AP Biology Exam Review Part I: Biochemistry, Cells and Transport

2A3: Organisms must exchange matter with the environment to grow, reproduce, and maintain organization. 2B1: Cell Membranes are selectively permeable due to their structures. 2B2: Growth and dynamic homeostasis are maintained by the constant movement of molecules across membranes. 2B3: Eukaryotic cells maintain internal membranes that partition the cell into specialized regions. 4A1: The subcomponents of biological molecules and their sequence determine the properties of that molecule. 4A3: The structure and function of subcellular components, and their interactions, provide essential cellular processes. 4C1: Variation in molecular units provides cells with a wider range of function. A. Chemistry of Life

1. CHNOPS- most common elements in all living matter

2. Bonds- ionic (transfer electrons), covalent (sharing- polar/unequal sharing and non-polar/equal sharing), hydrogen (weak bonds between hydrogen and negatively charged items), hydrophobic interactions (how non-polar compounds congregate together- lipids)

3. pH

a. acid-base/ 0-14, # of H ions determines scale; logarithmic- pH 3 = 10-3 = 1/1000 b. blood- 7.4, stomach- 2, small intestine- 8; enzymes are specific to pH c. buffers such as bicarbonate handle slight pH swing

4. Water properties- polarity, cohesion(attraction to other water molecules), adhesion (attraction to other charged compounds) low density when frozen, versatile solvent, high heat of fusion/vaporization; surface tension

5. Organic molecules (monomers are simplest form of all; monomers join together via dehydration synthesis- loss of water- to make polymers; polymers are broken down via hydrolysis- input of water.) a. Carbohydrates- CHO 1:2:1 ratio, monomer= monosaccharides, 2=disaccharides, 3

or more= polysaccharides b. Used for energy (cell respiration) c. Examples

(1) glucose- immediate energy to make ATP (2) starch- stored energy in plants (3) glycogen- stored energy in animals (stored in liver) (4) cellulose- plant cell wall

d. Lipids – C, H, O (not a 1:2:1 ratio) *P only in phospholipids (1) fats, waxes, oils and sterols (2) Saturated fats have single bonds between carbons, unsaturated fats have at

least one double bond between carbons (kinky); plants make polyunsaturated; animals make monounsaturated

(3) Phospholipids make up cell membranes (double layer) and are amphipathic- hydrophilic and hydrophobic

(4) uses- in all membranes, sex hormones, & corticoids; stored energy, protection, insulation, myelin sheath of nerves

e. Proteins- C, H, O, N (may have other elements in R group) (1) Monomer- amino acids (20 total types), 2=dipeptide, 3 or more= polypeptide

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(2) Parts of amino acid= carboxyl group (COOH) on one end, amino group on the other end (NH2), central carbon and variable R group (can be hydrophobic or hydrophilic) which determines chemical properties.

(3) Protein Folding- shape determines function; primary= a.a. chain; secondary= beta pleated sheet or alpha helix( hydrogen bonds); tertiary=globular; folds in on itself (disulfide bridges, hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions; ionic bonding); quartenary= more than one polypeptide.

(4) Uses- protein carriers in cell membrane, antibodies, hemoglobin, enzymes, most hormones, muscle (actin and myosin)

f. Nucleic acids- (1) Monomer= nucleotide, 2 = dinucleotide, 2 or more polynucleotide (2) Nucleotide made up of sugar, phosphate and base (3) Used to store genetic information (4) DNA is double stranded, has deoxyribose, A, G, C, T (5) RNA is single stranded, has ribose, A, G, C, U (6) mRNA- copies genetic message; rRNA- attaches mRNA and makes up

ribosomes (most common);tRNA- carries amino acids;DNA- carries genetic code

B. Cells 1. Prokaryotic (Bacteria) Eukaryotic (all other living things)

no membrane-bound organelles m.b.o, ex. Chloroplasts and nucleus

no nucleus(single; circular DNA) multiple linear DNA

free ribosomes and cell wall histones on DNA

2. Cell organelles

a. Nucleus- holds DNA and nucleolus(where ribosomal subunits are made) b. Mitochondria- double membrane; outer is smooth and inside is folded with enzymes

to make ATP (site of cellular respiration (glucose breakdown) c. Ribosome- site of translation- protein synthesis; made of rRNA and protein d. E.R.- connected to nucleus; allows for reactions, membranous; smooth= lipids;

rough=proteins e. Golgi complex- packaging in membrane and signals for export f. Cytoskeleton: Microfilaments- contractile protein, gives shape, movement within cell;

Microtubules- centrioles, cilia, flagella, spindle fibers g. vacuoles/vesicles- water and solutes; large and central in plants

h. ANIMAL

• Lysosomes- contain enzymes; used for intracellular digestion and apoptosis • Centrioles- used in cell division • Peroxisomes- contain enzymes to break down H2O2 • Extra Cellular Matrix (ECM)- collection of proteins and glycoproteins on

outside of cell membrane; MHC i. PLANT

• Chloroplast- double membrane; site of photosynthesis (glucose synthesis) • Cell wall- middle lamella- pectin; primary cell wall- cellulose; secondary cell

wall- lignin page 2

j. Cell junctions- plasmodesmata (between plant cells); gap junctions (between animal cells); tight junctions (stitched animal cells); anchoring junctions (riveted together animals cells)

k. Endosymbiont theory- all eukaryotic cells came from bacterial cells that lived together; proof= all chloroplasts and mitochondria have own DNA and are autonomous

3. Cell membrane (separates the internal environment of cell from external environment).

a. Phospholipid bilayer (selectively permeable; amphipathic) b. Fluid mosaic model (in motion; proteins, cholesterol, glycoproteins and glycolipids

among phospholipids). Membrane is hydrophilic on inside and outside, hydrophobic within membrane

c. Simple diffusion- from high to low concentration- small and uncharged move freely through phospholipids ex. CO2, O2 (passive; no energy;no protein carrier)

d. Facilitated diffusion- large or charged from high to low, passive; with protein carrier: ex. glucose, K+,

e. Active transport- from low to high concentration; uses ATP; uses a protein f. Endocytosis- phagocytosis (solid) and pinocytosis (liquid); membrane surrounds and

forms vesicles; receptor mediated endocytosis has receptors on surface g. Exocytosis- release of material using vesicles fusing with membrane h. Osmosis- diffusion of water using a selectively permeable membrane; passive; no

proteins i. Water potential= pressure potential plus pressure potential; water moves from high

water potential to low water potential; solutes always lower water potential; pressure can increase or decrease depending on if it is negative or positive.

j. Plant cells have pressure related to cell wall and vacuole; turgor pressure k. Hypertonic (high solute), hypotonic (low solute), and isotonic solutions(equal

concentration) l. Plasmolysis (plant cells; membrane pull away from cell wall); crenation (animal cell

shrivels) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

AP Investigation 4: Diffusion and Osmosis

Part I- Diffusion in Agar Cubes

Overview: Various size cubes of phenolphthalein agar were placed in NaOH and then diffusion rates were calculated.

IV- Size of cube

DV- percent diffusion

Equations: Volume = L x W x H, volume diffused = total volume – volume not pink, % diffusion =

Volume diffused /total volume x 100, surface area of a cube = L x W x # of sides, surface area/volume

ratio.

Part II- Osmosis in Living Cells (Potatoes)

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Overview: Potato cylinders placed in sucrose (sugar) solutions and massed before and after to get percent change in mass.

IV- Sucrose solutions (varying molarities)

DV- percent change in mass

Equations: ,

Part III- Design Your Own Experiment (Dialysis Bags)

Overview: Students were provided with dialysis bags, colored sucrose solutions of unknown molarities, and basic lab equipment to use to design an experiment on how to determine the molarities of the colored solutions.

IV- unknown molarities

DV- for most groups it was percent change in mass

Equations: (final mass-initial mass)/ initial mass

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Biochemistry: amino acid amphipathic carbohydrate carbon denaturation disaccharide ester bond fibrous protein globular protein

glycosydic bond hydrogen bond ion lipid macromolecule monomer monosaccharide nitrogen non-polar molecule

nucleic acid nucleotide organic molecule peptide bond phospholipid polar molecule polymer protein water

Cells: active transport amphipathic apoptosis aquaporin carrier protein cell wall centrioles channel protein chloroplast concentration gradient cytoplasm

cytoskeleton diffusion electron microscope endocytosis endoplasmic reticulum glycolipid glycoprotein Golgi apparatus hypertonic hypotonic ion pump

isotonic ligand light microscope lysosome magnification membrane mitochondrion nuclear envelope nuclear pore phospholipid pinocytosis

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Determined by graphing percent changes in mass versus molarity of solution

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plasma membrane plasmolysis prokaryotic cell resolution ribosome rough ER selectively permeable smooth ER

exocytosis eukaryotic cell facilitated diffusion flagella fluid mosaic model nucleus organelles osmosis

passive transport phagocytosis surface area:volume ratio transmembrane protein turgor vacuole

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Questions and Practice

1. How do the unique chemical and physical properties of water make life on earth possible?

2. What is the role of carbon in the diversity of life?

3. How do cells synthesize and breakdown macromolecules?

4. How do structures of biological molecules account for their function (carbs, proteins, lipids,

DNA)?

5. What are the similarities and differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

6. What the evolutionary relationships between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

7. How does compartmentalization organize a cell’s functions?

8. How are the structures of the various subcellular organelles related to their functions?

9. How do organelles function together in cellular processes?

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10. What is the current model of molecular architecture of membranes?

11. How do variations in this structure account for functional differences among membranes?

12. How does the structure of membranes provide for transport and recognition?

13. What are various mechanisms by which substances can cross the membrane?

14. In osmosis and diffusion lab, how was osmosis measured in both living and artificial?

15. What was the IV in the dialysis bag part of the lab? DV? Control? Controlled variables?

16. What was the IV in the potato part of the lab? DV? Control? Controlled variables?

17. Draw concept map showing the connections between the following terms: Atom, Compound,

Carbohydrate, Lipid, Protein, Nucleic Acid, Organelles, Nucleus, Mitochondria, Cell membrane, Golgi

Apparatus, ER, prokaryotic cell, eukaryotic cell

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AP Biology Review Part 2: Energy Conversions & Enzymes and Cell Cycle and Cell Communication

2A1: All living system require constant input of free energy. 2A2: Organisms capture free energy and store free energy for use in biological processes. 3A2: In eukaryotes, heritable information is passed to the next generation via processes that include the cell cycle and

mitosis or meiosis plus fertilization. 3B2: A variety of intercellular and intracellular signal transmissions mediate gene expression. 3D1: Cell communication processes share common features that reflect a shared evolutionary history. 3D2: Cells communicate with each other through direct contact with other cells or from a distance via chemical signaling. 3D3: Signal transduction pathways link signal reception with cellular response. 3D4: Changes in signal transduction pathways can alter cellular response. 4B1: Interactions between molecules affect their structure and function

1. Energy a. Organisms use free energy for organization, growth and reproduction. Loss of order or free

energy flow results in death. b. More free energy (ex. Food) than needed will be stored for growth (roots, glycogen, fat, etc.). c. Matter and energy are not created but change form (1st law of thermo; ex. Sun energy to bond

energy in glucose) and entropy is increasing in disorganization of energy (i.e. heat released by cell respiration). More organized or built up compounds have more free energy and less entropy (i.e. glucose) and less organized have less free energy and more entropy (i.e. carbon dioxide).

d. Reactions can be coupled to maintain a system, ex. Photosynthesis and cell respiration

2. Enzymes a. Biological catalysts (made of protein) that speed up rate of chemical reactions by lowering

activation energy required for reaction to occur b. Enzyme has active site (exposed R groups) where reaction occurs c. Enzymes can break down substance (catabolic reaction) or build up substances (anabolic) d. Enzyme/substrate complex is formed e. Substrate is what enzyme acts on f. Rate is determined by collisions between substrate and enzyme g. Ends in –ase, named after substrate often h. Enzyme is specific to substrate; the substrate must be complementary to the surface

properties (shape and charge) of the active site (which is made up of R groups with specific chemistry, i.e. hydrophobic).

i. Enzyme rate is affected by: • pH (optimal for each enzyme), • temperature (optimal for each enzyme but in general increased temp means

increased collisions so rate goes up initially; too much heat can denature enzyme), enzyme concentration (more enzyme faster rate or vice versa)

• substrate concentration (more substrate faster rate; vmax is fastest enzyme can work when saturated)

j. Inhibition-competitive inhibition (something competes for active site; can be overcome with more substrate)

k. Non-competitive inhibition- attaches at allosteric site and changes shape of enzyme so it is not functional; can not be overcome with more substrate

l. Coenzymes (organic; NAD and vitamin B etc.) and cofactors (inorganic; zinc, magnesium etc.) interact with enzymes to put them into the right structure to do work.

3. Energy Transformations ATP- adenosine triphosphate- energy molecule for cells (recyclable)

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A. Photosynthesis 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2 Photosynthetic organisms capture free energy present in sunlight and use water and carbon dioxide to make carbon products and free oxygen. Light-dependent reactions- photophosphorylation (1) Photosystems I and II (chlorophyll and proteins) are embedded in the internal membranes of

chloroplasts (thylakoids of the grana). They pass electrons through an electron transport chain (ETC). When electrons are passed they allow hydrogen ions (protons) across the thykaloid membrane. The formation of the proton gradient powers the process of ATP synthesis to add a phosphate ADP to ATP (chemiosmosis).

(2) Electrons are passed to NADP+ to make NADPH (electron carrier) (3) H2O is used and O2 released as by-product (4) Red and blue light works best (green is reflected typically) (5) Pigments= chlorophyll a and b; accessory pigments (6) Energy converted from sun into chemical energy of ATP and NADPH to be used in building of

sugar (Calvin Cycle) Light-independent reactions- Calvin Cycle (1) carbon fixation occurs (2) occurs in stroma of chloroplasts (3) ATP and NADPH are used; rubisco is enzyme that fixes carbon (not picky and will fix O2 too-

photorespiration; “the ho”) Evolution of Photosynthesis (1) Photosynthesis first evolved in prokaryotic organisms; (bacterial) photosynthesis was

responsible for the production of an oxygenated atmosphere (2) C4 photosynthesis- crabgrass, corn, drought resistance, uses new enzyme- PEP carboxylase

which is specific for just CO2 and CAM- Crassulacean Acid metabolism used in dry climates, ex. Cacti stomates are closed during day and open at night

B. Cellular respiration C6H12O6 + 6O26CO2 + 6H2O Makes ATP for cell use; uses glucose and oxygen makes waste products of carbon dioxide and water; occurs in mitochondria; NADH is electron carrier used Glycolysis (1) occurs in cytoplasm; anaerobic (2) rearranges the bonds in glucose molecules, releasing free energy to form ATP from ADP

resulting in the production of pyruvate. Kreb’s cycle (1) occurs in mitochondrial matrix (2) also called the citric acid cycle (3) occurs twice (one for each acetyl co-a) (4) Pyruvate is oxidized further and carbon dioxide is released ; ATP is synthesized from ADP and

inorganic phosphate via substrate level phosphorylation and electrons are captured by coenzymes (NAD+ and FAD). NADH and FADH2 carry them to the electron transport chain.

(5) The electron transport chain captures in a process similar to light dependent reactions to make ATP.

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(6) At end 38 ATP made per glucose molecule- could be 36 if it cost ATP to get in mitochondria; some of the energy in bonds is lost as heat (not completely efficient but since it occurs in several reactions with enzymes it is more efficient than one combustion)

Anaerobic Fermentation (1) No oxygen; cell only goes through glycolysis followed by fermentation (2) Fermentation recycles NAD needed to restart glycolysis (3) alcohol fermentation ex. yeast cells- glucose ethyl alcohol + CO2+ NAD (4) lactic acid fermentation ex. muscle cells- glucose lactic acid + NAD (5) Fermentation does not make ATP but glycolysis does- 2ATP; very inefficient; sufficient for microorganisms

4. Cell cycle a. Reason for division- as cells increase in volume, the surface area decreases and demand for

material resources increases which limits cell size b. Smaller cells have a more favorable surface area-to-volume ratio for exchange of materials

with the environment (diffusion, etc.). High SA:V ratio is favorable. Ex. 6:1 is better than 6:5 c. Cell cycle switches between interphase and cell division. d. Interphase has three phases: growth (G1), synthesis of DNA (S) and preparation for mitosis

(G2). e. During mitosis duplicated chromosomes line up in center with spindle fibers attached to help

pull them apart. Duplicated chromosomes are pulled apart by spindle fibers. f. Cytokinesis-division of cytoplasm and reformation of cell membrane. Animal cell- pinches in

(cleavage) using microfilaments; plant cell- form cell plate reforms cell wall (golgi deposits material).

g. The cell cycle is directed by internal controls or checkpoints. Internal (enzymes and promoting factors) and external signals (growth factors) provide stop and- go signs at the checkpoints. Ex. Mitosis-promoting factor (MPF); Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF); p53 gene products

h. Cancer results from disruptions in cell cycle control (too much division, defective tumor suppressor genes, overactive genes) which are a result of DNA damage to proto-oncogenes (regulatory genes)which make products like cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases.

i. Cells spend different amounts of time in interphase or division. Nondividing cells may exit the cell cycle; or hold at a particular stage in the cell cycle.

j. Mitosis is used for growth and repair in animals; plants use mitosis to make gametes and for growth or repair.

k. Mitosis usually begins with 1 cell, makes 2 identical cells or clones; maintains chromosome number; 1n1n or 2n2n.

l. Meiosis (occurs after interphase) takes diploid cells and reduces the chromosome number to haploid. 2n1n.

m. During meiosis, homologous chromosomes are paired (one from mom and one from dad) and line up in the center of the cell randomly. The homologues are pulled apart and separated in meiosis I. A second division occurs in which the duplicated chromosomes are pulled apart.

o. Variation occurs in gametes during “crossing over,” and fertilization because of all possible combinations.

5. Cell to Cell Communication a. Cells receive or send inhibitory or stimulatory signals from other cells, organisms or the

environment. b. In single-celled organisms it is response to its environment. Ex. quorum sensing, d. In multicellular organisms, signal transduction pathways coordinate the activities within

individual cells. Ex. Epinephrine stimulation of glycogen breakdown in mammals

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e. Cells communicate by cell-to-cell contact. Ex Immune cells interact by cell-cell contact, antigen- presenting cells (APCs), helper T-cells and killer T cells or plasmodesmata between plant cells that allow material to be transported from cell to cell.

f. Cells communicate over short distances by using local regulators that target cells in the vicinity of the emitting cell. Ex. Neurotransmitters, plant immune response

g. Signals released by one cell type can travel long distances to target cells of another cell type. Ex. Hormones.

h. A receptor protein recognizes signal molecules, causing the receptor protein’s shape to change,

which initiates transduction of the signal. Ex. G-protein linked receptors, ligand-gated ion channels, tyrosine kinase receptors.

i. Signal transduction is the process by which a signal is converted to a cellular response. Signaling cascades relay signals from receptors to cell targets, often amplifying the incoming signals, with the result of appropriate responses by the cell.

j. Second messengers are often essential to the function of the cascade. Ex. cyclic AMP calcium ions (Ca2+), and inositol triphosphate (IP3)

k. Many signal transduction pathways include: Protein modifications or phosphorylation cascades in which a series of protein kinases add a phosphate group to the next protein in the cascade sequence.

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AP Lab Investigation 5 Photosynthesis Overview: Spinach cut out disks were placed in two different syringes (bicarbonate and without) and

those photosynthetic rate was calculated by measuring the number that floated over time. Students then designed their own experiment to see what factors affected photosynthesis.

IV: presence of bicarbonate DV: number of disks floating

Equations: ET50 = the point at which 50% of the leaf disks are floating (the median or ET50, the Estimated Time it takes 50% of the disks to float), inverse relationship between rate and ET50 so we graphed 1/ET50 in this lab.

AP Lab Investigation 6 Cell Respiration

Overview: Germinating and non-germinating seeds (peas) were placed in different temperature water baths and cell respiration rate was determined based on oxygen consumption. Design your own experiment to determine what other factors affect cell respiration (type of seed, age of seed, etc.)

IV: germinating or non-germinating and temperature

DV: O2 consumption

*volume was controlled with glass beads, CO2 gas was controlled with KOH, temperature was controlled with water bath

Equations: dY/dt or product formed (dY) over time interval (dt) page 10

AP Lab Investigation 7 Cell Cycle

Part I: Mitosis

Overview: Two treatment groups of plant root tips were compared, one group was treated with lectin (increases cell division) and the other was a control group that had not been treated with lectin (we used cards for these). Chi-square analysis was used to determine if there was a significant difference between the two groups.

IV: Lectin

DV: Rate of Division

Equations: , x2 value is compared to chart under .05 probability and correct degrees of freedom (number of groups -1). Numbers at critical value or above reject null hypothesis.

Part II: Meiosis

Overview: Spores of a fungus were evaluated for crossing over and cross over rates were calculated. Also karyotypes were evaluated for cancer and genetic diseases as a result of cross over mistakes.

Equations: # of crossover/total number of spores = % cross over, % cross over /2 = map units

AP Lab Investigation 13 Enzymes

Overview: Rate of decomposition (breakdown) of hydrogen peroxide by the enzyme peroxidase was measured by measuring the amount of O2 gas produced in the reaction. An indicator called guaiacol was used to detect oxygen by changing a darker color which was measured by a colorimeter (measures transmittance of light through a sample). Designing your own experiment to determine what other factors affect enzyme reaction (light, temperature, pH or concentrations).

IV: Time

DV: color change (indicates oxygen production)

Equations: rate dY/dt (change in transmittance of light over change in time)

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Cell Division: anaphase cancer cell cycle cellular differentiation cell division centrioles chromosome crossing over crossover frequency cyclin-dependent kinase cytokinesis differentiation

diploid (2N) DNA replication fertilization gamete haploid (1N) homologous chromosomes independent assortment interphase maternal chromosome meiosis metaphase mitosis

nuclear division p53 paternal chromosome potency prophase recombination sex chromosome somatic cell specialized cell synapsis telophase

Communication communication cyclic AMP (cAMP) G-protein linked receptor

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phosphorylation cascade protein kinase quorum sensing

receptor second messenger signal cascade

signal transduction signal transduction pathway

Cell Energy absorption spectrum accessory pigment acetyl coA action spectrum activation energy active site anabolism anaerobic metabolism allosteric regulation ATP autotroph Calvin cycle catabolism catalyst cellular respiration chemiosmosis chemoautotroph chlorophyll

chloroplast citric acid cycle coenzyme cofactor compartmentalization consumer cyclic electron flow denaturation electron transport chain entropy endergonic reaction enzyme exergonic reaction feedback inhibition fermentation glycolysis heterotroph induced fit model

light dependent reactions light independent reactions metabolic pathway mitochondrion NAD NADP negative feedback non-cyclic electron flow oxidative phosphorylation photolysis photosynthesis positive feedback ribulose bisphosphate substrate-level phosphorylation thylakoid membrane

Questions and Practice

1. How do the laws of thermodynamics relate to the biochemical processes that provide energy to living

systems?

2. How do enzymes regulate the rate of chemical reactions?

3. How does the specificity of an enzyme depend on its structure?

4. How is the activity of an enzyme regulated?

5. How does the cell cycle assure genetic continuity?

6. How does mitosis allow for the even distribution of genetic information to new cells?

7. What are the mechanisms of cytokinesis?

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8. How is the cell cycle regulated?

9. How can aberrations in the cell cycle lead to tumor formation?

10. Why is meiosis important in heredity?

11. How is meiosis related to gametogenesis?

12. What are the similarities and differences between gametogenesis in animals and plants?

13. What is the role of ATP in coupling the cell’s anabolic and catabolic processes?

14. How does chemiosmosis function in bioenergetics?

15. How are organic molecules broken down by catabolic pathways?

16. What is the role of oxygen in energy-yielding pathways?

17. How do cells generate ATP in the absence of oxygen?

18. How does photosynthesis convert light energy into chemical energy?

19. How are the chemical products of the light-trapping reactions coupled to the synthesis of

carbohydrates?

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20. What kinds of photosynthetic adaptations have evolved in response to different environmental

conditions?

21. What interactions exist between photosynthesis and cellular respiration?

22. How was photosynthetic rate measured in the photosynthesis lab?

23. What was the IV in the photosynthesis lab? DV? Control? Controlled variables?

24. How was respiration rate measured in respiration lab?

25. What was the IV in the lab? DV? Control? Controlled variables?

26. Make a concept map to relate the following terms: high free energy, low free energy, entropy, enzymes, photosynthesis, light dependent reaction, light independent reaction, cell respiration, glycolysis, krebs, etc, and fermentation.

27. Make a concept map to relate the following terms: cell cycle, interphase, growth, dna replication, mitosis, meiosis, homologous chromosomes, separation of chromosomes, cancer, checkpoints, regulatory proteins.

28. Make a concept map to relate the following terms: unicellular, multicellular, local regulators, long distance regulation, contact, receptor, signal transduction, enzyme cascade, response

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AP Biology Review Part 3: Genetics & DNA and Protein Synthesis

3A1- DNA, and in some cases RNA, is the primary source of heritable information 3A3: The chromosomal basis of inheritance provides an understanding of the pattern of passage (transmission) of genes

from parents to offspring. 3A4: The inheritance pattern of many traits cannot be explained by simple Mendelian genetics. 3C1: Changes in genotype can result in changes in phenotype. 1. DNA (genetic info is passed down through DNA and RNA) A. Discovery 1. Avery-MacLeod- Marty- 1944 isolated DNA from Griffith’s transformation experiment 2. Hershey-Chase- 1952 elegant experiment with virus and bacteria showing DNA was injected not

protein 3. Watson, Crick, Wilkins, and Franklin- 1953 W and C published work showing structure of DNA

(used Wilkins and Franklins work to do so) B. Structure of DNA 1. Deoxyribose nucleic acid 2. Double helix (two twisted stsrands) made of nucleotides (monomers) 3. Nucleotide = phosphate + 5C deoxyribose sugar + nitrogen base 4. Antiparallel strands- one runs 3’ to 5’ the other runs 5’ to 3’,sides of phosphates and sugars

(backbone), rungs of paired bases with hydrogen bonds in between a. Purines (adenine,guanine; double rings) pair with Pyrimidines (cytosine, uracil, thymine; single

ring) b. A - T- double H bond c. C – G- triple H bond C. Location 1. In eukaryotes DNA is found in nucleus on multiple linear chromosomes (a chromosome IS a

strand of DNA with proteins etc. associated). 2. In prokaryotes DNA is not in a nucleus and is usually a single circular chromosome 3. Prokaryotes, viruses, and eukaryotes (yeast) can contain plasmids (small extra-chromosomal

DNA that is double stranded DNA)

2. DNA replication a. Process of making exact copies of DNA (i.e. for mitosis or meiosis) b. Process is semi conservative (original strand is copied) c. Steps

1. Enzyme (helicase) unzip strands by breaking hydrogen bonds 2. “Spare” nucleotides are added bidirectionally to bond complementarily with use of

DNA polymerases (DNA pol) 3. DNA pol only can add to the 3’ to 5’ side and new DNA is made in the 5’ to

3’direction 4. Replication bubbles open up and a replication fork is created because bubble is in

half and it has one side 3/5 and one 5/3 5. RNA primers must be laid down to start process (RNA primase makes primers) 6. Leading strand makes DNA continuously (3/5) 7. Lagging strand makes DNA discontinuously (5/3), Okazaki fragments 8. Lagging strand requires enzyme (ligase) to fuse fragments

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3. RNA a. Ribonucleic acid b. Single stranded, different sugar called ribose, different base called uracil INSTEAD of thymine c. Base pair rules in RNA, A-U and C-G d. messenger RNA or mRNA carries information from DNA to the ribosome e. transfer RNA or tRNA bind amino acids and are used in translation at ribosome f. ribosomal RNA or rRNA are part of ribosomes that have catalytic function g. RNAi are molucules that are used for regulation of gene expression (turn on or off)

4. Transcription a. making mRNA in nucleus b. enzyme RNA pol reads the DNA in 3’ to 5’ direction and synthesizes complementary mRNA c. Ex. 3’ to 5’ DNA is ATG CAT then the 5’ to 3’ mRNA made will be UAC GUA d. Steps e. TATA Box where RNA pol binds and begins f. Transcription Factors (proteins that enhance transcription and help RNA pol into correct

shape) g. Elongation (adding of RNA nucleotides- does not stay attached to DNA) h. Termination, ends when RNA pol reaches a termination sequence

5. mRNA editing a. introns are excised (cut out) b. exons are left and spliced together using spliceosomes (snRNP’s) c. add polyA tail to 3’ d. add GTP cap to 5’ e. each 3 are called a codon f. go to ribosome (free or in RER)

6. Translation a. mRNA code is read and matched with tRNA (brings amino acids) to construct a polypeptide

using the ribosome b. Ex. mRNA codon is AAA then tRNA anticodon will be UUU and will have a corresponding

amino acid for that codon of mRNA c. Initiation: 5’ end of mRNA attaches to small ribosome, tRNA with anticodon UAC attaches to

start codon AUG ; large ribosomal subunit binds and tRNA is in P site d. Elongation: new tRNA enters A site; peptide bond forms when a.a. is transferred from tRNA in

P site to A site; translocation occurs and tRNA in A site moves to P e. Termination: Ribosome encounters stop codon (UAA, UAG, UGA) f. If in ER then: polypeptide is released into ER, then to Golgi complex, vesicle to cell membrane,

then exocytosis (may be given signals for exit/destination) g. Free ribosomes typically make products for the cell and are not exported

7. Mutations a. any change of DNA sequence, can be inheritable if it is in egg or sperm b. point mutations- one nucleotide error; substitutions (i.e. A instead of G) c. frame shift mutations- one or more bases deleted or inserted d. silent mutations can occur, i.e. substitution codes for same a.a. or deletion/insertion is of three

nucleotides e. Missense mutation- means that new letter codes for a new amino acid, i.e. sickle cell; can be

extensive with frameshift mutations f. Nonsense mutation- means that a stop codon is coded for too early and results in short

polypeptide page 16

1. Single gene mutations in humans caused by DNA mutations a. PKU- recessive; phenylketonuria, enzyme deficiency b. Sickle cell- recessive; primarily of African descent, carriers resistant to malaria c. Cystic fibrosis- recessive; primarily of European descent, protein in channel

misshaped; thick mucus d. Huntington’s- dominant; nervous disorder at age 40 or so; fatal

8. Heredity A. Mendel’s Laws (remember he laid groundwork for genetics but these rules can all be broken

looking at chromosome theory and molecular genetics) 1. Law of Dominance- one allele will be expressed over another (ex. Aa – if big A is purple it will

be seen over little a which is white) 2. Law of Segregation- alleles pairs separate from each other during meiosis 3. Law of Independent Assortment- alleles assort independently during meiosis IF they are on

separate chromosomes (i.e. AaBb can make gametes AB, Ab, aB or ab) 4. Terms to know 5. dominant 6. recessive 7. genotype 8. phenotype 9. allele 10. homozygous 11. heterozygous 12. testcross

B. Probability,Patterns and Exceptions to Mendel’s Rules

1. product rule- multiply chance of one event happening by the chance of another event happening to get the chance of both events occurring together

2. Inheritance patterns 3. autosomal vs. sex-linked (on the X or Y chromosome) 4. monohybrid cross; one trait; 3:1 (Aa x Aa); 1:1 (Aa x aa) or 4:1 (AA x_), (aa x aa) 5. dihybrid cross; 9:3:3:1 genotype (AaBb x AaBb) or test cross 1:1:1:1(AaBb x aabb) 6. Thomas Hunt Morgan- fruit flies, X- linked traits

a. male- heterozygous XY; Y chromosome is very small in mammals and fruit flies with few genes b. female- homozygous XX c. not for all living things sometime sex is determined by haploid/diploid or temperature or

it is reversed in birds, moths, butterflies (XX is boy) d. single gene mutations on X chromosome cause disease such as hemophilia or colorblindness e. sex limited traits are dependent on sex of individual like milk production or male

patterned baldness 7. incomplete dominance- red X white pink; both protein product are expressed and blended 8. codominance- red x white red and white; both protein products are equally expressed ex.AB

blood types 9. multiple alleles- blood types- ABO 10. epistasis- one gene affects expression of another 11. linked genes- genes on same chromosome that are inherited together (can be unlinked by

crossing over); recombination frequency calculated by recombinants/total; used for chromosome mapping; genes further apart cross over more often

12. gene/environment- phenotypes affect by environment, Siamese cat, flower color with soil pH, seasonal color in arctic animals, human height and weight

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13. polygenic- continuous variation, many genes affect one trait- height, color 14. Chloroplasts and mitochondria (come from egg in mammals)are randomly assorted in cell

division so they do not follow Mendelian rules.

C. Human Genetics 1. karyotype- 22 pair autosomes & 1 pair sex chromosomes + 46 total chromosomes 2. Chromosomal Mutations (occur during gamete formation- usually denovo)

2. deletion, inversion, addition of genes as a result of crossing over mistakes, ex. Prader Willi

3. chromosomal number abnormalities a. nondisjunction- failure of chromosomes to separate at anaphase of meiosis b. monosomy- 45 chromosomes- Turner’s- XO c. trisomy- Down’s- trisomy 21; Kleinfelters- XXY

4. amniocentesis- for prenatal diagnosis --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Fruit Fly Lab (Not an AP Investigation) Overview: Three crosses were performed by different groups (one trait, two trait and sexlinked) by allowing F1 fruit flies to mate and then counting F2 generation. Chi Square analysis was used to determine if offspring were as expected. IV: Fruit flies DV: Traits in Offspring Equations: See Chi-Square Analysis Laws of Probability If A and B are mutually exclusive, then P (A or B) = P(A) + P(B) If A and B are independent, then P (A and B) = P(A) x P(B) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- DNA amino acids anticodon base-pairing rules cell differentiation coding strand codon DNA DNA ligase DNA polymerase DNA replication exons

genetic code helicase hydrogen bonding inducible genes introns lagging strand leading strand micro RNA (miRNA) mutation nucleic acids nucleotides

Okazaki fragments protein replication fork repressor RNA (mRNA, rRNA, tRNA RNAi start codon/stop codon template strand transcription transcription factors translation

Genetics allele autosome

back cross cline

codominance continuous variation

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cross dihybrid cross discontinuous variation dominant F1/F2 Generation genetic counseling genomic imprinting genotype heterozygous homozygous incomplete dominance independent assortment

lethal allele linkage monohybrid cross multiple alleles non-disjunction non-nuclear inheritance pedigree analyisis phenotype phenotypic plasticity polygenetic inheritance Punnett square pure-breeding (aka

true-breeding) recessive segregation selfing sex chromosome sex-limited traits sex linked gene test cross trait

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Questions and Practice 1. How is genetic information organized in the eukaryotic chromosome?

2. How does this organization contribute to both continuity of and variability in the genetic

information?

3. How did Mendel’s work lay the foundation of modern genetics?

4. What are the principal patterns of inheritance?

5. How do the structures of nucleic acids relate to their functions of information storage and protein synthesis?

6. What are the similarities and differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes?

7. What is one way genetic information can be altered?

8. What problems can it cause?

9. What are the differences and similarities between protein synthesis in prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

10. Draw a picture to show the relationship between chromosome, DNA, gene, allele, nucleotide,

base, and a trait.

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AP Biology Review Packet 4: Viruses, Bacteria and Expression & DNA Technology

3A1- DNA, and in some cases RNA, is the primary source of heritable information. 3B1- Gene Regulation results in differential gene expression, leading to cell specialization. 3C3- Viral Replication results in genetic variation, and viral infection can introduce genetic variation into the hosts. 2C1- Organisms use feedback mechanisms to maintain internal environments and respond to external environmental changes. 1. Chromosome structure a. Nucleosome- packing unit of DNA wrapped around a histone b. Nucleosomes coil together to make fiber; loops coil; further compacted into chromosomes c. Euchromatin is loosely coiled DNA (can be read for mRNA so it is turned on) d. Heterochromatin is tightly coiled DNA (cannot be read for mRNA so it is turned off) e. Histone acetylation refers to chemical that causes DNA to become less packed (turned on) f. Satellite DNA (Tandemly Repetitive DNA)- Repeated DNA sequences that are present in

hundreds or thousands of copies (usually 5-10 nucleotides) g. Interspersed Repetitive DNA- Repeats not adjacent- scattered throughout the genome. h. Telomeres are repeated sequences (usually TTAGGG) at tips of chromosomes. Used to conserve

chromosomes because of lagging strand problems. 2. Regulation of Transcription/Translation a. Enhancers- Areas on genome that are non-coding that are located at a distance from a promoter.

Transcription factors can bind to these areas and cause transcription of certain genes. (turns on) b. MRNA Degradation- mRNA has a life span in the cytoplasm (can last a few hours to a week).

(turns off) c. RNA processing (intron splicing, poly a tail, gtp cap) (turn on and alter expression) d. Histone Acetylation (turn on) e. Methylation- marks on outside that turn DNA on or off (epigenetics) f. Translation Repressors (turn off) g. Posttranslational modifications- folding, cleaving, etc. (alter expression) h. Transposons- jumping genes can enhance or reduce transcription translation by where they land

3. Viruses (not alive) a. Can be DNA or RNA (injected into host and takes over host energy/enzymes to make more of

itself) b. Protein coat called capsid c. Retroviruses have reverse transcriptase; which is used in recombinant DNA tech- ex. AIDS d. Can allow for new gene combination in host by transduction (taking a piece of DNA with them

when they break out) e. Lytic cycle (virulent/active) and Lysogenic cycle (dormant/temperate) 4. Regulation of Gene Expression in Bacteria as Model a. Bacteria are prokaryotic with a single circular chromosome b. Bacteria express all the genes needed for a product (more than one gene at a time) c. Organization includes the promoter region of DNA, operator, and structural genes d. Trp operon = repressible; anabolic pathway; used to make enzymes that help make tryptophan if

none is present e. Repressor is naturally INACTIVE so it will make tryptophan f. Repressor only becomes ACTIVE when trp (called corepressor) is in excess and binds to repressor

changing its shape g. Lac operon-catabolic pathway; inducible; used to make enzyme to break down lactose when it is

available

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h. Repressor is naturally ACTIVE so it will block gene transcription unless lactose (allolactose- called inducer) binds and makes repressor INACTIVE

5. Recombinant DNA A. Natural chromosomal mechanisms 1. crossing over 2. independent assortment (during meiosis I metaphase) 3. transformation (taking in foreign DNA from environment- bacteria) 4. transduction (viruses taking DNA from one cell to another) 5. conjugation (donation of copy of genes from one organism to another; bacteria/protists) 6. transposable elements (transposons can be simple or complex)

B. Genetic engineering 1. Toolkit includes plasmid (piece of round DNA from bacteria/yeast) or other vector such as

viruses; restriction enzymes; host cell (usually bacteria like E. coli) 2. Restriction enzymes cut genes at restriction sites to make blunt or sticky ends 3. Cut gene of interest (g.o.i.) with same enzyme to get same ends 4. Insert vector into host using: 1) transformation, 2) gene gun, 3) electroporation, 4) needle 5. Used to clone and make copies or to produce a foreign protein such as HGH or insulin

C. Techniques 1. Probes/Hybridization- technique used for selection where a probe is created that binds to

complimentary DNA; also used in PCR and electrophoresis 2. Expression Vectors/YAC/BAC- engineered plasmids or vectors that have known promoter

regions and DNA; artificial chromosomes like YAC/BAC can be used for larger pieces of DNA 3. PCR- Used to make large amounts of clones of DNA without using a host; heat which opens ;

use a probe with nucleotides; cool; repeat 4. Electrophoresis- Used to look at unique pattern created by fragments of DNA; cut DNA using

enzyme; load into a gel that is covered with buffer; turn on electricity; DNA runs from negative to positive; larger chunks move less; unique for each person if testing variable areas of DNA; can be used for protein or mRNA too

5. DNA Sequencing- used to determine unknown DNA sequence; mainly done by computers and capillary electrophoresis/lasers; old technique involved putting multiple fragments of unknown DNA in with labeled probe, regular nucleotides and blocker nucleotides; read gel by lanes and each one ends in particular base

6. cDNA libraries- created by using reverse transcriptase to produce DNA from mRNA (takes out introns) so it can be placed in bacterial host

7. Microarray- method of putting fragments of ssDNA on a slide; fragments are tested for hybridization with various samples of fluorescently-labeled cDNA molecules; areas that light up show expression.

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AP Biology Investigation 8: Biotechnology- Bacterial Transformation Overview- Bacteria were transformed by introducing plasmids with the glowing gene by chemical induction and heat shocking and then plated on two different media- luria broth or luria broth with ampicillin. IV: plasmid

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DV: Growing or Glowing; RESULTS- Growth on no plasmid without ampicllin, no growth with no plasmid amp; growth on plasmid amp and no amp but glowed on amp Equations: Transformation Efficiency- total number of colonies growing on the agar plate/ amount of DNA spread on the LB /amp plate in ug AP Biology Investigation 9: Biotechnology- Restriction Enzyme Analysis of DNA Overview: A sample electrophoresis experiment was performed regarding cancer in patients. A patient was tested to see if the DNA from her breast, blood, surrounding tissue and a control group. IV: Sample location DV: RFLP’s or banding pattern on electrophoresis gel; one hit = carrier; two hit= cancer Equations: This lab was a substitution lab the original AP lab asked students to make a standard curve (we did this in class as an activity) by electrophoresing known fragment lengths and then measuring the distance they traveled to create a standard curve. This curve was used to estimate the sizes of UNKNOWN sized fragments in other lanes. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Molecular Genetics conjugation DNA Sequencing DNA ligase DNA polymerase gel electrophoresis gene expression gene induction gene repression genetic engineering homeotic genes

HOX genes Human genome project inducible genes lac operon micro RNA (miRNA) plasmid polymerase chain reaction probe regulatory sequence restriction enzyme

reverse transcriptase RNAi small interfering RNA (siRNA) small regulatory RNA transgenic organism transposon transformation vector virus

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Questions and Practice

1. What are some mechanisms by which gene expression is regulated in prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

2. What is the structure of viruses?

3. How do viruses transfer genetic material between cells?

4. What are some current recombination technologies?

5. What are some practical applications of nucleic acid technology?

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6.If you were to observe the activity of methylated DNA, you would expect it to a. be replicating nearly continuously. b. be unwinding in preparation for protein synthesis. c. have turned off or slowed down the process of transcription. d. be very actively transcribed and translated. e. induce protein synthesis by not allowing repressors to bind to it.

6.

7.Genomic imprinting, DNA methylation, and histone acetylation are all examples of a. genetic mutation. b. chromosomal rearrangements. c. karyotypes. d. epigenetic phenomena. e. translocation.

7.

8.In both eukaryotes and prokaryotes, gene expression is primarily regulated at the level of a. transcription. b. translation. c. mRNA stability. d. mRNA splicing. e. protein stability.

8.

9.In eukaryotes, transcription is generally associated with a. euchromatin only. b. heterochromatin only. c. very tightly packed DNA only. d. highly methylated DNA only. e. both euchromatin and histone acetylation.

9.

10.This binds to a site in the DNA far from the promoter to stimulate transcription: a. enhancer b. promoter c. activator d. repressor e. terminator

10.

11.Gene expression might be altered at the level of post-transcriptional processing in eukaryotes rather than prokaryotes because of which of the following? a. Eukaryotic mRNAs get 5' caps and 3' tails. b. Prokaryotic genes are expressed as mRNA, which is more stable in the cell.

c. Eukaryotic exons may be spliced in alternative patterns. d. Prokaryotes use ribosomes of different structure and size. e. Eukaryotic coded polypeptides often require cleaving of signal sequences before

localization. 11.

12.Which of the following experimental procedures is most likely to hasten mRNA degradation in a eukaryotic cell? a. enzymatic shortening of the poly(A) tail b. removal of the 5' cap c. methylation of C nucleotides d. memethylation of histones e. removal of one or more exons

12.

13.The functioning of enhancers is an example of

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a. transcriptional control of gene expression. b. a post-transcriptional mechanism for editing mRNA. c. the stimulation of translation by initiation factors. d. post-translational control that activates certain proteins. e. a eukaryotic equivalent of prokaryotic promoter functioning.

13.

14.Which of the following is an example of post-transcriptional control of gene expression? a. the addition of methyl groups to cytosine bases of DNA b. the binding of transcription factors to a promoter c. the removal of introns and splicing together of exons d. gene amplification during a stage in development e. the folding of DNA to form heterochromatin

14.

15.Within a cell, the amount of protein made using a given mRNA molecule depends partly on on a. the degree of DNA methylation. b. the rate at which the mRNA is degraded. c. the presence of certain transcription factors. d. the number of introns present in the mRNA. e. the types of ribosomes present in the cytoplasm.

15.

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AP Biology Review Packet 5- Natural Selection and Evolution & Speciation and Phylogeny

1A1- Natural selection is a major mechanism of evolution. 1A2: Natural selection acts on phenotypic variations in populations. 1A3: Evolutionary change is also driven by random processes. 1A4- Biological evolution is supported by scientific evidence from many disciplines, including mathematics. 1B1- Organisms share many conserved core processes and features that evolved and are widely distributed today. 1B2- Phylogenetic trees and cladograms are graphical representations (models) of evolutionary history that

can be tested. 1C1- Speciation and extinction have occurred throughout the earth’s history 1C2- Speciation may occur when two populations become reproductively isolated from each other. 1C3- Populations of organisms continue to evolve. 1D1- There are several hypotheses about the natural origin of life on Earth, each with supporting evidence. 1D2- Scientific evidence from many different disciplines supports models of the origin of life. 4C2: Environmental factors influence the expression of the genotype in an organism. EVOLUTION

A. Origin of Life 1. Earth is ~ 4.6 bya and life occurred about 3.9 bya 2. Early earth had no oxygen 3. All organisms share a common ancestral origin 4. Chemical evolution of organic molecules from free energy (u.v. light/lightning/volcanic);

RNA could have been the earliest genetic material 5. Oparin/Haldane/Miller- Oparin/Haldane theorized about how organic compounds came

to be; Miller tested it with set up 6. Protobionts/Microspheres/Coacervates were early precursors to cells 7. Heterotrophs first; then chemosynthesis; photosynthesis 8. Glycolysis is most primitive type of metabolism 9. Ozone layer/atmosphere 10. Endosymbiosis- blue-green bacteria took up residence in anaerobic bacteria to become

chloroplasts, aerobic bacteria took up residence to become mitochondria

B. Natural Selection- premises for Darwin’s( and Wallace’s) theory 1. Went to Galapagos- looked at Finches; published On Origin of Species 2. Theory stated: • Overproduction • Size remains stable • Limited Resources • Competition • Variation • Inheritable • Accumulation of change

C. Evidence for Evolution

1. Paleontology- fossil record (can be dated using C-14) 2. Artificial Selection- breeding 3. Embryology- Traits in embryos not seen in adults (i.e. gills, tails) 4. Comparative Anatomy- homologous/analogous structures; vestigial structures 5. Molecular Biology- DNA and protein similarities (DNA and RNA are shared by all

modern living systems) Many metabolic pathways are conserved among all domains. Structures in eukaryotes show relatedness (mbo, chromosomes)

6. Biogeography- distribution of species result of environment page 25

7. Ex. Chemical resistance, emergent diseases, phenotypic change, structural – such as heart chambers, brain or immune system

D. Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium 1. Rules • no mutation occurs • no immigration or emigration • large population • random mating • no natural selection- all offspring are equally able to survive 2. Equation= p2 (AA) + 2pq (Aa)+ q2 (aa)= 1 or p (freq. of A) + q (freq of a)= 1

E. Natural Selection

1. Differential reproduction of a certain genotype; ONLY the most fit survive to make babies- all about sex

2. Stabilizing selection- selects for average ex. birth weight 3. disruptive selection- selects for extremes ex. Beak type 4. directional selection- towards one extreme ex. Pepper moth 5. sexual selection- competition for mates

F. Mechanisms for Evolution

1. Genetic Drift- random chances affecting gene pool; Founder effect- certain individuals leave and start new population; bottleneck effect- only certain individuals survive catastrophic event

2. Natural Selection- environment determines which traits are favorable and therefore are passed on because they live to make babies

3. Mutations- raw material for natural selection; can be positive, negative, or neutral 4. Gene Flow- individuals entering or leaving population 5. Sexual Selection- mates choose for particular traits.

G. Speciation- forming new species

1. Species- interbreeding organisms that can produce fertile offspring 2. Speciation rates can vary, especially when adaptive radiation occurs and new habitats

become available. 3. Species extinction rates are rapid at times of ecological stress (five major extinctions;

human impact) 4. Isolation of populations contribute to speciation (members cannot interbreed) which can

be rapid or over millions of years 5. Types of isolation- prezygotic: habitat, behavioral, temporal; or mechanical 6. allopatric- geographical isolation 7. sympatric- no geological isolation- behavior or hybridization in plants 8. post zygotic- hybrid fertility or breakdown (makes it one or two generations)

H. Patterns of Evolution

1. gradualism- Elephant evolution 2. punctuated equilibrium- long periods of stasis with bursts of rapid speciation due to

environmental pressure.

I. Phylogenetics and Math Models

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1. Phylogenetic trees and cladograms can represent traits that are either derived or lost due to evolution.

2. Phylogenetic trees and cladograms illustrate speciation that has occurred, in that relatedness of any two groups on the tree is shown by how recently two groups had a common ancestor.

3. Phylogenetic trees and cladograms can be constructed from morphological similarities of living or fossil species, and from DNA and protein sequence similarities, by employing computer programs that have sophisticated ways of measuring and representing relatedness among organisms.

4. Phylogenetic trees and cladograms are dynamic (i.e., phylogenetic trees and cladograms are constantly being revised), based on the biological data used, new mathematical and computational ideas, and current and emerging knowledge.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- AP Biology Investigation 2 Mathematical Modeling- Hardy Weinberg Overview: Students created an excel spreadsheet to look at allele frequencies changed over generations. Students then were given different situations (i.e. selection, etc.) and asked to alter their spreadsheet to show how it changed the frequencies. Equations: p2 + 2pq + q2= 1 and p + q = 1 AP Biology Investigation 3- Comparing DNA Sequences to Understand Evolutionary Relationships Using BLAST Overview: In Part I of this lab students were asked to draw a cladogram based on gene and protein similarities among four different species; they also completed an online tutorial on phylogenetic trees and cladistics. IN part II of this lab, students were asked to use BLAST two compare gene sequences from an “unknown” fossil to extant gene sequences. Then, the students used this data to place that organism on a cladogram with known living organisms. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Evolution: adaptation adaptive radiation allele allopatric analogous structure artificial selection biogeography biological species coevolution common ancestor comparative anatomy convergent evolution Darwin fossil fossil record founder effect geologic time scale geology gene flow

gene pool genetic bottleneck genetic drift genetic equilibrium genetic variation genotype gradualism (aka anagenesis) Hardy-Weinberg equation natural selection paleontology parallel evolution phenotype phylogeny polymorphism polyploidy population postzygotic isolating mechanism prezygotic isolating mechanism

primordial environment radiometric dating random mating directional selection disruptive selection divergent evolution (aka cladogenesis endosymbiosis evo-devo evolution evolutionary fitness extinction fixation (of alleles) homologous structures homology hybrid Last Universal Common

Ancestor mass extinction

migration Miller-Urey experiments

molecular clock mutation

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reproductive isolation RNA world rock strata

speciation species stromatolite

sympatric transitional fossil vestigial organ

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Questions and Practice:

1. What types of evidence support an evolutionary view of life?

2. What is the role of natural selection in the process of evolution?

3. How are heredity and natural selection involved in the process of evolution?

4. What mechanism account for speciation and macroevolution?

5. What different patterns of evolution have been identified and what mechanisms are responsible for each of these patterns?

6. Match each statement with an idea. In the blank to the left of each statement write “L” for Lamarckism, “D” for Darwinism, or “B” for both. a. _____Adaptive traits make an organism better suited for its environment. b. _____Traits accumulated over a single lifetime can be passed on to offspring. c. _____Populations are smaller than can be supported by the environment, traits are

passed on genetically, and some organisms reproduce more than others. d. _____An organism can “will” a change to occur. e. _____If Vincent VanGogh had cut his ear off, then had a daughter, the daughter would be born without an ear.

5. If a population IS in Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium, which of the following IS assumed to be

true? CHECK ALL THAT APPLY. a. _____The population is large b._____Organisms do not select their mates c. _____Mutations occur rarely d. _____Natrual selection occurs e. _____There is no migration

6. Match the following mechanisms of evolution to its correct example. _____Bottleneck Effect A. Organisms move into a population changing the allele freq. _____Founder Effect B. Certain traits offer a selective advantage over others _____Mutations C. Changes in DNA seq. result from mistakes in DNA replication _____Fitness D. Carriers of the sickle cell gene have resistance to malaria _____Heterzygote Advantage

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_____Gene Flow E. A small # of individuals inhabit an island and begin reproducing.

F. A hurricane wipes out a large portion of the population and a few individuals are left to reproduce.

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AP Biology Review Packet 6: Organismal Response to Environment & Maintaining Homeostasis

2C2: Organisms respond to changes in their external environments 2D2: Homeostatic mechanisms reflect both common ancestry and divergence due to adaptation to different environments. 2D3: Biological systems are affected by disruptions to their dynamic homeostasis. 2D4: Plants and animals have a variety of chemical defenses against infections that affect dynamic homeostasis. 2E1: Timing and coordination of specific events are necessary for the normal development of an organism, and these

events are regulated by a variety of mechanisms. 2E2: Timing and coordination of physiological events are regulated by multiple mechanisms. 2E3: Timing and coordination of behavior are regulated by various mechanisms and are important in natural selection. 3E1: Individuals can act on information and communicate it to others. 4A4: Organisms exhibit complex properties due to interactions between their constituent parts. 4B2: Cooperative Interactions within organisms promote efficiency in the use of energy and matter. A. Taxonomy- classification 1. Domain System- Archaea (Archaebacteria), Bacteria (Eubacteria) and Eukarya, 2. Eukaryotic Kingdoms- Protista (mainly uni auto/hetero), Fungi (mainly multi hetero), Plantae (auto),

and Animalia (hetero) 3. Animalia are divided into invertebrates (Cnidaria- jellyfish, anemones; Flatworms- planaria; Round

worms- parasites; Segmented Worms- earthworm, sandworms, leeches; Mollusks- clams, oysters, snails, octopus; Echinoderms- starfish, sea urchin, sand dollar; Arthropods- insects, crustaceans, millipedes, spiders, etc). OR vertebrates (fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals)

4. Classification under domain= Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species 5. Species is two part name (binomial nomenclature); system created by Linneaus; genus and

specific epithet; genus is capitalized and s.e. is lower case; both underlined or italicized in print. Ex. Homo sapiens

B. Physiology 1. Organelle (allows for specialization of cell) Cell Tissue Organ (contributes to function of

organism) Organ System 2. Interactions among cells of a population of unicellular organisms can be similar to those of

multicellular organisms, and these interactions lead to increased efficiency and utilization of energy and matter. ● Bacterial community in the rumen of animals ● Bacterial community in and around deep sea vents

3. Organ Systems Include: • Respiratory: Exchange of gases (lungs, gills, alveoli) • Circulatory: Circulation of fluids (heart, arteries, veins, capillaries) • Digestion: Breakdown of food into simpler compounds/polymer monomer (stomach,

intestines, pancreas) • Excretory: Filtration of Blood (kidney, bladder, malphighian tubules, metanepridia • Nervous: Rapid communication in organism (nerves, brain, spinal cord) • Endocrine: Slow communication in organisms (hormones and glands) • Immune: Protection against pathogens (lymph nodes, white blood cells- B cells, T cells, and

macrophages, skin, tears, cilia) • Plant vascular (xylem, phloem, roots and leaves) • Plant reproductive organs (flowers and fruit)

C. Evolution of Homeostasis 1. Gas exchange in aquatic (aerial roots, cypress knees) and terrestrial plants (stomata under leaves) 2. Digestive mechanisms: food vacuoles in protists, gastrovascular cavities used for digestion and

distribution (one-way digestive systems) in jellyfish/flatworms

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3. Respiratory systems of aquatic (gills with countercurrent exchange to maximize O2 uptake) and terrestrial animals (lungs with alveoli next to capillaries to maximize O2 uptake)

4. Nitrogenous waste production and elimination in aquatic (ammonia) and terrestrial animals (uric acid as precipitate in birds ,insects, snails and reptiles and urea in mammals, sharks, frogs and some bony fish)

5. Excretory systems in flatworms (protonephridia- filters interstitial fluid but not paired with circulatory system) earthworms (metanephridia- filters fluid and paired with circulatory system) and vertebrates (kidneys with nephrons that selectively filter blood to keep good stuff and excrete waste via urinary system)

6. Osmoregulation in bacteria (osmoconformers- same tonicity as environment), fish (osmoregulators- fresh water fish urinate excessively and salt water fish drink excessively) and protists (use contractile vacuole to pump out excess water)

7. Osmoregulation in aquatic (osmosis) and terrestrial plants (roots, transpiration, stomates, CAM plants, cuticle)

8. Circulatory systems in fish (2 chambered heart in a circuit- to gills, then body, then back to heart), amphibians (3 chambered heart- mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in ventricle, from gills, lungs, or skin to heart which mixes with blood returning to heart from body) and mammals (4 chambered heart with separation of blood in ventricle, one side pumps to lungs back to heart, other side of heart pumps to body and then back to heart)

9. Thermoregulation in aquatic and terrestrial animals (countercurrent exchange mechanisms) D. Timing of Events (maintains homeostasis) 1. Transcription factors results in sequential gene expression (pace development). 2. Homeotic (HOX) genes are involved in developmental patterns and sequences (body segments). 3. Embryonic induction (influence of one cell on another) in development 4. Temperature (warm and dark) and the availability of water (imbibition works with hormones) affect

seed germination in most plants. 5. Programmed cell death (apoptosis) - formation of fingers and toes, immune function, etc. � E. Environmental Influence on Organisms 1. Phototropism (movement towards light due to auxin concentration on shady side of plant) and

photoperiodism (long day/short night and short day/long night blooming plants due to phytochromes in plant that detect type of light)

2. Circadian rhythms, or the physiological cycle of about 24 hours that is present in all eukaryotes and persists even in the absence of external cues 3. Diurnal/nocturnal and sleep/awake cycles 4. Jet lag in humans 5. Seasonal responses, such as hibernation, estivation and migration F. Behavior and Adaptations 1. Taxis (moving towards a stimulus like light or chemicals- pill bug experiment) and kinesis

(movement that is not purposeful) 2. Fight or flight response (stress hormones- epinephrine give a fast reaction regulated by brain and

adrenal medulla) 3. Predator warnings (warning calls) 4. Protection of young (nesting, fish in mouth) 5. Plant (toxins, thorns, hairs) 6. Territorial marking in mammals 7. Coloration in flowers (attract pollinators) 8. Animals use visual, audible, tactile, electrical and chemical signals to indicate dominance, find food, establish territory and ensure reproductive success. ● Bee dances

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● Birds songs ● Territorial marking in mammals ● Pack behavior in animals ● Herd, flock, and schooling behavior in animals ● Predator warning ● Colony and swarming behavior in insects ● Coloration G. Natural selection favors innate and learned behaviors that increase survival and reproductive fitness. ● Parent and offspring interactions ● Migration patterns ● Courtship and mating behaviors ● Foraging in bees and other animals ● Avoidance behavior to electric fences, poisons, or traps ● Pack behavior in animals ● Herd, flock and schooling behavior in animals ● Predator warning ● Colony and swarming behavior in insects -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- AP Biology Investigation 11: Transpiration Overview Part I: Put whole plants in four different environments (fan, light, room conditions, and humidity) to determine water loss via transpiration over four days. IV: Conditions DV: Percent change in mass Overview Part II: Determine the surface are of the leave and average stomata per square millimeter. Equations:

• Trace leaf and count grids record as cm

• Rate of transpiration/surface area = ml of water loss/surface area

• Count stomates of leaf in a field of view and get area of view by πr2 and calculate density by

#/area

• Calculate number of stomates per leaf by using surface area of leaf

AP Biology Investigation 12: Fruit Fly Behavior (Substituted old pill bug lab) Overview: Pill bugs are observed in a choice chamber (one side is moist the other is dry). Students designed their own experiment to determine which factors affect pill bug behavior and taxis. IV: Environment (dark, acidic, basic, noisy, etc.) DV: # of pill bugs on each side AP Biology- Old AP Lab 10- Physiology of the Circulatory System Overview Part I: Observed factors that affected pulse and blood pressure. IV: Exercise and position (standing up or laying down) DV: Pulse rate increases with exercise; blood pressure increases when changing position

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Overview Part II: Measured the effect of temperature on Daphnia heart rate. IV: Temperature DV: Heart Rate

Equation: or -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Archaea Bacteria binomial nomenclature class Eukarya family genus kingdom order phylum species taxon Homeostasis Negative Feedback Positive Feedback Dynamic Equilibrium Control Center Receptor Stimulus Effector Cell Tissue Organ

Organ System Thermoregulation Vasoconstriction Vasodilation Evaporative Cooling Gas Exchange Direct Contact Tracheal Tubes Gills Countercurrent exchange Thoracic cavity Bronchi Bronchioles Alveoli Digestion Intracellular Digestion Gastrovascular Cavity Alimentary Canal Dentition Herbivore Carnivore Pancreas Small Intestine

Large Intestine Excretion Flame Cells Protonephridia Malphighian Tubules Metanephridia Kidney Nephron Ureter Ammonia Nitrogeneous Waste Urea Uric Acid Osmoregulation Osmolarity Osmoconformer Osmoregulator Contractile Vacuole Transpiration Closed Circulation Vertebrate Heart

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Questions and Practice 1. How do the organization of cells, tissues and organs determine the structure and function in

plant and animal systems?

2. What adaptive features have contributed to the success of various plants and animals on

land?

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3. What are the responses of plants and animals to environmental cues?

4. Discuss bacteria in regard to the following:

a. Digestion/Excretion

b. Immune

c. Osmoregulation

d. Behavior

5. Discuss plants in regard to the following:

a. Gas exchange

b. Transport and Water Balance

c. Response to Enviroment

d. Defense/Immune

e. Reproduction

6. Discus invertebrates in regard to the following:

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a. Respiration

b. Circulation

c. Excretion

d. Osmoregulation

e. Behavior

f. Thermoregulation

7. Discuss mammals in regard to:

a. Respiration

b. Digestion

c. Circulation

d. Excretion

e. Osmoregulation

f. Thermoregulation

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8. Discuss the difference between innate and learned behavior.

9. Discuss the selective benefits of innate and learned behaviors.

10. Discuss timing of events in plants and animals and how they have adaptive value.

11. What adaptive modifications might be useful for the digestive system of an animal living on a

diet that is mainly: a) animal - b) grass - c) nutritionally poor - d) seeds –

13. For the fish, which describes their blood flow most accurately?

a) Body -> Heart -> Gills -> Body b) Body -> Heart -> Gills -> Heart -> Body c) Body -> Gills -> Heart -> Body d) Body -> Gills -> Body -> Heart -> Body

Hemoglobin is a protein that binds oxygen for efficient delivery in many animals. Hemoglobin is made up of four subunits. Each subunit contains a heme group that binds to one oxygen molecule. The diagram

on the right represents the binding efficiency of human adult during exercise.

14. How many oxygen molecules does human adult hemoglobin carry at normal pH at a PO2 of 60 mm Hg? ____ 15. Where would you expect to find the partial pressure of oxygen to be lowest?

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a) In the air outside the mouth c) In the trachea b) In the lungs d) In the blood stream next to the alveoli

16. If the curve shifts to the right- can the hemoglobin hold more or less oxygen? 17. Why does the pH decrease (more acidic) after exercise? 18. Organisms can have circulatory systems that are classified as single circulation or double circulation paths. Fish have single circulation while human beings have double circulation.

a) Discuss the differences between single circulation and double circulation. b) Does an organism with single circulation have a higher or lower metabolic rate when

compared to an organism with double circulation? _____________________

19. An organism must be able to release the waste product of carbon dioxide from its cells.

a) What specific organelle in the cell produces Carbon Dioxide (CO2)? _____________ b) After a blood donation, the blood is separated into various components, including plasma, platelets, and red blood cells. Which component of the blood (AND WHY) would you find the

MOST CO2?

20. Several different examples of respiratory surfaces can be found in the animal kingdom.

a) What advantage does a large surface area in the alveoli have for animals that use lungs? b) Why is it advantageous for an insect to rely on tracheal systems for delivery of oxygen to individual cells, rather than their circulatory system?

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AP Biology Review Packet 7: Integration of Information and Ecology

2.A.1: All living systems require constant input of free energy. environment.

2.D.1: All biological systems from cells and organisms to populations, communities and ecosystems are affected by complex biotic and abiotic interactions involving exchange of matter and free energy.

3-D2- Cells communicate with each other through direct contact with other cells or from a distance via chemical signaling. 3-E2- Animals have nervous systems that detect external and internal signals, transmit and integrate information, and

produce responses 4.A.5: Communities are composed of populations of organisms that interact in complex ways. 4.A.6: Interactions among living systems and with their environment result in the movement of matter and

energy. 4.B.3: Interactions between and within populations influence patterns of species distribution and

abundance. 4.B.4: Distribution of local and global ecosystems changes over time. 4.C.3: The level of variation in a population affects population dynamics. 4.C.4: The diversity of species within an ecosystem may influence the stability of the ecosystem.

I. Integration of Informaton A. Endocrine system/Hormones

1. Used for slow communication in body (long lasting) 2. Chemical messengers 3. hypothalamus- makes releasing hormones, ADH and oxytocin and controls pituitary 4. Posterior pituitary= holds ADH and oxytocin to be released 5. Anterior pituitary= makes GH, thyroid stimulating hormone, FSH, LH, Adrenocorticotropic

Hormone and prolactin 6. GATOR pit FLAP 7. Tropic hormones-stimulate other glands , ex. TSH 8. Pancreas= insulin (takes up glucose) vs. glucagon (releases glucose) 9. Thyroid = Calcitonin (lowers calcium) vs. PTH (made in parathyroid and increases calcium

levels by releasing from storage) 10. Gonads= testosterone, progesterone, estrogen 11. Adrenal Glands: Stress hormones= mineral corticoids from cortex for long term stress vs.

epinephrine from medulla for short term stress (fight or flight)

B. Nervous system 1. Used for rapid communication 2. Brain has grey matter on outside and with matter on inside; cerebrum (thought, senses, etc),

cerebellum (balance), brain stem (breathing, heart rate), hypothalamus (sex drive, hunger, thirst, temperature); medulla oblongata (part of brain stem- breathing); pons (part of brain stem)

3. Neuron

4. Myelinated nerves allow for rapid impulses; salutatory conduction 5. Action potential (resting, depolarization- less negative because sodium flows in, repolarization-

more negative because potassium flows out; hyperpolarization) 6. Sodium/potassium pump (restores difference)

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7. “All or none law” 8. Neurotransmitters- ex. Acetylcholine, bring impulse from one neuron to another through

synapse; enzymes used to break down neurotransmitter; ex. Acetylcholinesterase

II. Ecology ECOLOGY- interactions of organisms with physical environment and each other

1. Organization Biosphere- all places on earth that contain living things

Biome- regions that exhibit similar characteristics

Ecosystem - living organisms and environment

Community- group of populations in the same area

Population- groups of the same species in an area

2. Populations • same species, same time, same place • carrying capacity- # of organisms that can be supported • limiting factors; density dependent- food, space, predators; density independent- severe

environmental disturbances • K-selected Populations: Strategy is to produce few offspring with higher cost (energy); Tend to

stay close to carrying capacity; Ex. Mammals • R-selected Populations: Boom and Bust organisms (opportunistic); Strategy is to produce a lot

of offspring with no parental care; Ex. Insects

3. Community • all populations in an area • interspecific interactions • competition; competitive exclusion; niche partitioning • predator/prey relationships (predators pop. size increases as prey pop. size increases but

lags) • symbiosis: commensalism- +0, mutualism- ++, parasitism- +- • keystone species are species that control population size of other species or are a needed

part of food web

4. Ecosystem- biotic and abiotic components • one way flow of energy from sun -> autotrophs -> heterotrophs • cycling of mineral elements (P, N) and inorganics (CO2, H2O) • sun- ultimate energy source for ecosystem • trophic feeding levels

• primary producers- convert sun’s energy into chemical energy of glucose • primary consumers- herbivores • secondary consumers- carnivores that eat herbivores • tertiary consumers- top of the food chain; eat secondary consumers • detritivores/decomposers- eat dead things

• 10% transfer to each level, 90% is used for metabolism/lost as heat 5. Biogeochemical Cycles 1. water cycle- water cycles between land and air; goes to air by evaporation and transpiration;

goes to land by condensation and precipitation 2. carbon cycle- carbon cycles between air, organisms, and land; carbon dioxide in air taken up by

plants, plants eaten by consumers; organisms give carbon off to air by respiration and by decomposition (soil to air)

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3. phosphorus cycle- phosphorus is trapped in minerals in rocks and is released into water/soil by weathering (rain, snow, etc.)

4. nitrogen cycle- nitrogen cycles between air, organisms and soil; nitrogen in air is fixed by soil bacteria via nitrogen fixation; plants use nitrates; organisms eat plants; bacteria return gaseous nitrogen via denitrification and decomposition

6. Biosphere- the part of the earth with living organisms *biomes- groups of organisms in common climate and with distinct vegetation a. temperate deciduous forests- us; good soil; seasonal b. taiga- coniferous forests; ex. Colorado c. tundra- Arctic; little or no rainfall; short summers d. grasslands- good for agriculture; little or no tall vegetation e. deserts- very little rainfall; cold or hot f. tropical rain forest- most biodiverse but worst soil; uniform temp and a lot of rain

7. Ecological succession- replacement of one community by another

a. primary succession- bare rock->lichens->moss->soil->grass->shrubs->pine ->hardwooods b. secondary succession (result of natural disaster)- grass->shrubs-> pines->hardwoods

8. Population Ecology a. Density- numbers of individual per unit area; dispersion patterns = clumped, uniform or

random b. Measurement methods

• quadrant sampling- count individuals in a sample plot • mark and recapture- # marked first day x total caught next time

# captured on second day with mark

c. Demographics- composition of population • Sex • Birth rate (fecundity) vs. death rate (mortality) • birth rate= # of births/total pop x 100 • Death rate = # of deaths/total pop x 100 • Growth rate (r) = births- deaths/total population;If r > 0, the population is growing, if r < 0,

the population is declining, if r = 0, zero population growth (ZPG) • Doubling time= 70/growth rate (kept as a percetange, i.e. 10% = 10) or .7/r (keep r in

decimal form) • dN (change in population)/dt (change in time)= B-D

9. Models of Population Growth a. Survivorship Curves

I= high adult mortaility II- uniform mortality

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III- high infant mortality b. Exponential Growth

• Called a J curve • No limiting factors or carrying capacity • Constant growth rate; larger population adds more indviduals in next generation • dN/dt= rmax N

c. Logistic Curve

• Called an S curve • Modified by limiting factors • Carrying capacity is where it levels off and can hold no more individuals; it is

dynamic (changes generation to generation) but static carrying capacity is used in calculations dN/dt= rmaxN (K-N/K)

d. Age structure curves- broad base = growing population; uniform = zero or slow growth, broad top= negative growth

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10. Disruptions

• Deforestation (disrupts carbon cycle) • Acid rain (disrupts water cycle) • Global warming (disrupts carbon cycle- TOO much greenhouse effect from excess

carbon dioxide in atmosphere) • Ozone depletion (damaging sun rays are not filtered) due to CFC’s and destruction

of 03 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- AP Biology Investigation 10- Energy Dynamics (simulated) Overview Part I: Net primary productivity of Fast Plants- Data was given on fast plants that were grown over 14 days. Dry mass was divided by wet mass to obtain biomass. Bio mass was multiplied by 4.35 kcal to obtain net primary productivity per 10 plants and divided by 10 to get NPP per day per plant. IV- Time DV- NPP Overview Part II: Energy flow between plants and butterfly larvae (caterpillars)- brussel sprouts and caterpillars were massed before and after 3 days of caterpillar consumption. Biomass (dry/wet) and energy constant were used to calculate how much energy from plant was used in cell respiration and how much was lost as water. PLANT ENERGY CONSUMED PER INDVIDUAL (plant change in biomass )- ENERGY PRODUCTION PER INDIVDUAL (larvae change in biomass) – FRASS ENERGY (energy lost in poo)= RESPIRATION ESTIMATE IV- time DV- change in energy (calculated by biomass) AP Biology- Dissolved Oxygen Lab (old AP manual)- simulated Overview: Bottles with algae were placed in varying amounts of light (screens used) to determine change in productivity. One bottle was placed in the dark and one bottle was measured before light was administered (initial bottle). Equations: NPP= GPP- Respiration; NPP= Initial Bottle – Light Bottle; Respiration= Initial Bottle- Dark Bottle IV= number of screens DPP= NPP endocrine signaling diabetes endocrine signaling insulin glucagon hormone saltatory conduction Schwann cells

sensory neuron sensory receptor serotonin abiotic factor abundance adaptation age structure biodiversity

biome biotic factor carbon cycle carrying capacity climate change community conservation decomposer

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demography density dependent factor food chain food web global warming greenhouse effect greenhouse gas gross primary productivity habitat hydrologic cycle imprinting interspecific competition intraspecific competition introduced species K-selection keystone species learning nitrogen cycle nutrient cycle parasite

photoautotroph population population growth population size pollution predator primary consumer quadrat rate of increase resillience r selection saprophyte detritovore distribution ecologial niche ecological pyramid ecological succession ecosystem ecosystem stability endangered species

exponential growth life history life tables limiting factor logistic growth mark and recapture migration mortality mutualism net primary productivity secondary consumer species diversity survivorship curve symbiosis ten percent rule threatened species trophic efficiency trophic level urbanization

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Questions and Practice

1. Discuss how humans maintain stable sugar levels in their blood stream.

2. Discuss how humans respond to stress.

3. Discuss how nerve impulses travel in the human body (include- receptions, action potential, active transport, neurotransmitters, etc.)

4. What models are useful in describing the growth of a population?

5. How is a population size regulated by abiotic and biotic factors?

6. How is energy flow through an ecosystem related to trophic levels?

7. How do elements cycle through ecosystems?

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8. How do organisms affect the cycling of element and water through the biosphere?

9. How do biotic and abiotic factors affect community structure and ecosystem function?

10. In which ways are humans affecting biogeochemical cycles?

11

12

13

14

15

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17

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18

19

20

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23. Look at the data table below and calculate the growth rates for the California Quail for each year. The

total population is 1000 individuals at the beginning of the year. Quails Births Immigration Deaths Emigration Population

Size Year 1 40 2 40 1 Year 2 46 5 45 0 Year 3 55 7 49 1

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Year 4 68 2 55 4

24. California quails will double its population size in how many years with the present growth rate of 1.5%?

25. Use the following information to answer the following questions:

Population size= 500 Births= 240 Deaths= 170 a) How many individual will be in the population in the next generation (second) if there are no limiting

factors? b) How many individuals will be in the population in the next generation (third) if there are no limiting

factors? c) How many individuals would be in the population in the second generation if resources are limited

and carrying capacity was 1000? d) How many individuals would be in the population in the third generation if resources are limited and

carrying capacity was 1000?

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