AP Biology Exam Review

Survey of the Kingdoms

Taxonomy-based on phylogeny (evolutionary relationships)

Kingdom King Phylum Philip Class Cried Order Out Family For Genus Good Species Spaghetti

Carolus Linnaeus

Binomial nomenclature: Genus species (scientific name)

Systematics: study of relationships

Viruses No scientific names because not living,

unable to be classified Lytic or lysogenic life cycle In lysogenic cycle, latency = provirus

(if host cell not bacteria) or prophage (if host cell is bacteria)

Can be retrovirus Viroids (naked RNA) and prions

(naked protein): simpler than viruses but just as infectious

Bacteria, Eubacteria, Archaebacteria, Monera Prokaryotes: no nuclei, no organelles Unicellular Single “naked” chromosome Plasmids (small circular DNA) in some Flagella made of flagellin (debate of

9+2 arrangement) Non-flagellated bacteria: tumble,

spin, glide

Obtaining energy Photoautotroph/Chemoautotroph

vs. Heterotroph

Obligate aerobes vs. facultative anaerobe vs. obligate anaerobe

Unique characteristics of archaebacteria Cell walls lack peptidoglycan. Ribosomes more similar to eukaryotes

than eubacteria. Plasma membrane made of lipids

different than most other organisms. Extreme habitats: methanogens,

extrene halophiles, thermoacidophiles

Classifying eubacteria Mode of nutrition Ability to make endospores (resistant

bodies with DNA/RNA and durable wall) Motility Shape: cocci, bacilli, spirilla Gram stain technique: G+

(peptidoglycan), G- (lipopolysaccharide)

Common groups of bacteria Cyanobacteria: phycobilin pigments,

heterocyst cells that produce nitrogen-fixing enzyme

Chemosynthetic bacteria: autotrophs nitrifying bacteria (nitrite nitrate)

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria: heterotrophs; mutualistic relationship with plants; live in nodules of bean plants

Spirochetes: coiled bacteria, internal flagella (within cell wall layers)

Protists Most likely convergent evolution producing

similar characteristics within protists Evolved through endosymbiosis Eukaryotes Algae: all with chlorophyll a and other

accessory pigments Protozoa: heterotrophs Fungus-like: saprobic, filaments, spore-

bearing bodies

Algae Euglenophyta: no cellulose cell wall

(pellicle protein strips), 3 flagella, heterotrophic without light, eyespot for phototaxis

Dinoflagellata: 2 flagella, some bioluminescent (red tide), produce nerve toxin that concentrate in filter feeders

Chrysophyta: golden algae Bacillariophyta: diatoms, tests (shells)

made of silica

Algae Chlorophyta: green algae, cellulose cell

walls, variation in sexual reproduction (isogamous, anisogamous, oogamous), some multicellular or colonial, ancestors of plants

Phaeophyta: brown algae, multicellular, flagellated sperm (seaweeds, kelps)

Rhodophyta: red algae, red accessory pigments phycobilins, multicellular, nonflagellated gametes

Protozoa Foraminifera: tests (shells) of calcium

carbonate, marine sediments with forams indicates underlying deposits of petroleum

Rhizopods: amoebas, move with pseudopods

Zoomastigophora: zooflagellates, cause diseases (Trypanosoma)

Sporozoa: animal parasite, uses more than one host to complete life cycle (Plasmodium)

Ciliophora: paramecium, most with cilia

Fungus-like protistan molds Cellular slime mold:

Acrasiomycota, amoebas feed on bacteria, when not enough food aggregates into slug

Plasmodial slime mold: Myxomycota, grows as single mass, grows stalks up when environment dries out to release spores

Oomycota: water molds

Fungus Hyphae: filaments Mycelium: mass of hyphae Septate (cross walls) vs. aseptate

(no cross walls, aka coenocytic) Chitin cell walls Parasites or saprobes Haustoria: parasitic hyphae that

penetrates the host

Temporary fungal 2N stage Plasmogamy: fusing cellas fromt

wo different fungal strains dikaryon

Karyogamy: fusing of two nuclei

Meiosis immediately retores 1N state

Asexual fungal reproduction Fragmentation: breaking apart

hyphae

Budding: small part of hyphae pinched off

Asexual spores: sporangiospores (borne on sac-like sporangia) and conidia (formed at tips of hyphae)

Fungal groups Zygomycota: bread mold Ascomycota: yeasts, mildews, truffles Basidiomycota: mushrooms Deuteromycota: imperfect fungus, Penicillium

Lichens: fungus and algae “liking” it together

Mycorrhizae: mutualistic relationships of fungus and plant roots

Plant characteristics Except for Bryophytes (mosses), 2N

dominant Cuticle Vascular systems (reduces water

dependency) of xylem and phloem Flagellated sperm needing water sperm in

pollen grains Unprotected gametophytes ovary

protecting gametophytes Seasonal adaptation: deciduous vs.

evergreen

Bryophytes Mosses, liverworts, hornworts Male gametangium: antheridium

has sperm Female gametangium:

archegonium has egg Lack vascular tissue Small and close to water

Tracheophytes (vascular plants) Lycophyta: wood trees of

Carboniferous period, epiphytes, club shaped spore cones caleld strobili

Sphenophyta: horsetails

Pterophyta: ferns, sporangia clusters called sori

Seeded plants Microsporangia: produce

microspores (male spores) pollen grains (tube cells, 2 sperm)

Macrosporangia: produces female spores 1 megaspore (egg), 2 polar bodies all contained in ovule

Coniferophyta - gymnosperms Pine trees Juniper trees Redwood trees

Anthophyta - angiosperms Flowers Carpel/pistil: female parts of stigma,

style, ovary Stamen: male parts of anther,

filament Petals: modified leaves to attract

pollinators Sepals: modified leaves to protect

flower

Angiosperm advancements Pollinators required

Ovules inside ovary

Ovary develops into fruit with seeds (mature ovule).

Angiosperm fertilization Pollen on stigma, developing

pollen tube that extends to the micropyle (opening of ovule).

Sperm + egg zygote embryo Sperm + 2 polar bodies

endosperm “double fertilization”

Animal characteristics Multicellular Heterotrophic 2N dominant Motile at some point of its life cycle Embryonic development stage

where 2 or 3 tissue layers form

Tissue complexity: eumetazoan (most animals with 2-3 tissue layers – ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm) vs. parazoa (true tissues but no organs)

Body symmetry: radial vs. bilateral

Cephalization

Variations that shaped the animal kingdom Gastrovascular cavity: guts, 2

openings designate digestive tract

Coelom: in embryonic stage, cavity called coelom can develop from mesoderm (acoelomate, pseudocoelomate, coelomate)

Segmentation: same and repeated or modified with specialized functions

Variations that shaped the animal kingdom Protostome vs. deuterostome:

early embryonic cell divisions (cleavage) Protosome

Angled cleavageMouth firstCoelom develops from tissues at the sides of internal cavity (archenteron)

DeuterostomeStraight cleavageAnus firstCoelom develops from outpouch of archenteron walls

Animals - invertebrates Porifera: sponges, filter feeders,

osculum, amoebocytes, spicules Cnidaria: jellifish, hydrozoans, sea

anemones, corals, medusa vs. polyp body shape

Platyhelminthes: flatworms, flukes, tapeworms, proglottids (secondarily developed “segments”), acoelomate

Animals - invertebrates Nematoda: roundworms,

pseudocoelomate, complete digestive tract, mouth and anus!

Rotifera: multicellular, pseudocoelomate, complete digestive tract, filter feeders

Mollusca: snails, bivalves, octopuses, squids; body made of foot, mantle (secretes shell), radula

Annelids: segmented worms, leeches, earthworms

Animals - invertebrates Arthropoda: spider, insects,

crustaceans, jointed appendages, chitin exoskeleton, metamorphosis vs. nymph life cycle

Echinodermata: sea stars, sea urchins, sand dollars, deuterostomes, complete digestive tract

Animals – chordata Notochord: dorsal, flexible rod for

support backbone Dorsal hollow nerve cord: basis of

central nervous system (brain, spinal cord) Pharyngeal gill slits: channels across

pharynx to the outside body gills or disappears

Muscular tail: extends beyond digestive tract develops or disappears

Animals - vertebrates Agnatha: jawless fish Chondricthyes: cartilaginous fish Osteichthyes: bony fish Amphibians: frogs, salamanders Reptiles: crocs, alligators, turtles Aves: birds Mammals: primates, dogs, cats, etc.