the northeast, Jordan and the West Bank in the east, the Gaza Strip and Egypt on the southwest, and contains geographically diverse features within its relatively small area. Israel is the world's only predominantly Jewish state, with a population of 7.5 million people, of whom 5.7 million are Jewish. Arab citizens of Israel form the country's second-largest ethnic group, which includes Muslims.

The Land of Israel, known in Hebrew as Eretz Yisrael, has been sacred to the Jewish people since Biblical times. According to the Torah, God promised the Land of Israel to the three Patriarchs of the Jewish people

CreationBetween the time of the Israelite kingdoms and the 7th-century Muslim conquests, the Land of Israel fell under Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, Greek, Roman, Sassanian, and Byzantine rule.

Jewish presence in the region dwindled during the Roman Empire in 132 CE.

The Jewish diaspora is the English term used to describe the several forced expulsions of Israelites from what is now the states of Israel, Jordan and parts of Lebanon.

Jews started returning to the area in the 1800s because of the pogroms in eastern Europe and then continued to return with the advent of WWII and the holocaust.

In 1947, the British government withdrew from the Mandate of Palestine, stating it was unable to arrive at a solution acceptable to both Arabs and Jews.

The newly created United Nations approved the Partition Plan for Palestine (United Nations General Assembly Resolution 181) on November 29, 1947, which sought to divide the country into two states one Arab and one Jewish.

Jerusalem was to be designated an international city a corpus separatum administered by the UN

After WWI, the area of modern day Israel became a colony under British rule.

In November 1947, the United Nations voted in favor of the partition of Palestine, proposing the creation of a Jewish state, an Arab state, and a UN-administered Jerusalem.-Partition was accepted by Zionist leaders but rejected by Arab leaders, leading to civil war.-Israel declared independence on 14 May 1948 and neighboring Arab states attacked the next day.-Since then, Israel has fought a series of wars with neighboring Arab states, and in consequence occupies territories,

including the West Bank and Gaza Strip, beyond those delineated in the 1949 Armistice Agreements.-Israel has signed peace treaties with Egypt and Jordan, but efforts to resolve conflict with the Palestinians have so far only met with limited success and some of Israel's international borders remain in dispute.

In the years after WWII, many refugees and holocaust survivors fled Europe and the population of Israel rose from 800,000 to two million between 1948 and 1958.

Conflicts with Arab NeighborsYou do not need to know about these in any depthThe violent confrontations which appear in this list were recognized as wars by the Defense Minister of Israel:

* 1948 War of Independence (November 1947 - July 1949), In its conclusion, a set of agreements were signed between Israel, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria called the 1949 Armistice Agreements which established the armistice lines between Israel and the West Bank, also known as the Green Line.

* The Sinai War (October 1956) - a military attack on Egypt by Britain, France, and Israel beginning on 29 October 1956 with the intention to occupy the Sinai Peninsula and to take over the Suez Canal.

* Six-Day War (June 1967) - fought between Israel and Arab neighbors Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. The nations of Iraq, Saudi

Arabia, Kuwait and Algeria also contributed troops and arms to the Arab forces. ''Following the war the territory held by Israel expanded significantly ("The Purple Line") : The West Bank, Golan Heights and Sinai were occupied from Jordan, Syria and Egypt, respectively.''* War of Attrition (1968-1970) - a limited war fought between the Israeli military and forces of the Egyptian Republic, the USSR and the Palestine Liberation Organization from 1967 to 1970. The hostilities ended with a ceasefire signed between the countries in 1970 with frontiers remaining in the same place as when the war began.

* Yom Kippur War (October 1973) - fought from October 6 to October 26, 1973 by a coalition of Arab states led by Egypt and Syria against Israel as a way of recapturing part of the territories which they lost to the Israelis back in the Six-Day War.

* First Lebanon War (1982) - began in 6 June 1982, Due to the constant terror attacks on northern Israel made by the Palestinian guerilla organizations which resided in Lebanon.

* Second Lebanon War (summer 2006) - began as military operation in response to the abduction of two Israeli reserve soldiers by the Hezbollah. The conflict started on 12 July 2006, and continued until a United Nations-brokered ceasefire went into effect on 14 August 2006, though it formally ended on 8 September 2006 when Israel lifted its naval blockade of Lebanon.

The PalestiniansFive groups of people consider themselves Palestinian:-people living in the West Bank and Gaza Strip since 1967-Israelis who are Muslim-people who fled the area as a result of the wars-Citizens of neighboring countries sometimes identify themselves as Palestinian if they have origins to the area of Palestin / Israel (Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia

Many Palestinians are members of the PLO or Hamas. Both organizations seek the independence of Palestine but Hamas is more militant and does not recognize the right of Israel to exist. The U.S. and the U.N. consider Hamas to be a terrorist organization.

The ConflictFollowing Israel's capture of additional territories (due to the wars), settlements consisting of Israeli citizens were established within each of them.

Israel has applied civilian law to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem, incorporating them into its territory and offering their inhabitants permanent residency status and the possibility to become full citizen if they asked it.

In contrast, the West Bank has remained under military occupation, and it and the Gaza Strip are seen by the Palestinians and most of the international community as the site of a future Palestinian state.

The UN Security Council has declared the incorporation of the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem to be "null and void" and continues to view the territories as occupied.

The West Bank was occupied by Israel in 1967. The population are mainly Arab Palestinians, including refugees of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. From their occupation in 1967 until 1993, the Palestinians living in these territories were under Israeli military administration. Since the Israel-PLO letters of recognition, most of the Palestinian population and cities have been under the internal jurisdiction of the Palestinian Authority, and only partial Israeli military control, although Israel has on several occasions redeployed its troops and reinstated full military administration during periods of unrest.

In response to increasing attacks as part of the Second Intifada, the Israeli government started to construct the Israeli West Bank barrier, which is partially built within the West Bank.

The Gaza

strip was occupied by Egypt from 1948 to 1967 and then by Israel from 1967 to 2005. In 2005, as part of Israel's unilateral disengagement plan, Israel removed all of its residents and forces from the territory. However, Israel still controls Gaza's airspace and sea access and has on occasion sent troops into the area.

Gaza has a border with Egypt and an agreement between Israel, the EU, the PA and Egypt governed how border crossing would take place (it was monitored by European observers), However the election of a Hamas government has led to problems in implementing it resulting in the border crossing being closed much of the time. Internal control of Gaza is in the hands of the Hamas government.

Geographic Issues

-Israel has major cities near international borders and is surrounded by Arab neighbors.-The Golan Heights were a series of highland hills near Israel that were under Syrian control but Israel took over that territory in the 1967 war-The West Bank was under Jordan's control for a short time but now is Palestinian territory and subject to Israeli controls and military interventions

Population Demographics

The State of Israel had population of approximately 7,503,800 inhabitants as of December 2009. 75.4% of them were Jewish (about 5,660,700 individuals), 20.3% were Arabs (About 1,523,900 inhabitants), while the remaining 4.3% (about 319,200 individuals) were defined as "others" (family members of Jewish immigrants who were not registered at the Interior Ministry as Jews, non-Arab Christians, non-Arab Muslims and residents who do not have a religious classification).

(2008)* Total population growth rate: 1.8% -this is the growth rate will not continue to be this high as Israel cannot count on

continued immigrants from Russia

During the 1990s, the Jewish population growth rate was about 3% per year, as a result of massive immigration to Israel, primarily from the republics of the former Soviet Union. There is also a high population growth rate among certain Jewish groups, especially adherents of Haredi Judaism.

The Palestinian territories in this context are defined to include West Bank, East Jerusalem and the Gaza strip. It is one of a number of designations for those portions of the British Mandate of Palestine captured and occupied by Jordan and by Egypt in the late 1940s, and captured by Israel in the 1967 Six-Day War.

Population growth rate2.75% (2008 est.) This high growth rate may continue for some time given that there are no reasons for it to subside

Given these growth rates, the Palestinians will surpass the Israelis in total numbers. They could demand that Israel recognize them as citizens and demand the right to vote or have some power of self-determination instead of a two-state solution.

Jerusalem

-one of the biggest reasons for the conflict would be the holy sites in Jerusalem. Both sides are intransigent because they refuse to give up territories they believe central to their faith.-The Western Wall is the site of the remnants of an early and important temple for the Jews-The Dome of the Rock is important to the Muslims as it is the place where Mohammad ascended into heaven-some of the holy sites are literally one on top of the other

making it impossible to divide them

The WallThe Israeli West Bank barrier is a security barrier being constructed by the State of Israel. It consists of a network made mostly of fences with vehicle-barrier trenches surrounded by an on average 60 meter wide exclusion area (90%). In some areas the barrier is an 8 meter tall concrete wall. (10%). The barrier is built mainly in the

West Bank and partly along the 1949 Armistice line, or "Green Line" between Israel and Palestinian West Bank. In April 2006, the length of the barrier approved by the Israeli government was 703 kilometers (436 miles). In August 2008, approximately 58.04% had been constructed, 8.96% was under construction, and construction had not yet begun on 33% of the barrier. The Jerusalem Post reported in July 2007 that the barrier may not be completed until 2010, seven years after it was originally supposed to be finished.

The barrier is highly controversial. Supporters argue that the barrier is necessary to protect Israeli civilians from Palestinian terrorism, including the suicide bombing attacks that increased significantly during the Al-Aqsa Intifada; The significantly reduced number of incidents of suicide bombings since the construction of the barrier has shown that the barrier saves lives.

Opponents of the barrier object that the route substantially deviates from the Green Line into the occupied territories captured by Israel in the Six-Day War of 1967. They argue that the barrier is an illegal attempt to annex Palestinian land under the guise of security, violates international law,7 has the effect of pre-empting final status negotiations, and severely restricts Palestinians who live nearby, particularly their ability to travel freely within the West Bank and to access work in Israel.In a 2004 advisory opinion, the International Court of Justice considered that "Israel cannot rely on a right of self-defence or on a state of necessity in order to preclude the wrongfulness of the construction of the wall". The Court found that "the construction of the wall, and its associated régime, are contrary to international law"

Settler opponents condemn the barrier for appearing to renounce the Jewish claim to the whole of the Land of Israel.

Two similar barriers, the Israeli Gaza Strip barrier and the Israeli-built11 7-9 meter (23 – 30 ft) wall separating Gaza from Egypt (temporarily breached on January 23, 2008), have been less controversial.


U4 - NAFTA

NAFTATrading Blocs are a group of neighboring countries that promote trade with each other and erect barriers to limit trade with other blocs.

There are three main important blocs:

* the Western Hemisphereo In the western Hemisphere, trade barriers have been eliminated due to The North American Free Trade Agreement.* Western Europe* Eastern Asia.




NAFTA is an agreement signed by the governments of the United States, Canada, and Mexico creating free trade in North America. NAFTA is a supranational organization: it is a self-governing country that forms international associations for purpose of trade, military assistance, or mutual security. It established a free trade zone throughout Canada, Mexico, and the U.S over the next fifteen years. A free trade zone or export processing zone is a part or parts of a country where tariffs and quotas are eliminated and bureaucratic requirements lowered to attract companies to raise the incentives of doing business there. In simple terms, NAFTA’s core provisions grant foreign investors a remarkable set of new rights and privileges that promote relocation abroad of factories and jobs and the privatization and deregulation of essential services, such as water, energy and health care. NAFTA includes two important side agreements on environmental and labor issues that extend into cooperative efforts to reconcile policies, and procedures for dispute resolution between the member states.

According to the industrial location theory firms select locations for these situation and site factors:

* Wage rates* Environmental controls* Access to markets and skilled workers* Transportation costs

At the same time, global industrial development depends on increased cooperation among different countries. As a result of lower transportation cost, more people have access to more goods at lower prices than in the past. Given this trend, more consumers in MDC’s are increasingly challenged to choose between the purchase of the highest-quality, lowest-cost goods regardless of where they were made, and support for local industries against foreign competitors at any price.

Effects - NAFTA's effects, both positive and negative, have been quantified by several economists. Some argue that NAFTA has been positive for Mexico, which has seen its poverty rates fall and real income rise (in the form of lower prices, especially food), even after accounting for the 1994–1995 economic crisis. Others argue that NAFTA has been beneficial to business owners and elites in all three countries, but has had negative impacts on farmers in Mexico who saw food prices fall based on cheap imports from U.S. agribusiness, and negative impacts on U.S. workers in manufacturing and assembly industries who lost jobs. Critics also argue that NAFTA has contributed to the rising levels of inequality in both the U.S. and Mexico.

1. Trade: Overall, NAFTA has not caused trade diversion, aside from a few industries such as textiles and apparel, in which rules of origin negotiated in the agreement were specifically designed to make U.S. firms prefer Mexican manufacturers. The World Bank also showed that the combined percentage growth of NAFTA imports was accompanied by an almost similar increase of non-NAFTA exports.2. Industry: Maquiladoras (factories built by U.S companies in Mexico near U.S border, to take advantage of much lower labor cost) which take in imported raw materials and produce goods for export have become the landmark of trade in Mexico. These are plants that moved to this region from the United States, hence the debate over the loss of American jobs. Other sectors now benefit from the free trade agreement, and the share of exports from non-border states has increased in the last five years while the share of exports from Mexican factory-border states has decreased. This has allowed for the rapid growth of non-border metropolitan areas. However, Mexico has lost a quarter million maquiladora jobs since 2000. Many firms are moving to China where wages are only $1 a day instead of $2.

U.S industrialization: An increase in domestic manufacturing output and a proportionally greater domestic investment in manufacturing does not necessarily mean an increase in domestic manufacturing jobs; this increase may simply reflect greater automation and higher productivity. Although the U.S. total civilian employment may have grown by almost 15 million in between 1993 and 2001, manufacturing jobs only increased by 476,000 in the same time period. Furthermore from 1994 to 2007, net manufacturing employment has declined by 3,654,000.

3. Agriculture: From the earliest negotiation, agriculture was (and still remains) a controversial topic within NAFTA, as it has been with almost all free trade agreements that have been signed within the WTO framework. Agriculture is the only section that was not negotiated trilaterally; instead, three separate agreements were signed between each pair of parties. The Canada–U.S. agreement contains significant restrictions and tariff quotas on agricultural products (mainly sugar, dairy, and poultry products); whereas the Mexico–U.S. pact allows for a wider liberalization within a framework of phase-out periods (it was the first North–South FTA on agriculture to be signed). The overall effect of the Mexico–U.S. agricultural agreement is a matter of dispute. Mexico did not invest in the infrastructure necessary for competition, such as efficient railroads and highways, creating more difficult living conditions for the country's poor. Still, the causes of rural poverty cannot be directly attributed to NAFTA; in fact, Mexico's agricultural exports increased 9.4 percent annually between 1994 and 2001, while imports increased by only 6.9 percent a year during the same period.

NAFTA opponents

# Labor groups# Environmental and consumer groups# Religious groups

They argued that NAFTA would launch a race-to-the-bottom in wages, destroy hundreds of thousands of good U.S. jobs, undermine democratic control of domestic policy-making and threaten health, environmental and food safety standards.

NAFTA promoters* Many of the world’s largest corporationsThey promised it would create hundreds of thousands of new high-wage U.S. jobs, raise living standards in the U.S., Mexico and Canada, improve environmental conditions and transform Mexico from a poor developing country into a booming new market for U.S. exports.

Effects of NAFTA-Economists believe that NAFTA has positive and negative impacts. Many economists believe that NAFTA has been a positive impact for Mexico. NAFTA has helped lower the poverty levels of Mexico and helped rise the income (in the form of lower prices, especially food). Others argue that NAFTA has been beneficial to business owners and elites in all three countries, but has had negative impacts on farmers in Mexico who saw food prices fall based on cheap imports from U.S. agribusiness, and negative impacts on U.S. workers in manufacturing and assembly industries who lost jobs. People also argue that NAFTA has contributed to the rising levels of inequality in both the U.S. and Mexico.

A. Trade-NAFTA has not caused trade diversion, aside from a few industries such as textiles and apparel, in which rules of origin negotiated in the agreement were specifically designed to make U.S. firms prefer Mexican manufacturers.

B. Industry-Maquiladoras, which are Mexican factories which take in imported raw materials and produce goods for export, have become the landmark of trade in Mexico. These are plants that moved to this region from the United States, hence the debate over the loss of American jobs. The income in the maquiladora sector has increased 15.5% since the implementation of NAFTA in 1994. Now maquiladoras are increasing next to the border of Mexico and the US.

C. Agricultural-Mexico's agricultural exports increased 9.4 percent annually between 1994 and 2001, while imports increased by only 6.9 percent a year during the same period. Production of corn in Mexico has increased since NAFTA's

implementation. NAFTA has increased U.S. agricultural exports to Mexico and Canada. Large corporations often feel the need to use harsh pesticides on their products to ensure the success of their crops.

D. Environmental-NAFTA has brought many negative impacts for the environment. The environmental issue is mostly located in Mexico. The border between the US and Mexico has intense industrialization associated with free trade zones and maquiladora industries. This causes major pollution. This area is also known for its poor drinking water, inadequate sewage treatment, mass squatter settlements with deplorable living conditions, exploding population rates, and rapid industrial expansion by industries whose air and water emissions are insufficiently monitored. Also millions of gallons of raw sewage are poured daily into the Rio Grande, the main source of drinking water. This issue is not only located at the border region. The agricultural sectors also face severe environmental problems. Large corporations often feel the need to use harsh pesticides on their products to ensure the success of their crops. However, these pesticides also contain life-threatening poisons that have a profoundly debilitating effect on both the land and the workers. These toxins eventually seep down into the water supply, poisoning surrounding habitats and polluting drinking water.


U4 - NATO The North Atlantic Treaty Organization or NATO also called the (North) Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The NATO headquarters are in Brussels, Belgium, and the organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defense in response to an attack by any external party.

Cold War Anti Soviet Union ForceThe first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, famously stated the organization's goal was "to keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down"

Soviet alliance was the Warsaw Pact

Post Cold-War

After the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, the organization became drawn into the Balkans (Yugoslavia devolution)

The Berlin Plus agreement is a comprehensive package of agreements made between NATO and the European Union on 16 December 2002. With this agreement the EU was given the possibility to use NATO assets in case it wanted to act independently in an international crisis-In other words, the EU has the right to use NATO materials for an international crisis if they want to do something and the USA does not want to be involved in it.

Since the end of the cold war, NATO has take on more member from Eastern Europe and instead of focusing in on the USSR now Russia it focuses in on dealing with problems of terrorism and dealing with EU problems (the devolution of Yugoslavia, Kosovo, etc)

U4 – Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs)A non-governmental organization (NGO) is a legally constituted, non-governmental organization created by natural or legal persons with no participation or representation of any government. In the cases in which NGOs are funded totally or


partially by governments, the NGO maintains its non-governmental status by excluding government representatives from membership in the organization.Globalization during the 20th century gave rise to the importance of NGOs. Many problems could not be solved within a nation. International treaties and international organizations such as the World Trade Organization were perceived as being too centred on the interests of capitalist enterprises.

Some argued that in an attempt to counterbalance this trend, NGOs have developed to emphasize:humanitarian issues, developmental aid and sustainable development.

The primary purpose of an operational NGO is the design and implementation of development-related projects. One frequently used categorization is the division into relief-oriented versus development-oriented organizations; they can also be classified according to whether they stress service delivery or participation; or whether they are religious or secular; and whether they are more public or private-oriented. Operational NGOs can be community-based, national or international.

Examples:Doctors without BordersOxfamCAREWorld VisionSave the ChildrenCatholic Relief Services


U4 - Potable Water


Introduction

Drinking water or potable water is water of sufficiently high quality that it can be consumed or used without risk of immediate or long term harm.In most developed countries, the water supplied to households, commerce and industry is all of drinking water standard, even though only a very small proportion is actually consumed or used in food preparation.

Over large parts of the world, humans have inadequate access to potable water and use sources contaminated with disease vectors, pathogens or unacceptable levels of dissolved chemicals or suspended solids. Such water is not potable and drinking or using such water in food preparation leads to widespread acute and chronic illnesses and is a major cause of death in many countries. Reduction of waterborne diseases is a major public health goal in developing countries.

Typically, water supply networks deliver potable water, whether it is to be used for drinking, washing or landscape irrigation. One counterexample is urban China, where drinking water can optionally be delivered by a separate tap.

BasicsThroughout most of the world, the most common contamination of raw water sources is from human sewage and in particular human faecal pathogens and parasites. In 2006, waterborne diseases were estimated to cause 1.8 million deaths each year while about 1.1 billion people lacked proper drinking water.

It is clear that people in the developing world need to have access to good quality water in sufficient quantity, water purification technology and availability and distribution systems for water. In many parts of the world the only sources of water are from small streams often directly contaminated by sewage.

Most water requires some type of treatment before use, even water from deep wells or springs. The extent of treatment depends on the source of the water. Appropriate technology options in water treatment include both community-scale and household-scale point-of-use (POU) designs.

A way to kill microbial pathogenic agents in emergency when conventional treatment systems have been compromised is to heat water to a rolling boil but this requires abundant sources of fuel, can be very onerous on consumers, especially where it is difficult to store boiled water in sterile conditions and is not a reliable way to kill some encysted parasites such as Cryptosporidium or the bacterium Clostridium. Other techniques, such as filtration, chemical disinfection, and exposure to ultraviolet radiation (including solar UV) have been demonstrated in an array of randomized control trials to significantly reduce levels of water-borne disease among users in low-income countries, but these suffer from the same problems as boiling methods.


Parameters for drinking water quality typically fall under two categories: chemical/physical and microbiological. Chemical/physical parameters include heavy metals, trace organic compounds, total suspended solids (TSS), and turbidity. Microbiological parameters include Coliform bacteria, E. coli, and specific pathogenic species of bacteria (such as cholera-causing Vibrio cholerae), viruses, and protozoan parasites.

Although some 70% of the Earth's surface is covered by water much of this is saline. However freshwater is available in almost all populated areas of the earth although it may be expensive to access the water and the supply may not always be sustainable. Sources where water may be obtained include:

* ground sources such as groundwater, hyporheic zones and aquifers.* precipitation which includes rain, hail, snow, fog, etc.* surface water such as rivers, streams, glaciers* biological sources such as plants.* the sea through desalination

Spring water, a natural resource from which much bottled water comes, is generally imbued with minerals.Tap water, delivered by domestic water systems in developed nations, refers to water piped to homes through a tap. All of these forms of water are commonly drunk, often purified through filtration.

The most efficient way to transport and deliver potable water is through pipes. However, this can require significant capital investment in providing the infrastructure. Systems with high operating costs may fall into disrepair in both developed and undeveloped countries. The cost to replace the deteriorating water and sanitation infrastructure of industrialized countries may be as high as $200 billion a year. Leakage of untreated and treated water from pipes reduces access to water. Leakage rates of 50% are not uncommon in urban systems

Because of the high initial investments, many less wealthy nations cannot afford to develop or sustain appropriate infrastructure and as a consequence people in these areas may pay a much higher percentage of their income on water. 2003 statistics from El Salvador, for example, indicate that the poorest 20% of households spend more than 10% of their total income on water. In the United Kingdom authorities define spending of more than 3% of one's income on water as a hardship.

The Millennium Development Goal

The Millennium Development Goal of halving the proportion of people without access to safe drinking water between 1990 and 2015 will probably be reached. Although some countries still face enormous challenges.

Rural communities are the furthest from meeting the 2015 MDGs drinking water target. Globally only 27% of the rural population has water piped directly to their home and 24% rely on unimproved sources. Of the 884 million people without access to an improved water source, 746 million people (84%) live in rural areas. Sub-Saharan Africa has made the least progress in improved water sources since 1990, improving only 9% to 2006. In contrast, the Eastern Asian region saw a dramatic drop from 45% to 9% reliance on unimproved water in the same time period

One of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) set by the UN includes environmental sustainability. In 2004, only forty-two percent of people in rural areas had access to clean water.

-Solar water disinfection is a low-cost method of purifying water that can often be implemented with locally available materials.-Unlike methods that rely on firewood, it has low impact on the environment.-The Global Framework for Action (GF4A) is an organization that brings together stakeholders, national governments, donors and NGOs (such as Water aid) to define manageable targets and deadlines. 23 Countries are off-track to meet the MDG goals for improved water availability.

However, not all efforts to increase availability of safe drinking water have been effective, and some have been damaging. The 1980s was declared the International Decade of water by the UN. However, the assumption was made that groundwater is inherently safer than water from rivers, ponds and canals. While instances of cholera, typhoid and diarrhea were reduced toxic level of fluoride were found. Borehole wells were either not tested or not tested thoroughly. Fluoride slowly dissolved from the granite rocks underneath India and slowly poisoned the population, particularly evident in the bone deformations of children. Further, in Bangladesh, it is estimated that half of the countries 12 million tube wells have unacceptable levels of arsenic due to the wells not being dug deep enough (past 100 M). The Bangladeshi government had spent less than $7 million of the 34 million allocated for solving the problem by the World Bank in 1998. Natural arsenic poisoning is a global threat, 140 million people affected in 70 countries on all continents.

These examples illustrate the need to examine each location on a case by case basis and not assume what works in one area will work in another.


U4 - Problems with defining a stateThere is some disagreement about the actual number of sovereign states. Among places that test the definition of a state are Korea, China, and Western Sahara (Sahrawi Republic).

Korea: One State or Two?

A colony of Japan for many years, Korea was divided into two occupation zones by the United States and former Soviet Union after they defeated Japan in World War II. The country was divided into northern and southern sections along 38degrees north latitude. This division of these zones became permanent in the late 1940’s.


The new government of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (North Korea) then invaded the Republic of Korea (South Korea) in 1950, touching off a three-year war that ended with a cease-fire line near the 38th parallel. Although this is the case we see that these two Korean governments are committed to reunited the country into one sovereign state. One step to this was to allow visit of families separated for a half century by the division, and for increased economic cooperation.

However, progress toward reconciliation was halted by North Korea’s decision to build nuclear weapons even though the country lacked the ability to provide its citizens with food, electricity, and other basic needs. Meanwhile, in 1992, North Korea and South Korea were admitted to the United Nations as separate countries.

China and Taiwan: One State or Two?

According to China’s government officials, Taiwan is not a separate sovereign state but is a part of China. Until 1999 the government of Taiwan agreed.

This confusing situation arose from a civil war between the Nationalists and the Communists in China during the late 1940’s. After losing, the nationalist leaders fled to the island of Taiwan and proclaimed that they were still the legitimate rulers of the entire country of China. At the end the Nationalist argued that at least they could continue to govern one island of the country.

Taiwan’s president announced in 1999 that Taiwan would also regard itself as a sovereign independent state, but the government of China viewed that announcement as a dangerous departure from the long-standing arrangement between the two. This was a problem for the United States officials back then because they wanted to know who constituted the legitimate government of China. The United States supported the Nationalist during the civil war and the United States continued to regard the Nationalists as the official government of China until 1971., when the U.S. policy finally changed, and the United Nations voted to transfer China’s seat from the Nationalists to the Communists.

In conclusion Taiwan is now the most populous state not in the United Nations.

Western Sahara (Sahrawi Republic)

The Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, also known as Western Sahara, is considered by most African countries as a sovereign state on the continent’s west coast between Morocco and Mauritania. Morocco, however, claims the territory, and to prove it has built a 3,000-kilometer wall around the territory to keep out rebels.

Spain controlled the territory until withdrawing in 1976. An independent Sahrawi Republic was declared by the Polisario Front and recognized by most African countries, but Morocco and Mauritania annexed the northern and southern portions, respectively. Three years later Mauritania withdrew and Morocco claimed the entire territory.

Overall Morocco controls most of the populated areas, but the Polisario Front operates in the vast sparsely inhabited deserts, especially the one-fifth of the territory that lies east of Morocco’s wall. Morocco and Polisario Front signed a cease-fire in 1991, which is supervised by United Nations peacekeeping forces. The UN has also tried to hold a referendum for the residents of Western Sahara to decide whether they want independence or want to continue to be part of Morocco, but it has been repeatedly postponed.

Meanwhile, two cities in Morocco-Ceuta and Melilla- are controlled by Spain. 70,000 residents in Ceuta and 60,000 residents of Melilla were given limited autonomy, in 1994 but they still favor Spain in most cases.


U4 - Russia and Multi-National States

The image above shows the percentage of population that is ethnically Russian

Multieithnic states- states that have many ethnicities. The U.S. is multiethnic but we all consider ourselves to be of one nationality.

Mutlinational state- some countries, on the other hand are multiethnic but the differing ethnic groups want self-determination in some form which makes them nations and now this country is multinational. Russia (formerly the USSR) is perhaps the largest example of this.

Breaking apart USSRWhen the USSR fell at the end of the cold war, many of the nations broke off and formed their own countries- three Baltic countries of Estonia Latvia and Lithuania


- three in eastern Europe: Belarus, Moldova, and Ukraine-5 central Asian Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan-three in the Caucasus: Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia-and then Russia

Each one of these new countries formed because these were areas filled with people who felt ethnically different from Russians and who wanted self-determination (hence they were nations).

Russia is multinationalEven with all of these breakaways, Russia is still the largest multinational state.-Russia officially recognizes 39 nationalities-20 percent of the countries population is non-Russian

ChechnyaAfter the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the area where the Chechen, a group of ethnically linked Sunni Muslims, lived tried to break away.

After two wars, they are still part of Russia

Russian federal control was restored during the Second Chechen War. Since then there has been a systematic reconstruction and rebuilding process, though sporadic fighting continues in the mountains and southern regions of the republic.

Other Examples of Multinational States

United Kingdom- In addition to the area that has traditionally been England, this state contains Wales and the Welsh people, Scotland which was made part of England in the 16-1700s and northern Ireland which is the last remnant of British

control over Ireland (they had conquered all of Ireland earlier). Note: each of these areas have their own soccer teams in the World Cup.

Canada Canada contains many provinces some of which want break away. Quebec is the main example of this. The Quebecois, French Canadians, feel themselves to be culturally different from the rest of Canada. It is the only Canadian province with a predominantly French-speaking population and the only one whose sole official language is French at the provincial level. They even made laws to reinforce their language in their province. At one time, they even made it law that only French could be seen from the street scape.

About 40% of Quebecers support the idea of either full sovereignty (completely separating

from Canada and forming an independent state) or of sovereignty-association with the rest of Canada, which would entail the sharing of some institutional and governmental responsibilities with the federal government in a manner similar to how the European Union shares a common currency and various other services.

SpainDistinct cultural groups within Spain include the Basques, Catalans, Galicians and Castilians, between others.

African CountriesMany of the states in Africa have many ethnic groups (tribalism). This happened in part because the boundaries were drawn by the Europeans at the Berlin Conference. In some countries, the tribal, ethnic differences go along with religious differences and can be a source of conflict.

Nigeria is a classic example of an African country with several tribes, differing religions and ethnic tension created as a

result of this.

Note: the differing languages correlate to differing tribes

Note: Sharia law is a religious interpretation of the laws according to the Islamic religion


U4 - State Shapes

Fragmented States2 types: those separated by water, and those separated by other countriesContain several discontinuous pieces of territoryMakes communication difficultMore difficult for people in remote areas to integrate with rest of stateCan encourage national integration when people migrate from sparsely populated areas to more densely populated areasMay have many resourcesExample: Fiji, Indonesia

Nations such as Indonesia is an example.Also known as an archipelagic state.Difficult to govern a country composed of islands because direct communication can be hindered due to the


obstacles standing in the way between the areas.Also difficult to fend off from enemy states due to the vast amounts of islands that a state may consist of.Denmark and the Philippines are also archipelagic countries separated by water.

Elongated StatesShape is long and narrowAt risk of poor communication as not all areas might have access to capitalDiversity in climate and environmentAreas at the extreme ends might be isolated from the capital (usually in center)Example: Italy, Chile, Malawi

Long and narrow shapeMay suffer from poor internal communication because not every region may have access to the capital.For example, if the capital were to be in the middle of an elongated state that stretches mostly north and south, then parts of the state that are east and west of the capital would receive communication and affects of power faster than the ends of the state that are north and south of the capital because the north and south ends are farther away from the capital than the east and west ends.Ex) Chile, lying on the coast of South America. A less extreme example is Italy which extends more than 700 miles from northwest to southeast.

Compact StatesNodal shape, where distance from center does not vary significantlyIdeal shape is a circleUsually benefits from better transportation and communicationIs as likely as any country to experience war

A compact state with a circular shape is the easiest to manage.Usually has the central government closer to the center of the state in order to have an equal distance to every part of the state. Mathematically, if the central government is positioned in the middle of the state, then the distance from the center to the edges (radius) is the same for every part of the edge; therefore, the power of the government is evenly distributed.Ex) Belgium is an excellent example because of the cultural division between Flanders and Wallonia within Belgium.Easier to defend than states of other shapes.Example: Poland, Kenya

Perforated StatesA state that completely surrounds another state: South AfricaCountry that is surrounded (Lesotho), depends almost entirely on the surrounding country for transportation and the import/export of goodsExample: Italy, South Africa

Ex) South Africa, which completely surrounds Lesotho.The country that is “landlocking” another countryThe surrounded nation can only be reached by going through one country.If there is hostility between the two nations, access to the surrounded nation can be difficult.Italy is also a perforated state.

Prorupted StatesShape: Compact state with a projecting territoryProjecting territory may help give country a resource or access to seaCan separate two states to keep them sharing a boundary

The projecting territory of Democratic Republic of Congo was made by the Belgians to give the state, then a colony of Belgium, access to the Atlantic OceanExample: Democratic Republic of Congo, Thailand

Landlocked Lacks a direct outlet to the sea because completely surrounded by other countries.Direct access to ocean is critical because it facilitates internal trade, so it must depend on other countries for access. So if the surrounding countries are at war with the landlocked country, then the landlocked country would have a great difficulty in trading goods.Ex) Botswana is 1 of 14 African states that are landlocked.


U4 - Supranationalism

Supranationalism is an entity into which three or more states form an association and form an administrative structure for mutual benefit of shared goals. Also known as supernationalism.

These goals could be-economic-military-political

Origin as a legal conceptThe term 'supranational' occurs in an international treaty for the first time (twice) in the Treaty of Paris, 18 April 1951. This new legal term defined the Community method in creating the European Coal and Steel Community and the beginning of the democratic re-organization of Europe. The term 'supranational' is sometimes used in a loose, undefined sense in other contexts, sometimes as a substitute for international, transnational or global. In the treaty it relates to an innovatory democratic and legal concept.

Economic ExamplesEUWTONAFTA-deal with free trade, custom unions, free trade zones, tariffs and quotas

Political ExamplesUNOASCIS

Military ExamplesNATO

How does Supranationalism affect the state:-the EU is arguably the most powerful of the supranational organizations with power over states-lessons the power of a state/country over its own affairs-lessons the power of a state/country over its own economic well being-increases interdependence of states/countries upon one and another-increases the globalization processes

Other Examples:OAS -The Organization of American States (OAS, or, as it is known in the three other official languages, OEA) is an international organization, headquartered in Washington, D.C., United States. Its members are the thirty-five independent states of the Americas.In the words of Article 1 of the Charter, the goal of the member nations in creating the OAS was "to achieve an order of peace and justice, to promote their solidarity, to strengthen their collaboration, and to defend their sovereignty, their territorial integrity, and their independence."

AU The African Union (abbreviated AU in English, and UA in its other official languages) is an intergovernmental organization consisting of 53 African states.Among the objectives of the AU's leading institutions, are to accelerate the political and socio-economic integration of the continent; to promote and defend African common positions on issues of interest to the continent and its peoples; to achieve peace and security in Africa; and to promote democratic institutions, good governance and human rights.

Commonwealth The Commonwealth of Nations, normally referred to as the Commonwealth and previously as the British Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organisation of fifty-four independent member states. All but two of these countries were formerly part of the British Empire.The member states co-operate within a framework of common values and goals as outlined in the Singapore Declaration. These include the promotion of democracy, human rights, good governance, the rule of law, individual liberty, egalitarianism, free trade, multilateralism and world peace.The Commonwealth's objectives were first outlined in the 1971 Singapore Declaration, which committed the Commonwealth to the institution of world peace; promotion of representative democracy and individual liberty; the pursuit of equality and opposition to racism; the fight against poverty, ignorance, and disease; and free trade.


U4 - Sustainable Development

Definition and Basics:Sustainable development is “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of


future generations to meet their own needs,” according to the United Nations (UN). Through sustainable development, humans can improve their quality of life while protecting Earth’s resources for the benefit of future generations.

The achievement of sustainable development requires the integration of its economic, environmental and social components at all levels. This is facilitated by continuous dialogue and action in global partnership, focusing on key sustainable development issues: social and economic, natural resource management, stakeholders, means of implementation and regional dimensions.

Brundtland ReportThe concept of sustainable development is based on limiting the use of renewable resources to the level at which the environment can continue to supply them indefinitely. The amount of timber cut down in a forest or the number of fish removed from a body of water can be controlled at a level that does not reduce future supplies. The UN’s “sustainable development” was defined in this 1987 Brundtland Report, named for the World Commission on Environment and Development’s chair, Gro Harlem Bruntland, former Prime Minister of Norway. Titled Our Common Future, the Bruntland Report was a landmark in recognizing sustainable development as a combination of environmental and economic elements. The Bruntland Report argued that sustainable development had to recognize the importance of economic and growth while conserving natural resources. Environmental protection, economic growth, and social equity are linked because economic development aimed at reducing poverty can at the same time threaten the environment. Plans to protect the environment would fail unless LDC’s could promote economic growth in order to meet basic needs of employment, food, energy, water, and sanitation.

One of the main activities of the Division for Sustainable Development has been supporting the elaboration of a 10-year framework of programmers on sustainable consumption and production, as called for by the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation, agreed at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002. The goals are to Goals to assist countries in their efforts to green their economies, to help corporations develop greener business models, and to encourage consumers to adopt more sustainable lifestyles. To reach these goals the UN division for sustainable development analyses current trends, policy options and practical measures that foster the transition to more sustainable patterns of production and consumption by governments, business and consumers, organizes multi-stakeholder international meetings to share best practices and promote partnerships, and supports capacity building efforts for the application of policy toolkits on sustainable consumption and production.The Bruntland Report was as optimistic that environmental protection could be protection could be promoted at the same time as economic growth and social equity. By gradually changing development practices, economic growth, and social equity can be made compatible with protecting the environment and conserving resources. Planning for development involves consideration of many more environmental and social issues today that was the case in the past.

Critics-on one side argue that resources will change and be used differently over time so there is no need to worry about depletion-on another side argue that there is no way to grow sustainably because we are at are limit for using productive land-some also state that on a planet where 20% of the population consumes 80% of the natural resources, a sustainable development cannot be possible for this 20%-some criticize the term sustainable development, stating that the term is too vague.-some criticize it and say it will hurt the local economies-all of them agree that we need to have more international cooperation to truly solve the problem (critics and proponents)http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/susdevtopics/sdt_index.shtml

The term sustainability meansSustainability is the capacity to endure. In ecology, the word describes how biological systems remain diverse and productive over time. Long-lived and healthy wetlands and forests are examples of sustainable biological systems. For humans, sustainability is the potential for long-term maintenance of well being, which has environmental, economic, and social dimensions

http://lewishistoricalsociety.com/wiki2011/United%20Nations%20on%20Sustainable%20Development

Moving towards sustainability is also a social challenge that entails international and national law, urban planning and transport, local and individual lifestyles and ethical consumerism.

Environmental management and sustainability

Atmosphere: For issues like acid rain global warming, smog, depletion of the ozone layer and air pollution of all sorts

Water: Increasing urbanization pollutes clean water supplies and much of the world still does not have access to clean, safe water. Greater emphasis is now being placed on the improved management of water and how global warming impacts ocean currents.

Land use: Loss of biodiversity stems largely from the habitat loss and fragmentation produced by the human appropriation of land for development, forestry and agriculture (deforestation)

Food is essential to life and feeding more than six billion human bodies takes a heavy toll on the Earth’s resources. This begins with the appropriation of about 38% of the Earth’s land surface and about 20% of its net primary productivity. Added to this are the resource-hungry activities of industrial agribusiness – everything from the crop need for irrigation water, synthetic fertilizers and pesticides to the resource costs of food packaging, transport (now a major part of global trade) and retail. Environmental problems associated with industrial agriculture and agribusiness are now being addressed through such movements as sustainable agriculture, organic farming and more sustainable business practices.

Note: with some fish species, there are problems with overfishing and depletion of fish as a resource. Sustainable seafood is seafood from either fished or farmed sources that can maintain or increase production in the future without jeopardizing the ecosystems.

Human Consumption: The more we consume, the more we use resources, ship materials using gas to do it and the more we likely throw out materials and create waste.

Energy: Most energy is gotten through fossil fuels like coal and oil. In 2007 climate scientists of the IPCC concluded that there was at least a 90% probability that atmospheric increase in CO2 was human-induced, mostly as a result of fossil fuel emissions but, to a lesser extent from changes in land use. Stabilizing the world’s climate will require high-income countries to reduce their emissions by 60–90% over 2006 levels by 2050. Otherwise global warming will cause climate change.


U4 - Taliban and al Qaeda and State Support

Do their attacks confirm a theory of Samuel Huntington's that most of our new conflicts will be clashes between cultures and cultural viewpoints (i.e. Yugoslavia, Rwanda, Sept. 11th)

Within this article, Afghanistan and Iran are noted as countries that offered support for terrorism

Alternatively spelled al-Qaida and sometimes al-Qa'ida, is an Islamist group founded sometime between August 1988 and late 1989. It operates as a network comprising both a multinational, stateless arm and a fundamentalist Sunni movement calling for global jihad (holy war).Al-Qaeda has attacked civilian and military targets in various countries, most notably, the September 11 attacks on New York City and Washington, D.C. in 2001. The US government responded by launching the War on Terror.

Characteristic techniques include suicide attacks and simultaneous bombings of different targets. Activities ascribed to it may involve members of the movement, who have taken a pledge of loyalty to Osama bin Laden.Al-Qaeda ideologues envision a complete break from the foreign influences in Muslim countries.

Throughout the 1990s, a new force began to emerge. The origins of the Taliban (literally "students") lay in the children of Afghanistan, many of them orphaned by the war, and many of whom had been educated in the rapidly expanding network of Islamic schools (madrassas) either in Kandahar or in the refugee camps on the Afghan-Pakistani border.

Afghanistan with previously established connections between the groups, administered with a shared militancy, and largely isolated from American political influence and military power provided a perfect location for al-Qaeda to relocate its headquarters. Al-Qaeda enjoyed the Taliban's protection and a measure of legitimacy as part of their Ministry of Defense.

At the same time, al-Qaeda ideologues instructed the network's recruiters to look for Jihadi international, Muslims who believed that jihad must be fought on a global level. The concept of a "global Salafi jihad" had been around since at least


the early 1980s. Several groups had formed for the explicit purpose of driving non-Muslims out of every Muslim land, at the same time and with maximum carnage. This was, however, a fundamentally defensive strategy.

FatwasIn 1996, al-Qaeda announced its jihad to expel foreign troops and interests from what they considered Islamic lands. Bin Laden issued a fatwa,66 which amounted to a public declaration of war against the United States of America and any of its allies, and began to refocus al-Qaeda's resources towards large-scale, propagandist strikes. Also occurring on June 25, 1996, was the bombing of the Khobar towers, located in Khobar, Saudi Arabia.On February 23, 1998, Osama bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri, a leader of Egyptian Islamic Jihad, along with three other Islamist leaders, co-signed and issued a fatwa (binding religious edict) calling on Muslims to kill Americans and their allies where they can, when they can. Under the banner of the World Islamic Front for Combat Against the Jews and Crusaders they declared:

September 11 attacksThe September 11 attacks were the most devastating terrorist acts in American history, killing approximately 3,000 people. Two commercial airliners were deliberately flown into the World Trade Center towers, a third into The Pentagon, and a fourth, originally intended to target the United States Capitol, crashed in Pennsylvania.The attacks were conducted by al-Qaeda, acting in accord with the 1998 fatwa issued against the United States and its allies by military forces under the command of bin LadenMessages issued by bin Laden after September 11, 2001, praised the attacks, and explained their motivation while denying any involvement. Bin Laden legitimized the attacks by identifying grievances felt by both mainstream and Islamist Muslims, such as the general perception that the United States was actively oppressing Muslims.

Bin Laden asserted that America was massacring Muslims in 'Palestine, Chechnya, Kashmir and Iraq' and that Muslims should retain the 'right to attack in reprisal'. He also claimed the 9/11 attacks were not targeted at women and children, but 'America's icons of military and economic power'.

War on TerrorismIn the immediate aftermath of the attacks, the United States government decided to respond militarily, and began to prepare its armed forces to overthrow the Taliban regime it believed was harboring al-Qaeda. Before the United States attacked, it offered Taliban leader Mullah Omar a chance to surrender bin Laden and his top associates. The first forces to be inserted into Afghanistan were Paramilitary Officers from the CIA's elite Special Activities Division (SAD).

The Taliban offered to turn over bin Laden to a neutral country for trial if the United States would provide evidence of bin Laden's complicity in the attacks. U.S. President George W. Bush responded by saying: "We know he's guilty. Turn him over", and British Prime Minister Tony Blair warned the Taliban regime: "Surrender bin Laden, or surrender power".Soon thereafter the United States and its allies invaded Afghanistan, and together with the Afghan Northern Alliance removed the Taliban government in the war in Afghanistan.U.S. troops in Afghanistan

As a result of the United States using its special forces and providing air support for the Northern Alliance ground forces, both Taliban and al-Qaeda training camps were destroyed, and much of the operating structure of al-Qaeda is believed to have been disrupted.

The TalibanThe Taliban, alternative spelling Taleban, (meaning "students") is a hanafi Islamist political group that governed Afghanistan from 1996 until it was overthrown in late 2001. It has regrouped since 2004 and revived as a strong insurgency movement governing mainly local Pashtun areas, and fighting a guerrilla war against the governments of Afghanistan, Pakistan, and the NATO-led International Security Assistance Force (ISAF). The Taliban movement is a tribal confederacy. It operates in Afghanistan and Pakistan.

While in power, the Taliban enforced one of the strictest interpretations of Sharia law ever seen in the Muslim world, and


became notorious internationally for their treatment of women. Women were forced to wear the burqa in public. They were allowed neither to work nor to be educated after the age of eight, and until then were permitted only to study the Qur'an. They were not allowed to be treated by male doctors unless accompanied by a male chaperon, which led to illnesses remaining untreated. They faced public flogging in the street, and public execution for violations of the Taliban's laws. The Taliban's view of Islam is extremely strict and anti-modern ideology.

Under the Taliban regime, Sharia law was interpreted to forbid a wide variety of previously lawful activities in Afghanistan. One Taliban list of prohibitions included:pork, pig, pig oil, anything made from human hair, satellite dishes, cinematography, and equipment that produces the joy of music, pool tables, chess, masks, alcohol, tapes, computers, VCRs, television, anything that propagates sex and is full of music, wine, lobster, nail polish, firecrackers, statues, sewing catalogs, pictures, Christmas cards.

They also prohibited employment, education, and sports for women, dancing, clapping during sports events, kite flying, and depictions of living things, whether drawings, paintings, photographs, stuffed animals, or dolls. Men were required to have a beard longer than a fist placed at the base of the chin. Conversely, they had to wear their head hair short. Men were also required to wear a head covering.Many of these activities were hitherto lawful in Afghanistan. Critics complained that most Afghans followed a different, less strict, and less intrusive interpretation of Islam. The Taliban did not eschew all traditional popular practices. For example, they did not destroy the graves of Sufi pirs (holy men), and emphasized dreams as a means of revelation.

Punishment was severe. Theft was punished by the amputation of a hand, rape and murder by public execution, and married adulterers were stoned to death. In Kabul, punishments including executions were carried out in front of crowds in the city's soccer stadium. Rules were issued by the Ministry for the Promotion of Virtue and Suppression of Vice (PVSV), and enforced by its "religious police", importing that Wahhabi concept.

Bamyan BuddhasDestruction of Bamyan Buddha statues by the Taliban

In 1999, Omar issued a decree protecting the Buddha statues at Bamyan, two 6th century monumental statues of standing buddhas carved into the side of a cliff in the Bamyan valley in the Hazarajat region of central Afghanistan, because Afghanistan had no Buddhists, implying idolatry would not be a problem. But in March 2001 the statues were destroyed by the Taliban following a decree stating, "all the statues around Afghanistan must be destroyed."

Summary-al-Qaeda represents religious extremism-today, they are a loose organization with cells (small groups) throughout the world.-their attacks confirm a theory of Samuel Huntington's that most of our new conflicts will be clashes between cultures and

cultural viewpoints (i.e. Yugoslavia, Rwanda, Sept. 11th)-it is believed that the leadership of al-Qaeda is hiding out in Pakistan which is an LDC with a rural area that the

government lacks control over. Pakistan is very tribal like Afghanistan and Iraq and is very divided along tribal lines making it difficult to run for their leadership.

-Iraq was invaded after Afghanistan with the fear being that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) and connections to al-Qaeda. Neither accusations were proved to any degree.

-today, Iran is on its way to gaining nuclear weapons and (being Shiite Muslims support their Shiite allies in Iraq and are also believed to have supported terrorist organizations against Israel. The US and Iran have a history of antagonism going back to the 1970s when the US attempted to overthrow Iran's leadership.


U4 - Unitary, Federal, Nation, Multinational, Supranational, Nation states and Devolution Unitary-Government system-Central government possesses most of the authority-Uniformly applied-Tends to be dictatorship/totalitarianism-France is a unitary government but is democratic-Power is centrally concentrated-Little to no provincial authority-Major decisions are made by the central government-Tends to go along with nation-state-A unitary state is a country whose three organs of state are governed as one single unit.-In a unitary state, any sub-governmental units can be created or abolished, and have their powers varied, by the

central government.

Federal Government-Goes along with a multi-national state-Power is diffused-Gives more power to local territories/ provinces to make rules/laws

Nation vs. Multinational StateNation-State-The nation-state is a certain form of state that derives its legitimacy from serving as a sovereign entity for a nation

as a sovereign territorial unit.-a specific form of state, which exists to provide a sovereign territory for a particular nation and which derives its

legitimacy from that function.-Minimizes conflict and makes for stronger states- On the other hand, there are strong states with sizeable minorities-a single nation comprises the bulk of the population-The term "nation-state" implies that the two geographically coincide, and this distinguishes the nation state from

the other types of state, which historically preceded it.-Has different attitudes to their territory and other territory-has defined borders and territories-cannot exist when there is a defined ethnic and cultural group that exists without territorial borders.

Multinational State-A state in which consists of two or more ethnically distinct nations of significant size-Contrast with nation-state-Majority of population is not ethnically homogenous-Examples: UK of England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland

Supranationalism -Definition: The tendency for states to give up political power to a higher authority in pursuit of common

objectives. (Political, Economic, Military, Environmentally)- Method of decision-making in multi-national political communities, wherein power is transferred to an authority

broader than governments of member states.- A supranational authority, by definition, can have some independence from member state governments,

although not as much independence as with federal governments.-Organizations that take part in supranationalism: EU, EEC, Common market, Benelux, NAFTA, ASEAN, UN, NATO,

Warsaw Pact, League of Nations, Arab League, SEATO, OAS, CARICOM, ACS, Andean Group, MERCOSUR, AU, ECOWAS, APEC, CIS, OPEC, NORDEN, Central American Common Market

-The USSR, East and West Germany, and the United Kingdom are NOT supranationalist organizations.-Supranationalism has had a great effect on most European countries. Some of the changes that have been

brought uponThese countries are as follows:1. Larger markets (greater trade, free trade, reduced tariffs, greater economic property)2. Greater international influence (greater political/economic power, greater ability to compete To compete with

economies of other countries3. Open borders (labor, tourists)4. Common Currency5. Common policy {resources, agriculture, economic, Environment, trade, military, Loss of controls over individual

policy-Another method of decision-making in international organizations is intergovernmental, in which state

governments play a more prominent role.

Devolution-Definition: The process whereby regions within a state demand and gain political strength and growing autonomy

at the expense of the central government.-The process in which sub-government units and/or national or regional parliaments are created by a central

government.- The statutory granting of powers from the central government of a state to government at a subnational level,

such as a regional, local, or state level.- The devolution can be mainly financial, e.g. giving areas a budget which was formerly administered by central

government.-The breakup of a state, which is the process of balkanization.-Europe is one of the places that have changed through devolution as well. The results were as follows:1. Formation of new states/governments2. More power to regions3. Political instability (civil war, fighting, hostility, conflict, etc.)4. Mass migration

-Examples of devolution:1. Balkanization in Yugoslavia/ Balkans2. Demand for greater autonomy (required I.D. of internal units or groups) in countries within the U.K., Belgium, Canada, Spain, Italy, France, U.S., India, and Pakistan.


U4 - United Nations

The United Nations Organization (UNO) or simply United Nations (UN) is an international organization / supranational organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and the achieving of world peace. The UN was founded in 1945 after World War II to replace the League of Nations, to stop wars between countries, and to provide a platform for dialogue. It contains multiple subsidiary organizations to carry out its missions.

There are currently 192 member states, including nearly every sovereign state in the world. From its offices around the world, the UN and its specialized agencies decide on substantive and administrative issues in regular meetings held throughout the year.

The organization has six principal organs: -the General Assembly (the main deliberative assembly);-the Security Council (for deciding certain resolutions for peace and security);-the Economic and Social Council (for assisting in promoting international economic and social cooperation and development);-the Secretariat (for providing studies, information, and facilities needed by the UN);-the International Court of Justice (the primary judicial organ);-and the United Nations Trusteeship Council (which is currently inactive).

Other prominent UN System agencies include -the World Health Organization (WHO), the World Food Programme (WFP)-and United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF).

The UN's most visible public figure is the Secretary-General, currently Ban Ki-moon of South Korea


General AssemblyThe General Assembly is the main deliberative assembly of the United Nations. Composed of all United Nations member states, the assembly meets in regular yearly sessions under a president elected from among the member states. Over a two-week period at the start of each session, all members have the opportunity to address the assembly. Traditionally, the Secretary-General makes the first statement, followed by the president of the assembly. The first session was convened on 10 January 1946 in the Westminster Central Hall in London and included representatives of 51 nations.

When the General Assembly votes on important questions, a two-thirds majority of those present and voting is required. Examples of important questions include: recommendations on peace and security; election of members to organs; admission, suspension, and expulsion of members; and, budgetary matters. All other questions are decided by majority vote. Each member country has one vote. Apart from approval of budgetary matters, resolutions are not binding on the members. The Assembly may make recommendations on any matters within the scope of the UN, except matters of peace and security that are under Security Council consideration.

Security CouncilThe Security Council is charged with maintaining peace and security among countries. While other organs of the United Nations can only make 'recommendations' to member governments, the Security Council has the power to make binding decisions that member governments have agreed to carry out, under the terms of Charter Article 25.7 The decisions of the Council are known as United Nations Security Council resolutions.

The Security Council is made up of 15 member states, consisting of 5 permanent members – China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States – and 10 non-permanent members. The five permanent members hold veto power over substantive but not procedural resolutions allowing a permanent member to block adoption but not to block the debate of a resolution unacceptable to it.

SecretariatThe United Nations Secretariat is headed by the Secretary-General, assisted by a staff of international civil servants worldwide. It provides studies, information, and facilities needed by United Nations bodies for their meetings.

Secretary-GeneralThe Secretariat is headed by the Secretary-General, who acts as the de facto spokesman and leader of the UN

International Court of JusticePeace Palace, seat of the International Court of Justice at The Hague, Netherlands.The International Court of Justice (ICJ), located in The Hague, Netherlands, is the primary judicial organ of the United Nations. This court brings people to justice at an international level. The US does not particpate in this program. Established in 1945 by the United Nations Charter, the Court began work in 1946 as the successor to the Permanent Court of International Justice. The Statute of the International Court of Justice, similar to that of its predecessor, is the main constitutional document constituting and regulating the Court.

Peacekeeping and securityUN peacekeeping missions. Dark blue regions indicate current missions , while light blue regions represent former missions.The UN, after approval by the Security Council, sends peacekeepers to regions where armed conflict has recently ceased or paused to enforce the terms of peace agreements and to discourage combatants from resuming hostilities. Since the UN does not maintain its own military, peacekeeping forces are voluntarily provided by member states of the UN. The forces, also called the "Blue Helmets", who enforce UN accords are awarded United Nations Medals, which are considered international decorations instead of military decorations. The peacekeeping force as a whole received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1988.


Human rights and humanitarian assistanceThe pursuit of human rights was a central reason for creating the UN. World War II atrocities and genocide led to a ready consensus that the new organization must work to prevent any similar tragedies in the future. An early objective was creating a legal framework for considering and acting on complaints about human rights violations. The UN Charter obliges all member nations to promote "universal respect for, and observance of, human rights"

and to take "joint and separate action" to that end. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, though not legally binding, was adopted by the General Assembly in 1948 as a common standard of achievement for all. The Assembly regularly takes up human rights issues.

Social and economic developmentThe UN is involved in supporting development, e.g. by the formulation of the Millennium Development Goals. The UN Development Programme (UNDP) is the largest multilateral source of grant technical assistance in the world. Organizations like the World Health Organization (WHO), UNAIDS, and The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria are leading institutions in the battle against diseases around the world, especially in poor countries. The UN Population Fund is a major provider of reproductive services. It has helped reduce infant and maternal mortality in 100 countries.

WHO Agenda (mainly health related issues):1. Promoting development-During the past decade, health has achieved unprecedented prominence as a key driver of socioeconomic progress2. Fostering health security-Shared vulnerability to health security threats demands collective action.3. Strengthening health systems-For health improvement to operate as a poverty-reduction strategy, health services must reach poor and underserved populations.4. Harnessing research, information and evidence-Evidence provides the foundation for setting priorities, defining strategies, and measuring results.5. Enhancing partnerships-WHO carries out its work with the support and collaboration of many partners6. Improving performance-WHO participates in ongoing reforms aimed at improving its efficiency and effectiveness

Millennium Development Goals1. eradicate extreme poverty and hunger;2. achieve universal primary education;3. promote gender equality and empower women;4. reduce child mortality;5. improve maternal health;6. combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases;7. ensure environmental sustainability; and8. develop a global partnership for development.


U4 - Water Pollution

Water pollution can simply be defined as the contamination of any specific body of water, rather it to be a river, lake, ocean, or well. As well as these contaminations being absorbed into our atmospheres and being rained out. Through these contaminations they are able to affect and infect all living and non-living organisms within this given area; in means of plants, animals, and microscopic organisms. The main reasons to which these contaminations exists is due to the pollutions emitted from numerous aspects in which affected and are emitted directly to the given body of water, or rather are brought through a stream of events. With these populants, an average of 14, 000 deaths daily are recorded. As well, one of the largest impacted areas is in the LDC’s this is because they are sourced with some of the most pollutant water out there. For instance in China it is said that 90% of their drinking water is safe, which means that even with the large number of residents they face this large shortage of resources. Where in MDC’s the main affects are seen by industrial areas to which the chemicals and such being used are contaminating main water streams.

Categories of Water Pollution-Generally speaking it is shown that both ground water and surface water are studied upon different categories; therefore meaning that within surface area a general two categories are seen. These two categories are point source pollution and non-point source pollution.

* Point source pollutiono When referring to a point source pollution one is referring to a contamination in which comes directly from a given source such as a sewer or pipe. Another example of this type of contamination would be from a storm drain, overflowing in a governmental facility.* Non-point source pollutiono This category refers to the contamination amongst no single source of pollutant, or simply a accumulation. These contaminations can have been brought together over a vast array of areas to which all result in this accumulation of substances. Such an example would be fertilizer from a agricultural plant, mixing with a growth hormone at a dairy farm;


to which this combined substance would form a non-point source pollution.* Ground water pollutiono To which this type of contamination is not as easily categorized yet there is an idea of the means. Simply this is when an underground source of water, such as a well or aquifer, is polluted. A simple example of this would be the spilling of a chemical or oil into an aquifer while one is conducting underground work. This then solution contaminates the local water supply, and potentially spreading this contamination.

Water Pollution SourcesWater-Using Industries- Steel, chemical, paper product, food processing industries are the major water polluters. These industries involve using large amounts of water when manufacturing and they generate a lot of waste water. Food processing industries use water to wash pesticides and chemicals from the fruits and vegetables. Water can also be polluted by industrial accidents, such as petroleum spills from the ocean tankers and leaks from underground tanks at gasoline stations.

Municipal Sewage- Many MDC’s have sewers that carry wastewater from sinks, toilets, and bathtubs to municipal treatment plans. Most of the waste and pollutants are removed from the waste water at these municipal treatment plants. After being treated the clean wastewater is dumped back into the lake and river. On the other hand in LDC’s where they don’t have these water treatment plants, the same waste water is drained into the rivers and lakes.

Agriculture- Farmers spread fertilizers and pesticides on fields to increase agricultural productivity but these chemicals are carried into the local rivers by the irrigation systems or natural run off.

Causes-Generally speaking water populants come from a very large and broad area of resources. To which simply all have one thing in common, which is the ability to contaminate these water sources. Some examples are: organic and inorganic chemicals, pathogens, as well as physical or sensory change. These changes of course meaning the change in a temperature or discoloration. These cause listed, of course are just simple and very generic ideas of sources of pollution; but on a larger scale anything can potentially harm the water supplies. Therefore resulting in the harming of fish and aquatic structures; as well as the deletion of necessary organism within our ecosystem. So next time you pour some down the drain think to yourself, what did I just pour into my environments drinking supply?

Impact on Aquatic LifeThe polluted water that enters into a body of water can harm the aquatic life. Plants and animals in the water need to take in oxygen to survive. The decomposing organic waste that humans dump in the water also needs oxygen to survive. The oxygen consumed by the waste is called the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). If there is a lot of waste in the water, it will use up all of the oxygen and there will be none left for the plants and animals and they will eventually die off. Pollutants like fertilizers and pesticides often runoff into the water and this is where the fish take them in.

If this happens humans cant eat the fish because they are unfit due to the fact they are loaded with pesticides and other pollutants.

Wastewater and DiseaseThe U.S Clean Water Act helped most treatment plants to meet high water-quality standards. The Act resulted in cleaner rivers and lakes in MDC’s. Many LDCs generate less wastewater per person than in MDCs. They have less capacity to clean their waste water. LDCs don’t have water treatment plants so they dump their waste water back into rivers and lakes. In squatter settlements on the edge of rapidly growing cities, running water and sewers may be totally lacking. The untreated water and poor sanitation makes water in LDCs very dangerous. Water borne diseases such as Cholera, typhoid, and dysentery are major causes of death.


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