AP English Language

Grammar IntensiveParts of Speech Review

1. NounsPerson, place, thing or ideaCan be:

◦Proper/common◦Concrete/abstract◦collective

1. Functions of nounsSubject

◦The baby cried.◦Dogs and cats make excellent pets.

Predicate Nominative –with a linking verb◦My grandfather is a farmer.

Direct Object◦The children ate all the cookies.

1. Functions of NounsObject complements – directly

modifying the direct object. ◦My aunt calls my uncle sweetheart. ◦America recently elected Barack

Obama president. Indirect Objects

◦The salesman sold the company new computers.

Object of Preposition ◦Mike bought flowers for Andrea.

1. Functions of NounsAppositives

◦The musician Stevie Nicks is a singer in Fleetwood Mac.

◦The teacher, my uncle, assigns a lot of homework.

1. Functions of NounsAdjectives – noun phrase

modifiers ◦The child actor won an award.

Adjectives - Possessive modifiers ◦The librarians' report was

informative. Adverbs

◦We decided to go home. ◦Today the children woke up early.

2. PronounsUse in place of one or more

nounsCan serve all of the same

functions as nouns, including ADJECTIVES!!

The word that the pronoun replaces or refers to is called an antecedent

There are seven types of pronouns!

2. Pronoun TypesPersonal and Personal Possessive

I, me, my, mineHe, him, hisShe, her, hersWe, us, our, oursThey, them, their, theirsYou, your, yoursit, its

Note: Possessive Pronouns function as ADJECTIVES!

2. Pronoun TypesReflexive and Intensive

◦Can be used to REFLECT on a noun or

◦Can be used to INTENSIFY for emphasis

myself ourselves yourselfyourselves

himself herself itselfthemselves

Ex. Miranda explained herself.Ex. Miranda herself made the

explanation.

2. Pronoun TypesRelative Pronouns

◦Used to introduce subordinate clauses

that who whosewhich whom

Ex. The college [that I chose] was in Texas.

Ex. Do you know the woman [whose writing was mentioned?]

2. Pronoun TypesInterrogative Pronouns

◦Used in questions

who which what whom whose

Ex. Who borrowed my pen?Ex. Which do you prefer?

2. Pronoun TypesWho vs. Whom

Who is always referring to a subject of a verb in a clause

Whom is always referring to an object of a verb in a clause

2. Pronoun TypesExamples of correct “who” usage:

◦Who went to the circus?

◦We all know who won the game for the team.

◦Corie knows who made the cake.

◦Whoever said that you couldn't dance?

2. Pronoun TypesExamples of correct “whom” usage

◦For whom did you vote?

◦With whom do you sail?

◦Whom should I ask about the discount?

◦You may go with whomever you choose.

2. Pronoun TypesWho vs. Whom – The he/him testTry restating your clause as statement

or answer. If you can substitute “he,” use who. If you substitute “him,” use whom.

Who went to the circus? He went to the circusCorie knows who made the cake. He made

the cake.For whom did you vote? I voted for him. You may go with whomever you choose. I

choose him.

2. Pronoun TypesDemonstrative Pronouns

◦Used to point out persons or things

This that these those

Ex. That is an excellent answer.Ex. This is the correct answer.

2. Pronoun TypesIndefinite Pronouns

◦Pronouns that do not usually refer to a specific antecedent

all everybody no oneanother everyone oneany few otheranybody many severalanyone mostsomeboth neither somebodyeach nobody someoneeither nonesuch

3. AdjectivesA word used to modify a noun or

pronounAnswers the questions:

◦Which one?◦What kind?◦How many?◦How much?

3. Adjective PlacementBefore the nouns they modify

◦The green apples smelled good. ◦I placed the arduous task in the hands of a

capable student. Predicate Adjective – with a linking verb

◦Deborah is practical. ◦His stew tasted delicious.

After the nouns they modify◦The hikers, tired and hungry, straglled into

camp

4. VerbsA word that expresses action or

state of beingThree types

◦Action – transitive or intransitive◦Linking – describing state or

condition◦Helping – used with a main verb to

form a verb phrase

4. VerbsAction Transitive – takes a direct object

◦The rain pelted the windows. ◦My cousin bought a car.

Action Intransitive – no object necessary ◦The rain fell. ◦My cousin drove.

Some are one, some are both ◦The chorus sang patriotic songs. (trans) ◦The chorus sang. (intrans)

4. VerbsLinking Verbs – describe state of beingLink the subject to a noun, pronoun or

adjective that describes or identifies the subject

Links a subject to a subject complement

is were appear lookam be become remainare being feel seemwas been grow soundstay taste

4. VerbsLinking verb examples

◦This is she ◦She looks serious◦My uncle was a doctor.

Some words can be linking OR action, based on usage◦The singer appeared nervous

(linking)◦The singer appeared on television

(action)

4. VerbsHelping verbs – combine with other verbs to

form verb phrasesAm has can/may haveAre had could/would/should haveIs can could/would/should beWas may will/shall/have beenWere will/shall be might haveDo will/shall have might have beenDid has/had been mustHave can/may be must have

must have been

4. VerbsExamples of Helping Verbs – they

can be separated and still function as one◦Did you see Lorraine Hansberry’s

play?◦We have not seen it yet.

5. AdverbsA word used to modify a verb,

adjective or other adverbAnswers the questions

◦Where?◦When?◦In what way?◦To what extent?

5. AdverbsModify a verb

◦She reads quickly. (in what way)◦She reads early and late. (when)◦She reads everywhere. (where)◦She reads thoroughly. (to what

extent)◦She reads frequently. (how often)

5. AdverbsModify an adjective

◦She is an awfully intense competitorModify another adverb

◦She skated very well.Used chiefly for emphasis

really actually trulyindeed◦She can actually fly over the ice◦She is a really good skater.

5. AdverbsNouns as adverbs

◦My parents left yesterday.◦They will return Saturday.

6. Preposition A word used to show the relation of a noun or

pronoun to some other word in a sentence Used as part of a prepositional phrase

About beside of upAbove besides off uponAcross between on withAfter beyond over withinAgainst by past withoutAlong concerning sinceAmid downthroughAmong during throughoutAround except toAt for towardBefore from underBehind in underneathBelow into untilBeneath like unto

6. PrepositionExamples of prepositions/phrasesThe first speaker [on the

program] is my mother.Her cousin will teach [in San

Diego] next year.The two [of us] edited the article

[for the magazine].

7. ConjunctionsJoins words or groups of wordsCoordinating, Correlative, or

Subordinating

7. ConjunctionsCoordinating conjunctions

◦Connect items of equal importance

and but or nor for so yet

Ex. The bear turned and lumbered off into the woods.

Ex. We can use a pickup truck or a jeep.

7. ConjunctionsCorrelative Conjunctions

◦Must be used as a pair… shows correlation

Either… or neither… norBoth… and not only… but (also)Whether… or

Ex. She helped both Carrie and me with our applications

7. ConjunctionsSubordinating conjunctionsUsed to begin subordinate clauses

(usually adverb clauses)After before providedAlthough how sinceAs if thanAs much as inasmuch as thatBecause in order that thoughUnless until whenWhere whileNote: many of these words can also be used as

prepositions, adverbs or relative pronouns

7. ConjunctionsExamples of subordinating

conjunctions◦This computer is even better [than

we had anticipated].◦The sun had already set [when we

reached the Grand Canyon].◦[If the price is right], I will buy your

bicycle.◦[Since you can’t help me], I will do it

myself

8. InterjectionsA word that expresses emotion

and has no grammatical relation to any other word in the sentence.

Oh! My goodness!Yikes! Yeah,

Hooray! Sure,Awww,

AdverbialsThe Adverb ClauseRecognize an adverb clause when you

see one.An adverb clause will meet three

requirements:First, it will contain a subject and verb.You will also find a subordinate conjunction

that keeps the clause from expressing a complete thought.

Finally, you will notice that the clause answers one of these three adverb questions: How? When? or Why?

Read these examples: Tommy scrubbed the bathroom tile until his arms

ached. How did Tommy scrub? Until his arms ached, an

adverb clause. Josephine's three cats bolted from the driveway once

they saw her car turn the corner. When did the cats bolt? Once they saw her car turn

the corner, an adverb clause. After her appointment at the orthodontist, Danielle

cooked eggs for dinner because she could easily chew an omelet.

Why did Danielle cook eggs? Because she could easily chew an omelet, an adverb clause.

Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

  What Is Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement? A pronoun is a word (he, she, it, they) that takes the place of a

noun. An antecedent is the word the pronoun refers to or replaces. In a sentence, the antecedent comes before the pronoun. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in person, number, and gender.

  Common Rules To Follow For Agreement: 1.      Two singular objects connected by and require a plural

pronoun.   Ex: Julie and Mike have chosen their costumes for the party.   2. Words such as both, several, and many are plural and require

plural pronouns.   Ex: Both of my cats ate their food.  

3. The following words, when used as subjects, are always singular and must have singular pronouns:

 each everybody nobody nothingevery everything somebody eithereveryone anybody someone neither 

Ex: Either of the boys will loan you his book. 

Ex: Each of the girls brought her sleeping bag.

Gerund Recognition Practice

  Definition: A verbal is a verb form used as another part of speech.

There are 3 types of verbals: Gerunds, Participles, and Infinitives.  We are going to take each of these separately in these worksheets.  We are also going to have sheets for both recognizing the verbal by itself and then as a verbal phrase.  This worksheet is just on recognizing gerunds.

Gerund: a verb form ending in -ing (present participle) used as a noun.  Thus it can be in the position of subject, direct object, object of the preposition, or predicate noun.

Examples:Subject - Reading is my favorite activity.Direct Object - I enjoy reading.Object of the Preposition - Rainy days are good days for reading.Predicate Noun - My favorite subject is reading.

Remember this: A word ending in -ing can be either a verb, a participle or a gerund.  To determine which one it is, you must determine how it is used in the sentence.  Do these steps:

 Find the simple subject and simple predicate.  If the -ing form of the verb is not part of the simple predicate

(verb), then determine how it is used in the sentence.  Is it in a noun position?  Then it is a gerund.  If it is used as an adjective, then it will be a participle.

Example:Bill and Tony are running.          Are running is the verb in this sentence.

Bill and Tony enjoy running.          Running is a gerund, a direct object of the action verb, enjoy.

The running water overflowed.          Running is a participle (adjective) modifying the noun, water.

I. loose sentence and periodic sentence

I. loose sentence and periodic sentence1. A loose sentence puts the main idea before

all supplementary information; in other words, it puts first things first, and lets the reader know what it is mainly about when he has read the first few words. The reverse arrangement makes a periodic sentence: the main idea is expressed at or near the end of it, and it is not grammatically complete until the end is reached. The reader does not know what it is mainly about until he finishes reading it.( A Handbook of Writing Ding Wangdao)

Loose or periodic?a. She decided to study English

though she was interested in music.

b. Although she was interested in music, she finally decided to study English.

. The definition offered in the Webster’s New World Dictionary:Loose sentence (p.798): a sentence

in which the essential elements, in the main clause, come first, followed by subordinate parts, modifiers, etc., as in a compound sentence.

Periodic sentence (p.1005): a sentence in which the essential elements, in the main clause, are withheld until the end or separated as by modifiers or subordinate clauses.

. The rhetoric function of loose sentence and periodic sentence

1. loose sentence (1) loose sentence gives

prominence to emphases and comes straight to the point:

She was offered a professional contract after winning the Olympic gold medal for figure skating, according to the newspaper reports.

2. periodic sentence ◦ causes anticipation and suspense

in readers because the important information readers are eager to know is postposed at the end of the sentence.

Though Jim Thorpe had brought great glory to his nation, though thousands of people cheered him upon his return to the United Stages and attended banquets and a New York parade in his honor, he was not a citizen

Active – Passive VoiceBecause passive voice sentences

necessarily add words and change the normal doer-action-receiver of action direction, they may make the reader work harder to understand the intended meaning.

The passive voice does exist for a reason, however, and its presence is not always to be despised. The passive is particularly useful (even recommended) in two situations:

When it is more important to draw our attention to the person or thing acted upon: The unidentified victim was apparently struck during the early morning hours.

When the actor in the situation is not important: The aurora borealis can be observed in the early morning hours.