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(1) Population ecology - investigates the quantitative dynamics of how individuals within a species

interact

(2) carrying capacity - the maximum number of individuals that an area of land can support, usually

determined by their food requirements

(3) reproductive strategies: K-selected species = animals with long gestation periods and few offspring

Have a low biotic potential

Stabilize at or near carrying capacity

Good competitors

r-selected species = animals which reproduce quickly

Have a high biotic potential

Little parental care

(4) survivorship - Type I: late loss of life. Death after middle age. Humans, elephants, etc.

Type II: constant loss of life: hydra, rodents.

Type III: early loss of life. Oysters, dandelions.

(5) Historical Population sizes - Population trend refers to changes over time and can include changes

in ranging behaviour (e.g., distance and route) and distribution, biogeography (e.g., size of population)

and life-history (e.g., birth and death rates). For example, the Ta National Park, Cte dIvoire, thought

to be one of the final strongholds of the endangered West African chimpanzee Pan troglodytes verus

has benefited from long-term research over the years. Surveys conducted in 1989-1990 were repeated

in 2007 to update knowledge on chimpanzee abundance and distribution within this region. The survey

found a significant decrease in chimpanzees in all but three of the 11 sites surveyed in the 17 year

survey gap, a tenth of the total assumed population size (Campbell et al., 2008). The decline was

attributed to a 50% increase in human population growth associated with greater poaching pressure

and a higher deforestation rate, and was exacerbated by civil war.

(6) distribution - the spatial arrangement of organisms within an area. There are three general

patterns of population distribution within a habitat

1) Random dispersion

2) Uniform dispersion

3) Clumping

(7) fertility rates - the average number of children women has in her life

(8) growth rates the rate of increase in size per year

(9) doubling time - The time necessary for a quantity to double.

(10) Demographic transitions - models of economic and cultural change to explain the declining death

and birth rates in industrializing nations

Stage 1Preindustrial, slow growth, birth rate high, death rate high

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Stage 2 Transitional, rapid growth, high birth rate, low death rate

Stage 3 Industrial, slow growth, birth rates drop, death rates drop

Stage 4Postindustrial, growth levels and declines, birth rate falls below death rate

(11) Age structure diagrams - Age structure affects future population size; Having many individuals in

young age groups results in high reproduction and rapid population growth

(12) Strategies for sustainability - how to decrease population growth; more disease/death than birth

(13) case studies:

China Case Studies

-Reduced birthrate from 5.7 to 1.8 children per family

-Incentives: Extra food, full medical care, salary bonuses

-Couples encouraged to post pone marrage and have 1 child

-Couples are punished for unapproved pregnancies (Ex. Fines, food, jobs, loans, etc.)

-Free sterilization, abortion, birth control provided by government

-Dictatorship

Thailand Case Studies

-Decreased growth rate from 3.2% to 1.4%

-Family planning supported by government

-Constitutional monarch

-Increase women literacy rate and right's

(14) national policies - China's One-Child Policy, etc.

(15) hunger - As populations grow the availability of food will drop leading to hunger

(16) disease - Often linked to HIV/AIDS is tuberculosis (TB)?which has been on the increase, even in

developed nations. TB is an airborne infectious disease, but it is both preventable and curable. It

frequently attacks those with compromised immune systems, such as those with AIDS. Similarly,

tuberculosis most often strikes adults during their most productive years, affecting their ability to work

and leading to increased poverty for individuals and countries.

Another serious health problem facing many developing countries is malaria. During the early part of

the 20th century, malaria was responsible for almost 2 million deaths per year, primarily in Asia, Africa,and the Pacific tropics. The discovery of DDT, a pesticide for killing mosquitoes that transmit the

disease, resulted in a remarkable reduction in deaths, and it was hoped that the disease would be

eradicated as a major health threat. However, safety concerns arose and international assistance for

spraying DDT decreased. Malaria now accounts for nearly one million deaths each year, is directly

responsible for one out of five deaths of children in Africa, and is thought to indirectly contribute to

deaths from other diseases.

(17) economic effects - As disease increases the economic impact from the disease becomes larger

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(18) resource use - As more resources are used the habitats the resources were mined from become

decreased

(19) habitat destruction

(20) Energy forms - Mechanical, Chemical, Electrical, Radiant, Thermal, nuclear

(21) power - the rate at which energy is used. The unit of power is the Watt (W), named after JamesWatt, who perfected the steam engine

(22) units

(23) conversions - Though energy can be converted from one form to another, energy cannot be

created or destroyed. This principle is called the "law of conservation of energy." For example, in a

motorcycle, the chemical potential energy of the fuel changes to kinetic energy. In a radio, electricity is

converted into kinetic energy and wave energy (sound).

Machines can be used to convert energy from one form to another. Though ideal machines conserve

the mechanical energy of a system, some of the energy always turns into heat when using a machine.

For example, heat generated by friction is hard to collect and transform into another form of energy. In

this situation, heat energy is usually considered unusable or lost.

(24) laws of thermodynamics - Heat and work are forms of energy transfer. Energy is invariably

conserved, however the internal energy of a closed system may change as heat is transferred into or

out of the system or work is done on or by the system. In real systems work does not always leave the

system. For example, changes in molecular energy (potential energy), are generally considered to

remain within the system. Thermodynamic equilibrium has the greatest entropy amongst the states

accessible to the system. Perpetual motion machines of the second kind are thus impossible. The

entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches zero. The entropy of

a system at absolute zero is typically zero, and in all cases is determined only by the number of

different ground states it has. Specifically, the entropy of a pure crystalline substance at absolute zero

temperature is zero.

(25) history of energy consumption - Energy consumption patterns have changed over the history ofour country as we developed new energy sources and as our uses of energy changed.

Wood (a renewable energy source) served as the preeminent form of energy until the mid- to late-

1800s, even though water mills were important to some early industrial growth. Coal became

dominant in the late 19th century before being overtaken by petroleum products in the middle of the

last century, a time when natural gas usage also rose quickly.

Since the mid 20th century, usage of coal has again increased (mainly as a primary energy source for

electric power generation), and a new form of energynuclear electric powerhas made an increasingly

significant contribution. After a pause in the 1970s, the use of petroleum and natural gas resumed

growth, and the overall pattern of energy usage since the late 20th century has remained fairly stable.

While the Nation's overall energy history is one of significant change as new forms of energy were

developed, the three major fossil fuelspetroleum, natural gas, and coal, which together provided an

average of 87% of total U.S. primary energy use over the past decadehave dominated the U.S. fuelmix for well over 100 years EIA'sAnnual Energy Outlook 2011 (AEO2011) Reference case, which

assumes continuation of current laws, regulations, and policies, projects continued significant reliance

on the three major fossil fuels through at least 2035, when they still provide over three-quarters of the

Nation's overall primary energy supply. In the AEO2011, the total fossil fuel share of energy

consumption decreases from 2009 levels, as renewable energy and nuclear electric power experience

modest growth, and non-hydroelectric renewable energy more than doubles between 2009 and 2035.

Changes in policies could, of course, lead to changes in this projection.

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(26) industrial revolution - Industrialization has resulted in pollution of water, air and soil. Harmful

waste has increased astronomically. All of these problems pose significant threats to both the

environment and to human life.

Populations in industrialized countries moved from rural areas to urban areas. This exacerbated the

effects of rising pollution. The concentrated population and a higher standard of living also produced

larger amounts of waste.

Agriculture was also affected by industrialization. More advanced machines and techniques for

farming became available. These new methods caused the soil to degenerate and increased the

amount of land used in farming - ruining animal habitats.

As with the urbanization of thousands of years before, the Industrial Revolution changed the way

people thought about themselves in relation to nature. Industrialization told many people that they

had mastered nature, and were now apart from and above it.

(27) exponential growth - Growth in which some quantity, such as population size or economic output,

increases at a constant rate per unit of time.

(28) energy crisis - The prediction that U.S. oil production would reach its peak in the early 1970's. The

methodology is now being used to predict the timing of a downturn in global annual oil production as

well as to forecast when we could run out of oil. (Yom Kippur) This was a war fought by Israel andneighboring Arab nations where the Arabs launched a surprise attack. U.S. support for Israel during the

war led to OPEC boycotting the U.S., creating an energy crisis.

(29) present global energy use - Currently most commercial energy (energy sold) comes from

extracting and burning nonrenewable energy resources obtained from the Earths crust; primarily

from carbon-containing fossil fuels oil, natural gas, and coal.

About 82% of the commercial energy consumed in the world comes from non- renewable resources 76% from fossil fuels , 6% from nuclear.(30) future needs - Hydrogen gas may be an important fuel in the future. It is a clean fuel. The

byproduct

of hydrogen combustion is water. It is a concentrated form of energy that can be

transported. It can be produced by passing an electric current through water to

decompose the water molecule into oxygen and hydrogen, a process known as

electrolysis. Hydrogen can also be produced from hydrocarbons, including natural gas.

The nation of Iceland is attempting to become the first hydrogen based energy economy

using its abundant geothermal energy resources. THE FUTURE OF NUCLEAR ENERGY

Advocates argue that:

It does not contribute to global warming by release of GHGs

It does not cause acid rain pollution or nitrogen deposition

If breeder reactors are used, the amount of fuel will be increased

Critics argue that:

There are safety concerns and economic and political issues

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Nuclear is not likely to have any impact on global warming any time soon

Some nations may use nuclear power as a path to developing weapons

The future of nuclear energy is uncertain

(31) Fossil fuel resources and use - Fossil fuels and alternative energy sources- About 90% of energy

consumed in the U.S.

today are from nonrenewable fossil fuels: petroleum, natural gas and coal (see Fig. 17.4).

Alternative energy sources include geothermal, nuclear, hydropower and solar, some of

which are renewable. Our energy policy may lead to two alternative futures, a hard

path, which is the continued development of fossil fuel and nuclear energy (favored by

the Bush administration), and a soft path, which relies heavily on renewable and

alternative energy resources, and decentralized energy production.

(32) formation of coal, oil, and natural gas - There are three major forms of fossil fuels: coal, oil and

natural gas. All three were formed many hundreds of millions of years ago before the time of the

dinosaurs hence the name fossil fuels. The age they were formed is called the Carboniferous Period.

It was part of the Paleozoic Era. "Carboniferous" gets its name from carbon, the basic element in coal

and other fossil fuels.

The Carboniferous Period occurred from about 360 to 286 million years ago. At the time, the landwas covered with swamps filled with huge trees, ferns and other large leafy plants, similar to thepicture above. The water and seas were filled with algae the green stuff that forms on a stagnantpool of water. Algae is actually millions of very small plants.

Some deposits of coal can be found during the time of the dinosaurs. For example, thin carbonlayers can be found during the late Cretaceous Period (65 million years ago) the time ofTyrannosaurus Rex. But the main deposits of fossil fuels are from the Carboniferous Period. For more

about the various geologic eras, go to

(33) extraction/purification methods - Fossil fuel require additional water purification steps the

environmental acceptability of coal extraction.

(34) world reserves and global demand - Fossil fuels is the term given to energy sources that formed

in the geologic past and have a high hydrocarbon content which can be burned to release energy.

Petroleum, coal and natural gas are prime examples. In essence, fossil fuels are stored solar energy

from the past since they originated from living matter. Although nuclear energy sources are also

derived from naturally occurring mined material (uranium ore), they are not generally considered fossil

fuels in that they did not originate from living matter.

While some of what we call fossil fuels may be in the formation process today, the time periods

required are measured in the millions of years and thus for all practical purposes we can consider fossil

fuels to be finite and non-renewable. This article discusses energy use and availability in the form of

society's primary energy source, fossil fuels, while other articles cover the topics of renewable and

nuclear energy sources.

(35) synfuels - Synthetic fuels, aka synfuels, are just one of the many solutions on the table for solving

the developing energy crisis.

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In this case, though, the term "synthetic" can be misleading. It doesn't necessarily mean the fuels are

unnatural or artificial. The U.S. Energy Information Administration defines a synthetic fuel as any fuel

"produced from coal, natural gasor biomass feedstocks through chemical conversion" [source: U.S.

Energy Information Administration]. That conversion creates substances that are chemically the same

as crude oil or processed fuels, but were synthesized through artificial means. Conventional crude oil

occurs naturally in the environment, and is used to produce a variety of fuels like gasoline and diesel.

Synthetic fuel feedstocks, the raw materials used to make synfuels, have to be subjected to intensechemical and physical changes to be usable as crude oil or processed fuel.(36) environmental advantages/disadvantages of sources - Advantages of Fossil Fuels

A major advantage of fossil fuels is their capacity to generate huge amounts of electricity in

just a single location.

Fossil fuels are very easy to find.

When coal is used in power plants, they are very cost effective. Coal is also in abundant

supply.

Transporting oil and gas to the power stations can be made through the use of pipes making it

an easy task.

Power plants that utilize gas are very efficient.

Power stations that make use of fossil fuel can be constructed in almost any location. This is

possible as long as large quantities of fuel can be easily brought to the power plants.

Disadvantages of Fossil Fuels

Pollution is a major disadvantage of fossil fuels. This is because they give off carbon dioxide

when burned thereby causing a greenhouse effect. This is also the main contributory factor to

the global warming experienced by the earth today.

Coal also produces carbon dioxide when burned compared to burning oil or gas. Additionally, it

gives off sulphur dioxide, a kind of gas that creates acid rain.

Environmentally, the mining of coal results in the destruction of wide areas of land. Mining thisfossil fuel is also difficult and may endanger the lives of miners. Coal mining is considered one

of the most dangerous jobs in the world.

Power stations that utilize coal need large amounts of fuel. In other words, they not only need

truckloads but trainloads of coal on a regular basis to continue operating and generating

electricity. This only means that coal-fired power plants should have reserves of coal in a large

area near the plant?s location.

Use of natural gas can cause unpleasant odors and some problems especially with

transportation.

Use of crude oil causes pollution and poses environmental hazards such as oil spills when oil

tankers, for instance, experience leaks or drown deep under the sea. Crude oil contains toxic

chemicals which cause air pollutants when combusted.

(37) hydroelectric power - The most common type of hydroelectric power plant uses a dam on a river

to store water in a reservoir. Water released from the reservoir flows through a turbine, spinning it,

which in turn activates a generator to produce electricity. But hydroelectric power doesn't necessarily

require a large dam. Some hydroelectric power plants just use a small canal to channel the river water

through a turbine.

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Another type of hydroelectric power plant - called a pumped storage plant - can even store power. Thepower is sent from a power grid into the electric generators. The generators then spin the turbinesbackward, which causes the turbines to pump water from a river or lower reservoir to an upperreservoir, where the power is stored. To use the power, the water is released from the upper reservoirback down into the river or lower reservoir. This spins the turbines forward, activating the generatorsto produce electricity.

A small or micro-hydroelectric power system can produce enough electricity for a home, farm, orranch.

(38) dams -

(39) flood control - Dams, diversions and canals have fragmented about 40% of the worlds

237 large rivers.

Flood control levees and dikes alter and destroy aquatic habitats.

Cities and farmlands add pollutants and excess plant nutrients to streams and rivers.

Many inland wetlands have been drained or filled for agriculture or (sub)urban development.(40)

(41) salmon = Throughout the Russian Far East, the development of extractive fossil fuel

industries is seen as the linchpin for economic development and the generation of hard capital

reserves. ecause the fossil fuel infrastructure of drills, pipelines, derricks, mines, and access

roads poses a grave threat to the wild salmon stocks and the ecosystems on which they

depend, the Wild Salmon Center is formulating policy and technical recommendations to meet

the regions energy and development needs while ensuring the protection of salmon habitat

for posterity. While regional governments present fossil fuel extraction as the road to social and

economic development, there is abundant evidence that even successful large-scale energy

projects will not benefit the communities in regions adversely affected by the concomitant

environmental degradation, especially not indigenous communities with little access to

political influence. However, alternative energy technologies implemented at the local and

regional levels will alleviate the regions crushing energy shortages while providing residents

with jobs, skills, and much-needed capital investment. The Wild Salmon Center hopes to

integrate two of its principal roles in Kamchatka protecting salmon habitat and promoting

sustainable economic development by promoting appropriate energy technologies to meet

local needs. Small-scale renewable energy technologies can provide power to biological

research stations, monitoring facilities, and rural and indigenous villages. By assisting in the

development and propagation of these technologies, the Wild Salmon Center can provide

electricity for research and monitoring efforts, assist local populations in sustainable

development, and generate political capital and goodwill toward the creation of salmon

refuges, thereby preserving the wild salmonid populations of the Russian Far East.

(42) silting, other effects = Silting occurs and renders dams useless after 50-150 years

(43) Renewable energy Any energy resource that is naturally regenerated over a short

time scale and derived directly from the sun (such as thermal, photochemical, and

photoelectric), indirectly from the sun (such as wind, hydropower, and photosynthetic energy

stored in biomass), or from other natural movements and mechanisms of the environment

(such as geothermal and tidal energy). Renewable energy does not include energy resources

derived from fossil fuels, waste products from fossil sources, or waste products from

inorganic sources.

(44) solar energy - Radiant energy emitted by the sun.

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(45) solar electricity - The energy delivered by solar or wind is intermittent (aka only during windy or

sunny days) and hard to store. Coal-fired or nuclear power plants operate 75 to 90% of the time in

contrast, wind turbines operate 20 to 35% of the time.

(44) H fuel cells - In a common form of hydrogen fuel cell, known as the proton exchange membrane

(PEM), hydrogen is delivered to a positive electrode called the anode. At the anode, hydrogen atoms

are broken down or ionized into their constituent protons and electrons. The protons permeate through

an electrolyte membrane to a negative electrode called the cathode. Electrons travel from the cathode

to the anode through an external load, which converts the resulting current to useful power. Within the

cell, oxygen molecules react with the protons permeating through electrolyte membrane and the

electrons arriving through the external load. The result is water, the principal byproduct of all

hydrogen-based energy sources.

(45) biomass - The total quantity or weight of organisms in a given area or volume. Organic matter

used as a fuel.

(46) wind energy - above

(47) small scale hydroelectric - utilizes small turbines connected to generators submerged in stream to

generate power. Capactiy is usually 100kW or less. Does not impede stream flow or fish navigation,

Option in rual, remote areas where power line distribution would be too expensive or impractical.

(48) ocean waves and tidal energy - Natural movement of tides and waves spins turbines that

generate electricity.

(49) geothermal - Geothermal energy is contained in the intense heat that

continually flows outward from deep within the Earth.

Down through the Earths crust, there is a significant

increase of temperature. When water seeps down and

comes in contact with this hot rock, it is heated to high

temperatures. Some of this hot water comes back to the

surface to form hot springs and geysers. Some may

remain under ground to form reservoirs which can

provide a powerful source of energy. These reservoirs

can be reached by drilling a well. The hot water and

steam can also turn turbine generators and produce

electricity. Power plants that use this natural energy

source is called a geothermal power plant. The heat

underground is produced mostly from the natural decay

of radioactive materials such as uranium and potassium.

(50) environmental advantages and disadvantages of renewables - Advantage: Moderate

net energy, moderate environmental impact, No CO2 emissions, Fast construction(1-2 years)

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and costs reduced with natural gas turbine backup.

Disadvntage: Low efficiency, high costs, needs backup or storage system, need access to sun

most of the time, highland use, and may disturbe desert areas.

Solar cell is a tranparent wafer containg a semiconductor material. Advantages: Fairly high net energy,

work on cloudy days, quick installation, easily expanded or moved, No CO2 emissions, low

environmental impact, last 20-40 years, low land use(if on roof or built into walls or windows), Reduces

dependence on fossil fuels. Disadvantages: Need access to sun, low efficiency, need electricity storage

system or backup, high land use( solar- cell power plants) could disrupt desert areas, high costs ( but

should be competitve in 5-15 years), DC current must be converted to AC.

Large-scale hydropower- (large damn built across a river to create a dam)

Small-scale-( a low damn with now, or only a small reservoir)

Pumped-storage hydropower-(surplus energy from a conventional power plant is used to upmp water

from one reservoir to another at a higher elevation, released when energy is needed.

Advantages: Moderate to high net energy, high efficicency(80%), large untapped potential, low-cost

electricity, long life span, No CO2 emissions during operation in temperate areas, may provide flood

control below dam, providees water for year-round irrigation of cropland,and reservoir is useful for

fishing and recreation.

Disadvantages: High construction costs, high environmental impact from flooding land to form areservoir, High CO2, emissions from biomass decay in shallow tropical reservoirs, floods natural areas

behind dam, converts land habitat, danger of collapse, uproots people, decreases fish harvest below

dam, decreases flow of natural fertilizer (silt) to land below dam.

A.) Wind turbin are greater heating of the earth at the equator than at the poles and the earth's

rotation set up flows of air called wind. Indrect form of solar energy can be captured by wind turbines

and converted into electrcity.

B.) Wind farm are clusters of wind turbines to produce electricity.

Advantages: Moderate to high net energy, High efficiency, moderate capital cost, low electricity

cost(and falling), very low environmental impact, No CO2 emissions, quic construction, easily

expanded, can be located at sea, and land below turbines can be used to grow crops or graze

livestock.

Disadvantages: steady winds needed, Backup systems needed when winds are low, high land use forwind farm, visual pollution, noise when located near populated areas, may interfere in flights of

migratory birds and kill birds of prey .

(51) Nuclear fission process - the splitting of a nucleus into smaller fragments (the splitting is caused

by bombarding the nucleus with neutrons). This process releases enormous amounts of energy.

(52) nuclear fuel - Fuel derived from radioactive materials that give of energy.

(53) electricity production - the process of generating electric power from sources of energy.

The fundamental principles of electricity generation were discovered during the 1820s and early 1830sby the British scientist Michael Faraday. His basic method is still used today: electricity is generated bythe movement of a loop of wire, or disc of copper between the poles of a magnet.

(54) nuclear reactor types - Nuclear reactors serve three general purposes. Civilian reactors are used

to generate energy for electricity and sometimes also steam for district heating; military

reactors create materials that can be used in nuclear weapons; and research reactors are used to

develop weapons or energy production technology, for training purposes, for nuclear physics

experimentation, and for producing radio-isotopes for medicine and research. The chemical

composition of the fuel, the type of coolant, and other details important to reactor operation depend

on reactor design. Most designs have some flexibility as to the type of fuel that can be used. Some

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reactors are dual-purpose in that they are used for civilian power and military materials production.

The two tables below give information about civilian and military reactors.

(55) environmental advantages/disadvantages - Of all energy sources, nuclear energy has perhaps the

lowest impact on the environment especially in relation to kilowatts produced because nuclear plants

do not emit harmful gases, require a relatively small area, and effectively minimize or negate other

impacts. In other words, nuclear energy is the most "ecologically efficient" of all energy sources

because it produces the most electricity in relation to its minimal environmental impact. There are no

significant adverse effects to water, land, habitat, species, and air resources.

Nuclear energy is an emission-free energy source because it does not burn anything to produce

electricity. Nuclear power plants produce no gases such as nitrogen oxide or sulfur dioxide that could

threaten our atmosphere by causing ground-level ozone formation, smog, and acid rain. Nor does

nuclear energy produce carbon dioxide or other greenhouse gases suspected to cause global warming.

Throughout the nuclear fuel cycle, the small volume of waste byproducts actually created is carefully

contained, packaged and safely stored. As a result, the nuclear energy industry is the only industry

established since the industrial revolution that has managed and accounted for all of its waste,

preventing adverse impacts to the environment.

Although power plants are regulated by federal and state laws to protect human health and the

environment, there is a wide variation of environmental impacts associated with power generationtechnologies.

The purpose of the following section is to give consumers a better idea of the specific air, water, land,

and radioactive waste releases associated with nuclear power electricity generation.

Air Emissions

Nuclear power plants do not emit carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, or nitrogen oxides as part of the

power generation process. However, fossil fuel emissions are associated with the uranium mining and

uranium enrichment process as well as the transport of the uranium fuel to and from the nuclear plant.

Water Resource Use

Nuclear power plants use large quantities of water for steam production and for cooling. Some nuclearpower plants remove large quantities of water from a lake or river, which could affect fish and other

aquatic life.

Water Discharges

Heavy metals and salts build up in the water used in all power plant systems, including nuclear ones.

These water pollutants, as well as the higher temperature of the water discharged from the power

plant, can negatively affect water quality and aquatic life. Nuclear power plants sometimes discharge

small amounts of tritium and other radioactive elements as allowed by their individual wastewater

permits.

Waste generated from uranium mining operations and rainwater runoff can contaminate groundwater

and surface water resources with heavy metals and traces of radioactive uranium.

(56) safety issues - All 104 nuclear reactors currently operational in the US have irreparable safety

issues and should be taken out of commission and replaced, former chairman of the US Nuclear

Regulatory Commission, Gregory B. Jaczko said.

The comments, made during the Carnegie International Nuclear Policy Conference, are highly

unusual for a current or former member of the safety commission, according to The New York Times.

Asked why he had suddenly decided to make the remarks, Jaczko implied that he had only recently

arrived at these conclusions following the serious aftermath of Japans tsunami-stricken Fukushima

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Daichii nuclear facility.

I was just thinking about the issues more, and watching as the industry and the regulators and the

whole nuclear safety community continues to try to figure out how to address these very, very difficult

problems, which were made more evident by the 2011 Fukushima nuclear accident in Japan, he said.

Continuing to put Band-Aid on Band-Aid is not going to fix the problem.

According to the former chairman, US reactors that received permission from the nuclear commission

to operate for an additional 20 years past their initial 40-year licenses would not likely last long. He

further rejected the commissions proposal for a second 20-year extension, which would leave some

American nuclear reactors operating for some 80 years.

(57) radiation and human health - Efffects of ionizing radiation

Some of the ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun is considered ionizing radiation, and provides a

starting point in considering its effects. Sunlight UV is important in producing vitamin D in humans, but

too much exposure produces sunburn and, potentially, skin cancer. Skin tissue is damaged, and that

damage to DNA may not be repaired properly, so that over time, cancer develops and may be fatal.

Adaptation from repeated low exposure can decrease vulnerability. But exposure to sunlight is quiteproperly sought after in moderation, and not widely feared.

Our knowledge of the effects of shorter-wavelength ionizing radiation from atomic nuclei derives

primarily from groups of people who have received high doses. The main difference from UV radiation

is that gamma and X-rays can penetrate the skin. The risk associated with large doses of this ionizing

radiation is relatively well established. However, the effects, and any risks associated with doses under

about 200 mSv, are less obvious because of the large underlying incidence of cancer caused by other

factors. Benefits of lower doses have long been recognised, though radiation protection standards

assume that any dose of radiation, no matter how small, involves a possible risk to human health.

However, available scientific evidence does not indicate any cancer risk or immediate effects at doses

below 100 mSv per year. At low levels of exposure, the body's natural repair mechanisms seem to be

adequate to repair radiation damage to cells soon after it occurs. Dose rate is as important as overall

dose.

(58) radioactive wastes - High-level radioactive waste is the uranium fuel that fires the nuclear reactor.

Once removed from the reactor, the irradiated fuel is considered high-level radioactive waste. Whether

in the reactor or in the large pools adjacent, high-level radioactive waste must be cooled by water to

prevent it from melting down.

Only after spending more than five years cooling in the fuel pool can the radioactive fuel rods beplaced in large dry casks at the reactor site. High-level radioactive waste produced by nuclear powerplants accounts for 95% of the radioactivity generated in the last 50 years from all sources, includingnuclear weapons production. High-level wastes are hazardous because of their high radiation levelsthat are capable of producing fatal doses within moments of exposure. Once the uranium atoms beginto split, neutrons are given off and absorbed by fuel which produces plutonium and other long livedradioactive wastes.

Plutonium 239 has a half-life of approximately 24,000 years. That means that after 24,000 years half ofthe radioactivity contained in the plutonium will have decayed. However, the hazardous life ofradioactive waste is at least ten times the half-life, therefore these wastes will have to be isolated fromthe environment for 240,000.

Because nuclear waste will remain hazardous longer than our ability to contain it, it must beretrievable. Since nuclear waste will remain hazardous for at least 240,000 years it must be monitoredin perpetuity. In the short term, nuclear waste should remain at the reactor site or where ever it iscurrently stored. It is both technologically impossible and scientifically irresponsible to "dispose" ofnuclear waste.

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(59) nuclear fusion - Fusion power offers the prospect of an almost inexhaustible source of energy for

future generations, but it also presents so far insurmountable scientific and engineering challenges. Air

pollution primary and secondary sources A primary pollutant is an air pollutant emitted directly from

a source. A secondary pollutant is not directly emitted as such, but forms when other pollutants

(primary pollutants) react in the atmosphere. Examples of a secondary pollutant include ozone, which

is formed when hydrocarbons (HC) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) combine in the presence of sunlight;

NO2, which is formed as NO combines with oxygen in the air; and acid rain, which is formed whensulfur dioxide or nitrogen oxides react with water. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a gas formed when sulfur is

exposed to oxygen at high temperatures during fossil fuel combustion, oil refining, or metal smelting.

SO2 is toxic at high concentrations, but its principal air pollution effects are associated with the

formation of acid rain and aerosols. SO2 dissolves in cloud droplets and oxidizes to form sulfuric acid

(H2SO4), which can fall to Earth as acid rain or snow or form sulfate aerosol particles in the

atmosphere.

Introduction

Air pollution occurs in many forms but can generally be thought of as gaseous and particulatecontaminants that are present in the earth's atmosphere. Gaseous pollutantsinclude sulfur dioxide(SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), ozone (O3), carbon monoxide (CO), volatile organic compounds (VOC),hydrogen sulfide (H2S), hydrogen fluoride (HF), and various gaseous forms of metals. These pollutantsare emitted from large stationary sources such as fossil fuel fired power plants, smelters, industrial

boilers, petroleum refineries, and manufacturing facilities as well as from area and mobile sources.They are corrosive to various materials which causes damage to cultural resources, can cause injury toecosystems and organisms, aggravate respiratory diseases, and reduce visibility.Particulates come in both large and small or "fine" solid forms. Large particulates include substancessuch as dust, asbestos fibers, and lead. Fine particulates include sulfates (SO4) and nitrates (NO3).Important sources of particulates are power plants, smelters, mining operations, and automobiles.Asbestos and lead affect organisms, while sulfates and nitrates not only cause health problems, butalso contribute to acid rain or acid deposition and a reduction in visibility. Particulate matter, a termsometimes used instead of particulates, refers to the mixture of solid particles and liquid dropletsfound in the air.Toxic air pollutants are a class of chemicals which may potentially cause health problems in a

significant way. The sources of toxic air pollutants include power plants, industries, pesticide

application, and contaminated windblown dust. Persistent toxic pollutants, such as mercury, are of

particular concern because of their global mobility and ability to accumulate in the food chain. More

research is needed to fully understand the fate and effects of mercury and the many other toxicpollutants.

Primary pollutants are those that are emitted directly into the air from pollution sources. Secondarypollutants are formed when primary pollutants undergo chemical changes in the atmosphere. Ozone isan example of a secondary pollutant. It is formed when nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organiccompounds (VOCs) are mixed and warmed by sunlight. Ozone (O3) is a major component of what isoften referred to as smog. The ozone which is present in the troposphere, or the atmosphere that isclose to the ground, should not be confused with beneficial ozone that is located in the stratosphere orupper atmosphere. This beneficial ozone in the stratosphere helps protect the earth from harmfulultraviolet light from the sun.Sources of Air Pollution

Stationary and Area Sources

A stationary source of air pollution refers to an emission source that does not move, also

known as a point source. Stationary sources include factories, power plants, dry cleaners

and degreasing operations. The term area source is used to describe many small sources

of air pollution located together whose individual emissions may be below thresholds of

concern, but whose collective emissions can be significant. Residential wood burners are a

good example of a small source, but when combined with many other small sources, they

can contribute to local and regional air pollution levels. Area sources can also be thought

of as non-point sources, such as construction of housing developments, dry lake beds, and

landfills.

Mobile Sources

A mobile source of air pollution refers to a source that is capable of moving under its own

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power. In general, mobile sources imply "on-road" transportation, which includes vehicles

such as cars, sport utility vehicles, and buses. In addition, there is also a "non-road" or

"off-road" category that includes gas-powered lawn tools and mowers, farm and

construction equipment, recreational vehicles, boats, planes, and trains.

Agricultural Sources

Agricultural operations, those that raise animals and grow crops, can generate emissions

of gases and particulate matter. For example, animals confined to a barn or restricted area(rather than field grazing), produce large amounts of manure. Manure emits various gases,

particularly ammonia into the air. This ammonia can be emitted from the animal houses,

manure storage areas, or from the land after the manure is applied. In crop production,

the misapplication of fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides can potentially result in aerial

drift of these materials and harm may be caused.

Natural Sources

Although industrialization and the use of motor vehicles are overwhelmingly the most

significant contributors to air pollution, there are important natural sources of "pollution"

as well. Wildland fires, dust storms, and volcanic activity also contribute gases and

particulates to our atmosphere.

Unlike the above mentioned sources of air pollution, natural "air pollution" is not caused

by people or their activities. An erupting volcano emits particulate matter and gases;forest and prairie fires can emit large quantities of "pollutants"; plants and trees naturally

emit VOCs which are oxidized and form aerosols that can cause a natural blue haze; and

dust storms can create large amounts of particulate matter. Wild animals in their natural

habitat are also considered natural sources of "pollution". The National Park Service

recognizes that each of these sources emits gases and particulate matter into the

atmosphere but we regard these as constituents resulting from natural processes.

(2) major air pollutants -

Ozone. A gas that can be found intwo places. Near the ground (the

troposphere), it is a major part of

smog. The harmful ozone in the

lower atmosphere should not be

confused with the protective layer

of ozone in the upper atmosphere

(stratosphere), which screens out

harmful ultraviolet rays.

Ozone is not created directly,but is formed when nitrogen

oxides and volatile organic

compounds mix in sunlight. That

is why ozone is mostly found in

the summer. Nitrogen oxides

come from burning gasoline,

coal, or other fossil fuels. There

are many types of volatile

organic compounds, and they

come from sources ranging from

factories to trees.

Ozone near the ground cancause a number of health

problems. Ozone can lead to

more frequent asthma attacks in

people who have asthma and

can cause sore throats, coughs,

and breathing difficulty. It may

even lead to premature death.

Ozone can also hurt plants and

crops.

Carbon monoxide. A gas that

comes from the burning of fossil

fuels, mostly in cars. It cannot be

seen or smelled.

Carbon monoxide is released

when engines burn fossil fuels.

Emissions are higher when

engines are not tuned properly,

and when fuel is not completely

burned. Cars emit a lot of the

carbon monoxide found

outdoors. Furnaces and heaters

Carbon monoxide makes it hard

for body parts to get the oxygen

they need to run correctly.

Exposure to carbon monoxide

makes people feel dizzy and

tired and gives them headaches.

In high concentrations it is fatal.

Elderly people with heart disease

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in the home can emit high

concentrations of carbon

monoxide, too, if they are not

properly maintained.

are hospitalized more often

when they are exposed to higher

amounts of carbon monoxide.

Nitrogen dioxide. A reddish-brown

gas that comes from the burningof fossil fuels. It has a strong smell

at high levels.

Nitrogen dioxide mostly comes

from power plants and cars.Nitrogen dioxide is formed in

two wayswhen nitrogen in the

fuel is burned, or when nitrogen

in the air reacts with oxygen at

very high temperatures.

Nitrogen dioxide can also react

in the atmosphere to form

ozone, acid rain, and particles.

High levels of nitrogen dioxide

exposure can give peoplecoughs and can make them feel

short of breath. People who are

exposed to nitrogen dioxide for a

long time have a higher chance

of getting respiratory infections.

Nitrogen dioxide reacts in the

atmosphere to form acid rain,

which can harm plants and

animals.

Particulate matter. Solid or liquid

matter that is suspended in the air.

To remain in the air, particles

usually must be less than 0.1-mm

wide and can be as small as

0.00005 mm.

Particulate matter can be

divided into two typescoarse

particles and fine particles.

Coarse particles are formed from

sources like road dust, sea

spray, and construction. Fine

particles are formed when fuel is

burned in automobiles and

power plants.

Particulate matter that is small

enough can enter the lungs and

cause health problems. Some of

these problems include more

frequent asthma attacks,

respiratory problems, and

premature death.

Sulfur dioxide. A corrosive gas that

cannot be seen or smelled at low

levels but can have a rotten egg

smell at high levels.

Sulfur dioxide mostly comes

from the burning of coal or oil in

power plants. It also comes from

factories that make chemicals,

paper, or fuel. Like nitrogendioxide, sulfur dioxide reacts in

the atmosphere to form acid rain

and particles.

Sulfur dioxide exposure can

affect people who have asthma

or emphysema by making it

more difficult for them to

breathe. It can also irritatepeople's eyes, noses, and

throats. Sulfur dioxide can harm

trees and crops, damage

buildings, and make it harder for

people to see long distances.

Lead. A blue-gray metal that is

very toxic and is found in a

number of forms and locations.

Outside, lead comes from cars in

areas where unleaded gasoline

is not used. Lead can also come

from power plants and other

industrial sources. Inside, lead

paint is an important source of

lead, especially in houses wherepaint is peeling. Lead in old

pipes can also be a source of

lead in drinking water.

High amounts of lead can be

dangerous for small children and

can lead to lower IQs and kidney

problems. For adults, exposure

to lead can increase the chance

of having heart attacks or

strokes.

Toxic air pollutants. A large

number of chemicals that are

known or suspected to cause

cancer. Some important pollutants

Each toxic air pollutant comes

from a slightly different source,

but many are created in

chemical plants or are emitted

Toxic air pollutants can cause

cancer. Some toxic air pollutants

can also cause birth defects.

Other effects depend on the

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in this category include arsenic,

asbestos, benzene, and dioxin.

when fossil fuels are burned.

Some toxic air pollutants, like

asbestos and formaldehyde, can

be found in building materials

and can lead to indoor air

problems. Many toxic air

pollutants can also enter thefood and water supplies.

pollutant, but can include skin

and eye irritation and breathing

problems.

Stratospheric ozone

depleters.Chemicals that can

destroy the ozone in the

stratosphere. These chemicals

include chlorofluorocarbons

(CFCs), halons, and other

compounds that include chlorine

or bromine.

CFCs are used in air conditioners

and refrigerators, since they

work well as coolants. They can

also be found in aerosol cans

and fire extinguishers. Other

stratospheric ozone depleters

are used as solvents in industry.

If the ozone in the stratosphere

is destroyed, people are exposed

to more radiation from the sun

(ultraviolet radiation). This can

lead to skin cancer and eye

problems. Higher ultraviolet

radiation can also harm plants

and animals.

Greenhouse gases. Gases that

stay in the air for a long time and

warm up the planet by trapping

sunlight. This is called the

greenhouse effect because the

gases act like the glass in a

greenhouse. Some of the

important greenhouse gases are

carbon dioxide, methane, and

nitrous oxide.

Carbon dioxide is the most

important greenhouse gas. It

comes from the burning of fossil

fuels in cars, power plants,

houses, and industry. Methane is

released during the processing

of fossil fuels, and also comes

from natural sources like cows

and rice paddies. Nitrous oxide

comes from industrial sources

and decaying plants.

The greenhouse effect can lead

to changes in the climate of the

planet. Some of these changes

might include more temperature

extremes, higher sea levels,

changes in forest composition,

and damage to land near the

coast. Human health might be

affected by diseases that are

related to temperature or by

damage to land and water.

(3) measurement units -

The unit of measurement for air pollution is AQI (air quality index)

Units used include (may or may not be rolled up into a unitless AQI):

COH - Coefficient of Haze

opacity (%) for smoke emissions

ppm (parts per million)

ppb (parts per billion)

odor index (unitless)

soiling index (unitless)

sulfation rates (gm/m2)

dustfall in gm/m2

(4) smog - On some days temperature inversions (where the air closer to the ground becomes cooler

than the air above) act as lids which trap air pollutants close to the ground. This prevents vertical

mixing (the upper, cleaner air mixing with the lower, polluted air) and the dispersion of pollutants.

On hot, sunny days, pollutants emitted by vehicles, industry, and many products (nitrogen oxides and

volatile organic compounds) react with each other to form ozone, the main ingredient of smog.

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During the winter, temperature inversions can trap tiny particles of smoke and exhaust from cars,

trucks, fireplaces, and anything else that burns fuel. This keeps the pollution close to the ground - right

where people are breathing.

(5) acid deposition causes and effects - Acid rain (or acid deposition, as it's called in technical circles)

is produced by the burning of fossil fuels. It is formed when emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogenoxides react in the atmosphere with water, oxygen and oxidants to form various acidic compounds.

These compounds then fall to the ground in either wet or dry form.

Acid rain acidifies lakes and streams and contributes to damage of trees at high elevations. (Check out

Mount Mitchell in North Carolina if you want a graphic example of tree damage.) Hundreds of lakes in

the Adirondacks have become too acidic to support sensitive fish species. In addition, acid rain

accelerates the decay of paints and buildings.

Electric power plants account for about 70 percent of sulfur dioxide emissions about 30 percent of

nitrogen oxides emissions. Cars, trucks and buses also are major sources of nitrogen oxides.

(6) heat islands and temperature inversions -

Heat Islands are urban air and surface temperatures that are higher than nearby rural areas; canamplify extreme hot weather changes

An atmospheric layer where the temperature decreases with height are much less than normal

(7) remediation and reduction strategies for air pollution - Air pollution has many disastrous effects

that need to be curbed. In order to accomplish this, governments, scientists and environmentalists are

using or testing a variety of methods aimed at reducing pollution.

There are two main types of pollution control.

Input control involves preventing a problem before it occurs, or at least limiting the effects the process

will produce.

Five major input control methods exist. People may try to restrict population growth, use less energy,improve energy efficiency, reduce waste, and move to non-polluting renewable forms of energy. Also,

automobile-produced pollution can be decreased with highly beneficial results.

Output control, the opposite method, seeks to fix the problems caused by air pollution. This usually

means cleaning up an area that has been damaged by pollution.

Input controls are usually more effective than output controls. Output controls are also more

expensive, making them less desirable to tax payers and polluting industries.

Current air pollution control efforts are not all highly effective. In wealthier countries, industries are

often able to shift to methods that decrease air pollution. In the United States, for example, air

pollution control laws have been successful in stopping air pollution levels from rising. However, in

developing countries and even in countries where pollution is strictly regulated, much more needs to

be done.(8) Clean Air Act and other relevant laws - To combat pollution in the United States, the Clean Air Act

Amendments of 1970 gave the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) the authority to establish and

enforce air pollution standards and to set emission standards for new factories and extremely

hazardous industrial pollutants. The states were required to meet "ambient air quality standards" by

regulating the emissions of various pollutants from existing stationary sources, such as power plants

and incinerators, in part by the installation of smokestack scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators, and

other filters. Auto manufacturers were mandated to install exhaust controls or develop less polluting

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engines. The Clean Air Act, as amended in 1977, authorized the EPA to impose stricter pollution

standards and higher penalties for failure to comply with air quality standards.

In 1990 when the act was reauthorized it required most cities to meet existing smog reductionregulations by the year 2005. The 1990 amendments also expanded the scope and strength of theregulations for controlling industrial pollution. The result has been limited progress in reducing thequantities of sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, ozone, particulate matter, and lead in

the air. The EPA also regulated hazardous air pollutants, which in 1992 included mercury, beryllium,asbestos, vinylchloride, benzene, radioactive substances, and inorganic arsenic.

The most satisfactory long-term solutions to air pollution may well be the elimination of fossil fuels andthe ultimate replacement of the internal-combustion engine. To these ends efforts have begun in theUnited States, Japan, and Europe to develop alternative energy sources (see energy, sources of), aswell as different kinds of transportation engines, such as one powered by electricity. A systemofpollution allowances based on trading emission rights has been established in the United States in anattempt to use the free market to reward pollution reductions, and the international sale of surplusemission rights is permitted under the Kyoto Protocol (see below). Other proposed solutions includeraising electricity and gasoline rates to better reflect environmental costs and to discourage waste andinefficiency, and mechanical controls on coal-fired utility plants.In 1992, 150 nations signed a treaty on global warming at the UN-sponsored summit on the

environment in Rio de Janeiro. A UN Conference on Climate Change, held in Kyoto, Japan, in 1997,

produced an international agreement to combat global warming by sharply reducing emissions of

industrial gases produced by industrialized nations. Although the United States abandoned the treaty

in 2001, saying it was counter to U.S. interests, most other nations agreed that year on the details

necessary to make the protocol a binding international treaty, and the necessary ratifications brought

the treaty into force in 2005. Efforts to develop a new, more encompassing binding treaty that would

build on the Kyoto Protocol have been unsuccessful, and in 2012 Canada became the first ratifying

nation to withdraw. Later in 2012 the Kyoto Protocol was extended to 2020.

(9) Indoor air pollution, - Cooking and heating with solid fuels on open fires or traditional stoves results

in high levels of indoor air pollution. Indoor smoke contains a range of health-damaging pollutants,

such as small particles and carbon monoxide.

In poorly ventilated dwellings, indoor smoke can exceed acceptable levels for small particles 100-fold.Exposure is particularly high among women and young children, who spend the most time near the

domestic hearth.

According to Global Health Risks: Mortality and burden of disease attributable to selected major risksindoor air pollution is responsible for 2.7% of the global burden of disease.

(10) IAP - It is estimated that the vast majority of people spend as much as 95% of their lives indoors.

People just dont go outside that much anymore. We live inside, we work inside, we eat inside and we

entertain ourselves inside. The importance of having an efficient air cleaning system in your home or

office building cannot be overstated. Improving indoor air quality is important for maintaining good

health.

Here are just a few of the pollutants that are very likely attacking your respiratory system if you do not

own and maintain an effective commercial air cleaner:

Environmental smoke from tobacco affecting adults, children and babies;

Carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide;

Animal dander, dust, dust mites, mildew and mold spores;

Formaldehyde, pesticides and heavy metal vapors like lead and mercury found in common

household products;

Mycotoxins, asbestos and radon;

And the list goes on

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Unless you filter these pollutants from the air that youre constantly breathing, then you are exposing

yourself to them and thereby significantly increasing your probability of developing any of the

following health disorders and/or symptoms:

Tuberculosis;

Legionnaires disease;

Hypersensitivity pneumonitis;

Allergic reactions;

Humidifier fever;

Sick building syndrome (SBS);

And more

In fact, theres a lot more. Without an effective air cleanerinstalled in your home or business, you may

find yourself experiencing any or all of the following:

Nasal congestion, coughing, wheezing or headaches;

Fatigue, lethargy, cognitive impairments and personality changes;

Nausea, vomiting, and dizziness;

Conjunctival irritation and/or severe lung disease;

Chills, fevers, and rashes;

Tachycardia, myalgia, retinal hemorrhage and hearing loss

(13) noise pollution - Sound becomes unwanted when it either interferes with normal activities such as

sleeping, conversation, or disrupts or diminishes ones quality of life. The fact that you cant see, taste

or smell it may help explain why it has not received as much attention as other types of pollution, such

as air pollution, or water pollution. The air around us is constantly filled with sounds, yet most of us

would probably not say we are surrounded by noise. Though for some, the persistent and escalating

sources of sound can often be considered an annoyance. This annoyance can have major

consequences, primarily to ones overall health.

(14) Water pollution types - Water covers 70% of the Earths surface and makes up over 60% of the

human body. Water pollution affects marine ecosystems, wildlife health, and human well-being. The

answer to solving pollution is to make changes in our daily habits and pay more attention to the typesof products we consume. The following lists display causes of water pollution and the effects it has on

human health and thee nvironment.

Sewage from domestic households, factories and commercial buildings Sewage that is treated in

water treatment plants is often disposed into the sea. Sewage can be more problematic whenpeople flush chemicals and pharmaceutical substances down the toilet.Dumping solid wastes and litter by humans in rivers, lakes and oceans. Littering items include

cardboard, Styrofoam, aluminum, plastic and glass.Industrial waste from factories, which use freshwater to carry waste from the plant into rivers,

contaminates waters with pollutants such as asbestos, lead, mercury and petrochemicals.Oil Pollution caused by oil spills from tankers and oil from ship travel. Oil does not dissolve in water

and forms a thick sludge.

Burning fossil fuels into the air causes the formation of acidic particles in the atmosphere. Whenthese particles mix with water vapor, the result is acid rain.

An increase in water temperature is caused by global warming and thermal plants that use lakes

and rivers to cool down mechanical equipment.Effects of Water Pollution

Groundwater contamination from pesticides causes reproductive damage within wildlife in

ecosystems.Sewage, fertilizer, and agricultural run-off contain organic materials that when discharged into

waters, increase the growth of algae, which causes the depletion of oxygen. The low oxygen levels

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are not able to support most indigenous organisms in the area and therefore upset the naturalecological balance in rivers and lakes.Swimming in and drinking contaminated water can cause skin rashes, cancer, reproductive

problems, typhoid fever and stomach sickness in humans.Industrial chemicals and agricultural pesticides that end up in aquatic environments can

accumulate in fish that are later eaten by humans. Fish are easily poisoned with metals that arealso later consumed by humans. Mercury is particularly poisonous to small children and women.Mercury has been found to interfere with the development of the nervous system in fetuses andyoung children.Ecosystems are destroyed by the rising temperature in the water, as coral reefs are affected by the

bleaching effect due to warmer temperatures. Additionally, the warm water forces indigenous waterspecies to seek cooler water in other areas, causing an ecological damaging shift of the affectedarea.Human-produced litter of items such as plastic bags and 6-pack rings can get aquatic animals

caught and killed from suffocation.

Water pollution causes flooding due to the accumulation of solid waste and soil erosion in streams

and rivers.Oil spills in the water causes animal to die when they ingest it or encounter it. Oil does not dissolve

in water so it causes suffocation in fish and birds.Water pollution has been extensively documented as a contributor to health problems in humans andmarine animal ecosystems. It has a huge impact on our lives, and if we do our part by not throwingtrash or chemicals into our water supplies and drains, we can contribute to the improvement of aquaticlife and of our health in general.

(15) sources, causes and effects of each type of water pollution - There are many causes of water

pollution. One cause is from animal waste that finds its way into the water through a stream or pond.

Many times a levy will break and the water will run into the animal yard causing contamination.

Sometimes compounds are found in the air and are mixed with water from a rain storm. An oil spill is

another example of a water pollution cause. An oil tanker hits something and ends up with a hole in

the ship that allows oil into the water. This causes enviromental hardship for the ecosystem and people

in the area.

There are two types of water pollution. The first is point source pollution; this is where contaminants

enter the water from a single source that can be located. The second of water pollution is from non-

pointed sources, these are sources that do not come from one source but rather many sources working

together. An example of this is from fertilized land. Water runoff collects come of the fertilizer from

several different fields and the fertilizer finds its way into the water supply causing polluted water.

Water pollution is a constant battle all around the world. Water treatment facilities work nonstop to

provide good clean water for everyone to enjoy.

Look above

(16) cultural eutrophication - Cultural eutrophication is an increase in biological productivity and

ecosystem succession caused by human activity. It is mainly caused by increased nutrient input into a

water body. Increased productivity in an aquatic system sometimes can be beneficial. Fish and otherdesirable species may grow faster, providing a welcome food source. Eurtophicate produces blooms of

algae or thick growths of aquatic plants stimulated by elevated phophorus or nitrogen levels. The

water then becomes cloudy and faul smelling and can accelerate the aging in a body of water.

(17) ground water pollution - Groundwater is rain water or water from surface water bodies, like lakes

or streams, that soaks into the soil and bedrock and is stored underground in the tiny spaces between

rocks and particles of soil. Groundwater pollution occurs when hazardous substances come into

contact and dissolve in the water that has soaked into the soil. Groundwater can become

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contaminated in many ways. If rain water or surface water comes into contact with contaminated soil

while seeping into the ground, it can become polluted and can carry the pollution from the soil to the

groundwater. Groundwater can also become contaminated when liquid hazardous substances

themselves soak down through the soil or rock into the groundwater. Some liquid hazardous

substances do not mix with the groundwater but remain pooled within the soil or bedrock. These

pooled substances can act as long-term sources of groundwater contamination as the groundwater

flows through the soil or rock and comes into contact with them.

(18) maintaining water quality - Keep the Water Supply Pure

What you put down your drain can affect our water quality and cause other problems

Properly dispose of your medications, cosmetics and cleansing products

Dont put oils and grease down your drains

(19) water purification - Water purification is the process of removing undesirable chemicals, biological

contaminants, suspended solids and gases from contaminated water. The goal is to produce water fit

for a specific purpose. Most water is purified for human consumption (drinking water), but water

purification may also be designed for a variety of other purposes, including meeting the requirements

of medical, pharmacological, chemical and industrial applications. In general the methods used includephysical processes such as filtration, sedimentation, and distillation, biological processes such as slow

sand filtersor biologically active carbon, chemical processes such as flocculation and chlorination and

the use of electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light.

(20) sewage treatment/septic systems - A typical household sewage treatment system consists of a

house sewer, septic tank, distribution box and absorption field or seepage pit.

House Sewer - The pipeline connecting the house and drain and the septic tank.

Septic Tank - Untreated liquid household wastes (sewage) will quickly clog your absorption field if not

properly treated. The septic tank provides this needed treatment. When sewage enters the septic tank,

the heavy solids settle to the bottom of the tank; the lighter solids, fats and greases partially

decompose and rise to the surface and form a layer of scum. The solids that have settled to thebottom are attacked by bacteria and form sludge. Septic tanks do not remove bacteria and, therefore,

what is discharged cannot be considered safe.

Distribution Box - Serves to distribute the flow from the septic tank evenly to the absorption field or

seepage pits. It is important that each trench or pit receive an equal amount of flow. This prevents

overloading of one part of the system.

Absorption Field - A system of narrow trenches partially filled with a bed of washed gravel or crushed

stone into which perforated or open joint pipe is placed. The discharge from the septic tank is

distributed through these pipes into the trenches and surrounding soil. The subsurface absorption field

must be properly sized and constructed to assure satisfactory operation and a long life.

Seepage Pit - A covered pit with a perforated or open-jointed lining through which the discharge from

the septic tank infiltrates into the surrounding soil. It is generally installed in sandy or gravel-type soils.

Like the absorption field, the seepage pit also must be properly sized and constructed. While seepage

pits normally require less land area to install, they should be used only where absorption fields are not

suitable and well water supplies are not endangered.

The contents of the septic tank should be pumped every two to three years or when the total depth of

sludge and scum exceeds one-third of the liquid depth of the tank. If the tank is not cleaned

periodically, the solids are carried into the absorption field; rapid clogging occurs; premature failure

https://www.gru.com/OurCommunity/Environment/WaterQuality/disposaltech.jsphttps://www.gru.com/OurCommunity/Environment/WaterQuality/grease.jsphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drinking_waterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filtrationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distillationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_sand_filtershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_sand_filtershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flocculationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_chlorinationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet_germicidal_irradiationhttps://www.gru.com/OurCommunity/Environment/WaterQuality/disposaltech.jsphttps://www.gru.com/OurCommunity/Environment/WaterQuality/grease.jsphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drinking_waterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filtrationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distillationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_sand_filtershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_sand_filtershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flocculationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_chlorinationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet_germicidal_irradiation

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follows; and finally, the absorption field must be replaced. Pumping your septic tank is less expensive

than replacing your absorption field.

Detergents, kitchen wastes, laundry wastes and household chemicals in normal amounts do

not affect the proper operation of household sewage treatment systems. However, excessive

quantities can be harmful.

Avoid the disposal of cigarette butts, disposable diapers, sanitary napkins, plastics, trash, etc.,

into your household sewage system. These items are not readily decomposed.

Septic tank additives are not recommended. Additives are unnecessary to the proper operation

of household systems and may cause the sludge and scum in the septic tank to be discharged

into the absorption field, resulting in premature failure . Some additives may actually pollute

groundwater.

Garbage grinders substantially increase the accumulation of solids in the septic tank, as well

as the solids entering the absorption fields and pits. Their disadvantages outweigh the

convenience they provide and are not recommended for households with their own sewage

treatment systems. If used, the septic tank size should be increased.

Connecting your laundry wastes to a separate waste system (dry well or seepage pit), while

not normally necessary, will reduce the load on the regular system and permit the survival of a

marginal system.

(21) Clean Water Act and relevant laws - supports the "protection and propagation of fish,

shellfish, and wildlife and recreation in and on the water". Issued water quality standards that

defined acceptable limits of various pollutants in U.S. waterways. Doesn't include protection of

groundwater.

1974 Safe Drinking

Water Act

* applies to all waters potentially designed for drinking use, above or below

ground.

* autorized EPA to set allowable levels for contaminants and pathogens and

required all operators of public water systems to comply

1987 Water Quality Act* established national policy to control non-point sources of water pollution

* emphasized development of state management plans to control non-point

source pollution

1972 Federal Water

Pollution Control Act

(amended 1977 as Clean

Water Act)

* established basic structure for regulating discharges of pollutants into U.S.

waters

* set wastewater standards for industry and water quality standards for all

surface water contaminants

* provided billions of federal grant dollars for sewage treatment plants

* requires permit to discharge point source pollutants into surface waters

1974 Safe Drinking

Water Act

* applies to all waters potentially designed for drinking use, above or belowground.

* autorized EPA to set allowable levels for contaminants and pathogens and

required all operators of public water systems to comply

1987 Water Quality Act

* established national policy to control non-point sources of water pollution

* emphasized development of state management plans to control non-point

source pollution

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(22) Solid wastes Municipal and industrial: waste produced by households and businesses; produced

by mines, agriculture, and industries that supply people with goods and services

(23) disposal - . Disposal of municipal solid waste (MSW), also known as trash or garbage

1) Examples of MSWpackaging, food scraps, grass clippings, discarded

furniture, computers, tires, discarded appliances...

2) Non-examples of MSW industrial, nuclear, hazardous, construction waste

(24) types see above

(25) reduction - Solutions to the Problem

A. source reduction (waste prevention) also called pre-cycling

1) definition the reduction of the amount and/or toxicity of waste at or before

the point of generation

a) reduction of waste

b) conservation of resources

2) examples

a) making packaging lighter, using less materials

b) use email rather than paper mail

c) keep records and store them electronically

d) donation of unwanted items to charities and thrift stores

e) selling unwanted items online

f) photocopying two-sided documents

g) product maintenance and repair rather than disposal

h) buy items with less bulky packaging

i) mulching and backyard composting of yard waste

(26) hazards to human health - Different people respond differently to hazards

1. Affected by genetics, surroundings, etc.

2. People in poor health are more sensitive

3. Sensitivity also varies with sex, age, and weight

4. Fetuses, infants, and young children are more sensitive

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Exposure to endocrine disrupters may be through diet, air, skin, and water.

Greatest risk may be for pre-natal and early childhood development.

(27) environmental risk analysis -

Chemical hazards are harmful chemicals in the air, water, soil, and food. Over 500 synthetic organicchemicals are present in our bodiesnone of which were in existence 90 years ago.

Physical hazards : radioactivity, fire, earthquake, floods, etc.

Biological hazards: pathogens, pollen, other allergens, and animals such as bees and poisonoussnakes.

(28) acute and chronic effects - Pollutants can have acute effects. An acute effect is one that occurs

soon after exposure, usually to large amounts of pollutant. It is really apparent because organisms

response to the toxin shortly after being exposed. For example, a person exposed all at once to a high

dose of radiation may be killed by radiation sickness soon after exposure. A chronic effect takes placeover a long period, often as a result of exposure to low levels of a pollutant. It is much more difficult to

determine because the effect may not be seen for years. However, that same total dose, received

slowly in small amounts over an entire lifetime, may instead cause mutations and lead to disease or

affect the persons DNA and offspring.

(29) dose-response relationships - The dose of a poison is going to determine the degree of effect it

produces. The following example illustrates this principle. Suppose ten goldfish are in a ten-gallon tank

and we add one ounce of 100-proof whiskey to the water every five minutes until all the fish get drunk

and swim upside down. Probably none would swim upside down after the first two or three shots. After

four or five, a very sensitive fish might. After six or eight shots another one or two might. With a dose

of ten shots, five of the ten fish might be swimming upside down. After fifteen shots, there might beonly one fish swimming properly and it too would turn over after seventeen or eighteen shots.

The effect measured in this example is swimming upside down. Individual sensitivity to alcohol varies,

as does individual sensitivity to other poisons. There is a dose level at which none of the fish swim

upside down (no observed effect). There is also a dose level at which all of the fish swim upside down.

The dose level at which 50 percent of the fish have turned over is known as the ED50, which means

effective dose for 50 percent of the fish tested. The ED50 of any poison varies depending on the effect

measured. In general, the less severe the effect measured, the lower the ED50 for that particular

effect. Obviously poisons are not tested in humans in such a fashion. Instead, animals are used to

predict the toxicity that may occur in humans.

(30) air pollutants - On a temporal basis, air has immense capacity for moving a large mass ofpollutants. Mammals and birds are exposed to pollutants in air by the inhalation (nose and mouth),

cutaneous or ocular routes. Most laboratory studies on air pollutants have been limited to single air

pollutants and very little research has been done on the complex mixture of compounds that exist in

ambient air. Complex mixtures are further complicated by dynamic chemical reactions that occur after

the emissions leave point sources. Exposure parameters are also important in the toxicity of air

pollutants. Intermittent exposure of monkeys to ozone increased the adverse pulmonary effects.

Superimposing spikes of 0.8 ppm nitrogen dioxide on a baseline of 0.2 ppm, as occurs on a calm winter

day, increased the susceptibility of mice to bacteria-induced pneumonia. Sulfur dioxide at

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concentrations of 5 ppm increased pulmonary resistance by 39%. Sulfuric acid is the predominate acid

particle in the atmosphere. Exposure for 1 h to > 200 micrograms sulfuric acid/m3 depressed

bronchomucociliary clearance. Concentrations of 100 micrograms/m3 of photochemical products

caused headaches and 510 micrograms/m3 produced cough and chest pain. For chemical interactions

in dose response, nitrogen dioxide is synergistic with ozone and ammonium sulfate. When all 3

chemicals are used in mixture, the response was 340%. Atmospheric conditions, such as fog, can alter

the toxicity of air pollutants. The dose response to a single chemical can be altered by chemicalmixtures and pre-existing disease conditions. Understanding these relationships is important for

establishing no observable adverse effect levels.

(31) smoking risk - Cigarette smoke contains over 4,700 chemical compounds including 60 known

carcinogens. No threshold level of exposure to cigarette smoke has been defined but there is

conclusive evidence to indicate that long-term (years) smoking greatly increases the likelihood of

developing numerous fatal conditions.

Cigarette smoking is responsible for more than 85% of lung cancers and is also associated with

cancers of the mouth, pharynx, larynx, oesophagus, stomach, pancreas, uterine cervix, kidney, ureter,

bladder and colon. Cigarette smoking has also been linked to Leukaemia. Apart from the carcinogenic

aspects of cigarette smoking, links to increased risks of cardiovascular diseases (including stroke),

sudden death, cardiac arrest, peripheral vascular disease and aortic aneurysm have also beenestablished. Many components of Cigarette smoke have also been characterised as Ciliotoxic materials

that irritate the lining of the resp