Finishing up: Statistics & Developmental designs Psych 231: Research Methods in Psychology.
AP Psych Prep 9 - Developmental Psychology
Transcript of AP Psych Prep 9 - Developmental Psychology
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DEVELOPMENTAL
PSYCHOLOGYAP Psych. Prep 9
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DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCH.
Developmental Psychologists study
peoples psychology from birth to death.
How do we change over our lifespan?
Has many connections to other areas ofpsychology.
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NATURE VS. NURTURE
A big question forpsychology.
How much of our
development is becauseof our nature (genes,
biology, etc.), and how
much is because of nurture (our environment,
experiences, etc.). No psychologists today think that the answer is
either one or the other, but some influence from
both.
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DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH
METHODS We often use either cross-sectional or
longitudinal research in DevelopmentalPsych.
Cross-sectional Research - takes people ofdifferent ages and compares them. E.g.elementary school children, middleschoolers, and high schoolers.
This is fast, cheap, and easy, but we cant besure about our conclusions.
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CROSS-SECTIONAL RESEARCH
We need to be careful because history canmean 10 year old kids now might be differentfrom 10 year olds from the past or future.
e.g. If education policy changes for earlyages, they might have been treateddifferently.
There are many possible confoundingvariables; we cant be sure the onlydifference is age.
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RESEARCH
Longitudinal Research - study the same
people for a long time, so you can see how
they are changing over time.
Can give us confidence in the change of
those people. But historical effects should
affect all equally....
But takes a very long time, lots of money,
etc.
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EARLY DEVELOPMENT -
PRENATAL Prenatal - before birth
Genetics - can affect our development;
genes guide the development of ourbodies, but can also influence ourpsychological / behavioural development.
Teratogens - chemicals, viruses, drugs, orother things that can cause hard todeveloping humans before birth.
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FETAL ALCOHOL EFFECT
Similar to FAS (same cause), but not the
same symptoms.
Mental retardation is less likely, but other
developmental problems like learning
disabilities, behavioural problems, etc., can
occur.
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OTHER DRUG EFFECTS
Other drugs can also affect growingbabies. Some drugs cause baby to also beaddicted, and withdrawal symptoms after
birth can seriously harm the baby; caneven cause death.
Nicotine during pregnancy can also harmthe baby, including seemingly causing lowbirth weights...
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CRITICAL PERIODS FOR DEVELOPMENT
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NEWBORNS SENSES
Babies hearing is one of their first used
senses; can hear even before birth.
Can taste and smell from birth, and seem
to like similar tastes and smells as adults
do.
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NEWBORNS SENSES
Infants cant see as well as adults from birth.They can see close things well, but farthersight is not well developed.
Vision improves quickly; can see nearly aswell as an adult by about one year after birth.
Babies really like looking at faces, more thanany other thing in their environment.
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DEPTH PERCEPTION
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INFANTS MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
Our motor skills develop in a similar wayacross all humans.
These are approximate, but worldwide,
babies generally:Roll over - 5.5 months old
Stand up - 8-9 months old
Walk alone - 15 months old
Of course, there are individual
differences...
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PARENTING
Relationship to parents or caregivers is
seen as a very important environmentalinfluence on our development.
e.g. animals like birds that imprint veryearly on something in their environment
(usually the parent, but sometimes if theres
a problem, another animal, person,
ob ect...
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ATTACHMENT THEORY
Attachment - the relationship between the
child and parent or caregiver.
Harry Harlow and Baby Monkeys
Raised baby monkeys with two artificial
mothers.
One was metal and had a bottle that fed
the babies.
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ATTACHMENT THEORY - HARLOW
The other was covered with a soft material.
If surprised or stressed, the babies went tothe soft mother.
Showed that attachment is based on more
than just basic feeding; monkeys looked
for physical comfort.
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ATTACHMENT THEORY -
HARLOWMonkeys raised this way were never
socially adjusted, had troubles when they
lived with other monkeys.
This showed that relationship with early
caregivers is be very important for normal
development (mental, social, etc)
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ATTACHMENT THEORY -
AINSWORTHMary Ainsworths Strange Situation
experiment
Infants brought into a new/novel room withparents. Parents would leave for a shorttime, and then come back.
Ainsworth watched the infants reactionsand divided them into three differentattachment style groups.
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STRANGE SITUATION
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ATTACHMENT THEORY -
AINSWORTH
1. Secure Attachments (2/3 of children) -
Were brave and explored the environment
until the parent leaves. Then they get
upset, and when the parent comes back
the child goes to the parent for comfort.
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ATTACHMENT THEORY -
AINSWORTH
2. Avoidant Attachments (1/5 of the
children) - like to explore the environment,
seem a bit uninterested in what the parent
is doing. They dont go to the parent for
comfort when they come back.
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ATTACHMENT THEORY -
AINSWORTH
3. Anxious/Ambivalent (or Resistant)
Attachments (1/10 of the children) - may be
extremely upset when the parent leaves, butdoes not want comfort from the parent when
they return.
These are all very early in the childs life, and
there is not a lot of evidence that these styles
are connected to problems later in life.
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PARENTING STYLES
The behaviour of parents has also been studied.
Different ways of parenting thought to influencehow the child develops.
Diana Baumrind describes 3 parenting styles:
1. Authoritarian Parents - strict rules and
punishments, want the child to obey. Punishmentmore common than reinforcement/reward. dontwant to discuss the rules or reasons with thechild.
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PARENTING STYLES
2. Permissive Parents - dont have strictrules, rules are often ignored or changed.Children often feel like they can do what
they want.
3. Authoritative Parents - have reasonable,
well explained rules. Reasons for rules arediscussed with children. Use rewards aswell as punishments.
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PARENTING STYLES
Children of authoritative parents are
generally more academically successful,
and do better with social interaction.
Children of permissive parents seem to be
more emotionally volatile/unpredictable
and dependent on others.
Authoritarian parents children can be moredistrustful and less socially capable.
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PARENTING STYLES
Even though we have some research that
suggests effects of parenting styles, we
have to be careful.
These are only correlational, and we
know that parenting style is not the only
influence on what we become as adults.
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STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
Many diff. psychologists have describedour development in the form of stages. Wehave to be careful though...
Were not sure how continuous ordiscontinuous our psych. development is(stage theories tend to lean heavily on thediscontinuous side...)
As well, we dont need to pick just onecorrect stage theory.
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ONE CONTINUOUS SIDE
EXAMPLEOne famous development
psych. thinker who leans onthe continuous side of the
debate is Lev Vygotsky.
He was interested in how people learn,
and thought we learned in a much morecontinuous way, and very strongly basedon social interactions.
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LEV VYGOTSKY
Thought we have a zone of proximal
development - the things we are capable of
doing by ourselves or with the help of others.
Things we cant do alone but can do withsome help from others will be done together
at first, but with practice they will become
things we can do alone. In this way we will slowly increase the things
we are capable of doing.
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ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT
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LEV VYGOTSKY
The help we get from others that lets us
accomplish things we cant accomplish on
our own is called scaffolding.
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SIGMUND FREUDS PSYCHOSEXUAL
STAGES
Freuds idea of psychosexual stages was
more broad than just sexual intercourse;
connected to where he imagined we were
focused or got pleasure at different ages.
Each stage was thought to be related to
important development, and if we haveproblems at a stage we become fixated or
trapped at that stage = psychological
problems
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FREUDS PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES
Oral Stage - feeding is important, andinfants are focused on their mouths.Fixation at this stage might cause us to eat
too much or smoke cigarettes. Can alsoresult in adults who are too dependent.
Anal Stage - toilet training age. Fixationmakes people too controlling (analretentive) or out of control (anal expulsive);Note: impossible to scientifically verify...
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FREUDS PSYCHOSEXUAL
STAGES Phallic Stage - age when young children
realize they are male of female. Focus is on
genitals.
Freud thought boys go through OedipusComplex - a period of resenting the romantic
relationship between their father and mother
because they are (sort of) in love with theirmother.
Electra Complex is the same idea, but for
females.
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FREUDS PSYCHOSEXUAL
STAGES Fixation in Phallic Stage would create
problems for the person later in life in
relationships with others (especially in
romantic relationships).
Latency Phase - A resting period (ages ~6
to puberty) where we dont have a lot ofpsychosexual anxiety.
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FREUDS PSYCHOSEXUAL
STAGES
Genital Stage - the last stage, where
people focus on their genitals again;
Fixation here is expected and normal, in
Freuds view; the normal adult interest in
procreation activities.
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ERIK ERIKSONS PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES
Erikson was a neo-Freudian (people who
expanded on or altered the ideas, but who
believed and were inspired by Freuds basic
ideas; people who came after him inpsychoanalysis field...)
Erikson thought our social world andexperience was really important for our
development, therefore psychosocial stages.
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ERIKSONS PSYCHOSOCIAL
STAGES Eriksons Theory has 8 stages; each is a
social conflict we need to resolve. Each can
be resolved in a good or bad way, and all
these add up to make us who we are.
1. Trust vs. Mistrust - Babies have needs
(food, shelter, comfort, etc). If these are wellprovided by the caregivers, the baby will
develop a good sense of trust in the world.
ERIKSONS PSYCHOSOCIAL
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ERIKSONS PSYCHOSOCIAL
STAGES
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt -
Autonomy is control over ourselves,
including our body (happens at approx.toilet training age) and emotions. If we
learn to control these well, we move
forward in life with a good sense ofautonomy.
ERIKSONS PSYCHOSOCIAL
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ERIKSONS PSYCHOSOCIAL
STAGES
3. Initiative vs. Guilt - Curiosity, desire to
understand the world. If we are
encouraged when we take initiative we willpass successfully. If not we may feel guilty
about asking questions or starting our own
projects.
ERIKSONS PSYCHOSOCIAL
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ERIKSONS PSYCHOSOCIAL
STAGES 4. Industry vs. Inferiority - early school age,
we are starting to study, play with others,produce projects, etc.
If we feel we can do as well as our peers,we will end in a healthy way. If we feelothers are much better than us, we maydevelop an inferiority complex - feeling
worried and defensive about ourperformance; canresult in overcompensation....
ERIKSONS PSYCHOSOCIAL
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ERIKSONS PSYCHOSOCIAL
STAGES 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion -
Adolescence, our biggest job is to find out
who we want to be as an adult. We might
try different fashion styles, groups offriends, interests, etc. so we can find out
who we want to become.
Finding a stable identity and fitting in withothers is the goal.
ERIKSONS PSYCHOSOCIAL
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ERIKSONS PSYCHOSOCIAL
STAGES Failure can lead to an identity crisis later,
where person is unsure of identity, might
feel like they have no identity of their own.
This can even lead some to take on anegative identity like becoming a criminal
(a negative identity is seen as better than
no identity by these people...)
ERIKSONS PSYCHOSOCIAL
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ERIKSONS PSYCHOSOCIAL
STAGES 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation - Young adults now
have an identity, but they need to work tofit it with other people, form and keep
relationships. Sometimes this is related to romance, but
not always; other social relationships too.
We want to end this stage feeling like wehave meaningful relationships, that we arenot alone.
ERIKSONS PSYCHOSOCIAL
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ERIKSONS PSYCHOSOCIAL
STAGES 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation - long term life
and career goals; making sure our life is going
how we want it to go (in a large, general
sense)
Can we take control and make sure our lives
will be what we want (often work/career, family,
etc).
Ending this stage with feelings of failure or lack
of control will be a problem for the person...
ERIKSONS PSYCHOSOCIAL
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ERIKSONS PSYCHOSOCIAL
STAGES 8. Integrity vs. Despair - near the end of
our life, we look back and think about if we
are satisfied / happy with our lives.
If we accomplished what we wanted wecan live peacefully and enjoy life (maybe
enjoy and help our children and
grandchildren). If not, we might live in regret over things
we didnt do, mistakes we made, etc.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT JEAN
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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT - JEAN
PIAGET
A very famous scholar of
cognitive (thinking)
development.
Worked with Alfred Binet,who made the first IQ test.
Piaget noticed children making similar
mistakes at similar ages, so he thoughtthey were going through some common
stages.
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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT - JEAN PIAGET
Schemata are important to Piagets ideas
about how we learn.
Remember how schemata work:
THINKING AND CREATIVITY BASICS
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THINKING AND CREATIVITY: BASICS
Concepts / Schemata- the category
structures in our minds; we use these to
make sense of the world
E.g. Schema for dog might include:
has hair
four legs
tail
is cute
THINKING AND CREATIVITY: BASICS
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THINKING AND CREATIVITY: BASICS
Concepts / Schemata sometimes bring us to
the right answer:
We often easily assimilate new information
into our schemas - This is also a dog, it fits
with my schema and so our schemas get
more complicated and useful.
THINKING AND CREATIVITY: BASICS
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THINKING AND CREATIVITY: BASICS
Sometimes its not easy, and we need to use
accommodation.
Change: Create New:
Maybe dogs arent Similar, but not dog
always cute... new schemata needed
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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT - PIAGET
Sensorimotor Stage (birth to ~2 years old)- learning is based on sensory information
and motor movements at this stage; we
soon start developing schemata to explainwhat we sense in our world.
Object permanence develops - the ideathat objects exist, even if we cant see
them (we dont have this cognitive ability at
birth)
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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT - PIAGET
Preoperational Stage (~2 to 7 years old) -stage where we start using symbols to
represent things in the real world. Biggest
example is language.
Our symbolic thinking develops in this
stage: language, math, etc.
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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT - PIAGET
Preoperational children are egocentric -they can only see the world from their own
perspective
One test of this is the Sally Anne Test.
(included)
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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT - PIAGET
Concrete Operations Stage (~8 to 12 yearsold) - we start to have intellectual abilities
of conservation - the idea that properties of
objects stay the same, even if the shapechanges. Thinking grows more logical.
e.g. conservation of volume, area, number
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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT - PIAGET
Formal Operations (~12 +) - final stage,adult level reasoning powers. During this
stage we become able to use abstract
reasoning - not connected to real worldobjects, etc.
Can reason about hypothetical situations,counterfactual situations.
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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT - PIAGET
We also gain the ability to think about our
own thinking (metacognition); very useful
for evaluating and improving our ownthinking.
Piaget thought that not everyone would
reach formal operations level of reasoning.
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CRITICISMS OF PIAGET
Some other psych. think Piagets timingcould be too slow; that children seem to
move through stages faster and earlier
than he thought. (Possible methodology problem - older
kids have better language skills... maybe
they can explain more easily what they cando with their cognitive powers).
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CRITICISMS OF PIAGET
Another criticism is that maybe the stagesarent so separate; might be more of acontinuous development.
One example of this is the Information-Processing Model - that we graduallygetbetter at mental skills (like our attentionspan), and not really jump from stage tostage.
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MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Psychologists are interested in other formsof development as well.
One of these is moral development; how
do our moral reasoning skills change aswe grow?
One way to study this was to give moralproblems to children of different ages andstudy their answers. (e.g. Heinz Dilemma)
MORAL DEV LAWRENCE
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MORAL DEV. - LAWRENCE
KOHLBERG Found three general levels of moral
reasoning.
1. Preconventional - the youngest group;
reasoning centerd on the self - often on
how to avoid punishment or gain reward....
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MORAL DEV. - LAWRENCE KOHLBERG
2. Conventional - reasoning based more onhow others will view and think about the choice
maker; looking for praise, approval, trying to be
seen as the good child
3. Postconventional - based on abstract ideasabout justice, rights, values, etc. People at this
level can question societys moral rules; justice
comes from more complicated reasoning.
CRITICISM OF KOHLBERG CAROL
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CRITICISM OF KOHLBERG - CAROL
GILLIGAN
Kohlberg originally just looked at boysresponses; later when girls were studied,
their answers were often judged to be at
the low levels of moral development...
Carol Gilligan thought Kohlbergs stages
were gender biased. Maybe men andwomen use a different type of moral
reasoning.
MORAL REASONING - CAROL
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MORAL REASONING - CAROL
GILLIGAN Thought males might use more absolute rules,
applying them to every situation in a similar way.
But females might take situational factors and
relationships more into account when they didmoral reasoning tasks.
Her version not well supported by evidence, but
showed us we need to consider possible bias.
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GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
Psychologists often interested in how wedevelop our ideas about gender roles -
what we think men and women are like,
how they should act, etc.Gender roles are veryculturally
dependent.
A few different perspectives provide ideas
about gender roles.
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GENDER - BIOPSYCHOLOGY
Lots of research into how men and womenare different.
One big finding - corpus callosum is
different size. Womens is statisticallysignificantly larger. They have more
connections between the two
hemispheres. Exactly how this affects us is not
understood yet.
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GENDER - PSYCHODYNAMIC
Psychodynamic = psychoanalytic (e.g.Freud)
Oedipus Complex, Electra Complex - we
compete with our same sex parent for theaffection of our opposite sex parent;
But eventually we stop competing and start
to identify with the same sex parent. Theybecome our gender role model, so we try
to be manly or womanly like them.
GENDER - SOCIAL-COGNITIVE
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GENDER - SOCIAL-COGNITIVE
THEORY Study effects of society, like how we treat
boys and girls differently.
Gender Schemata - our concepts of how
men and women should act; built from our
experience with society, media, parents,
family schools friends etc