Annotated Bibliography of Materials for Adding an ...an International Dimension to Undergraduate...

Annotated Bibliography of Materials for Addingan International Dimension to Undergraduate

Courses in Developmental and Social PsychologyJudith Torney-Purta University of Maryland

For centuries cross-cultural comparisons have con-tributed to attempts to understand human behavior(Herodotus being an often-quoted early example).Specialized journals for publishing cross-culturalpsychological studies have been in existence for lessthan 20 years, however. The founding of the Inter-national Journal of Psychology took place in 1966.The first Annual Review article on culture andpsychology was published only about 10 years agoby Triandis, Malpass, and Davidson, although theAnnual Review had previously devoted some atten-tion to psychology in other countries (e.g., the 1964edition had an article on psychology in the SovietUnion). In the past decade courses devoted to cross-cultural approaches to psychology have increased,although they are still offered in a relatively smallpercentage of departments. Attempting to stimulatecross-cultural awareness among undergraduates whoare taking nonspecialized courses (introductory psy-chology, developmental psychology, social psychol-ogy) is even less common. Fostering this awarenessthrough such courses requires an infusion ap-proach—looking for places in the established courseof study where a cross-cultural example is appropri-ate or where readings that illustrate psychologicalprocesses in other cultures can be used.

M. H. Segall, writing in 1980 in the Journal ofCross-Cultural Psychology to commemorate its 10thanniversary, noted a readiness on the part of thosewho teach undergraduate psychology to foster globalawareness by using international resources. Suchteaching could, he felt, reduce students' ethnocen-trism about the field they were studying (and perhapsin their own lives as well) and help them deal moreintelligently with cultural relativism.

Approach and Purposes of the ReviewMost undergraduate psychology syllabuses are al-ready crowded. Instructors are most likely to addmaterials to foster a cross-cultural perspective if theyare made aware of international resources that canhelp meet the existing objectives of courses: readingsuseful for the preparation of lectures, for assignmentto students, for in-class discussion or participation

exercises, and for out-of-class assignments. Thisarticle will provide an annotated bibliography ofsuch resources, assuming that the instructor hasalready been convinced of the value of incorporatinginternational materials in courses. (Although filmsare also an excellent resource, because of spacelimitations they will not be reviewed.)

International or cross-cultural resources canserve several functions. They can illustrate the gen-erality (or lack of generality) of psychological theoriesor laws. They can illustrate the presence or absenceof ecological validity. They can help the studentunderstand how social and cultural factors influencebehavior and psychological development, factors thatmay be difficult to recognize in personal experiencelimited to one culture. They can highlight bothuniversal and culturally relative aspects of humanexperience. Discussions of cross-cultural resourcescan sometimes illuminate a student's own stereotypesand ethnocentric biases. Experience with cross-cul-tural resources in psychology may make a studentmore sensitive when dealing with individuals fromother cultural groups (either in a domestic contextor during international travel). Some resources caninform a student about global issues with psycholog-ical dimensions (e.g., immigrants' adjustment tonew cultures or individuals' problems in rapidlymodernizing societies).

In describing materials that may bring a cross-national or international dimension to undergraduatepsychology, I will follow several principles: First, Iwill attempt to highlight up-to-date material. A basicresource summarizing materials through the late1970s is the Handbook of Cross-Cultural Psychology,edited by H. Triandis and a series of co-editors inthe specialized fields covered by the six volumes—perspectives, methodology, basic processes, develop-mental psychology, social psychology, and psycho-pathology—and published in 1980 by Allyn andBacon. Many of the chapters from these volumeswill be cited, as it is a basic source. A single-volumeHandbook of Cross-Cultural Human Developmentwas edited by R. H. Munroe, R. L. Munroe, andB. B. Whiting and published by Garland STPM

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Press in 1981. A three-volume handbook, Handbookof Intercultural Training, was edited by D. Landisand R. Brislin and issued in 1983 by PergamonPress. Because cross-cultural psychology is such arapidly developing area of study, the interested in-structor is advised to take full advantage of newmaterials by using PsycSCAN or Psychological Ab-stracts, scanning new issues of periodicals such asthe Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, and ex-amining the chapters on topics such as cross-culturalpsychology and psychology in other nations thatappear in the Annual Review of Psychology (forexample, by Brislin in 1983). Many periodicals,such as the International Journal of Psychology,Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, ChildDevelopment, Developmental Psychology, HumanDevelopment, European Journal of Social Psychology,and Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science (tomention only some of the periodicals in English)carry articles written by non-American psychologistsor including cross-cultural comparisons. This articlewill concentrate upon books and selected chaptersbecause they are more likely than journal articles topresent the type of integrated perspective suitablefor undergraduate instruction.

Second, I will attempt to balance illustrationsof cultural differences with discussion of culturaluniversals. Cross-national studies (usually denned asinvolving countries that share a European tradition)will be examined, as will cross-cultural studies (fo-cusing on more primitive cultures or on developingcountries).

Third, I will include exercises in which studentscan actively participate, questions that they candiscuss, materials to which they can apply psycho-logical theories or research, and sources of data thatthey can use in exploratory analysis. These principleswill guide the selection of material to make thebibliography useful to an undergraduate psychologyinstructor. The researcher in this field would probablymake a different selection.

Techniques Useful Across Subareasof PsychologySeveral resources will be noted as useful as the basisfor a simulation or role-playing exercise. One struc-ture for such a simulation is that six or sevenstudents (usually members of a small advancedundergraduate class) each be assigned a chapter oran article written by a non-American psychologist.It is preferable if this article is a review rather thanthe report of a single study. Each student is assigned

Requests for reprints should be sent to Judith Torney-Purta,Department of Human Development, College of Education, Uni-,versity of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742.

to play the role of the author as if he or she were inattendance at an international meeting where thepaper is to be presented. Other students serve asdiscussants. The specific out-of-class assignment forpresenters is first to find out basic information aboutthe author's country (where it is, its level of economicdevelopment, and how it is governed) and then toabstract the article or chapter so that it can bepresented in 10 to 15 minutes. At the beginning ofthe class session each individual is introduced as ifhe or she were the international psychologist, andeach in turn presents a paper. Following the presen-tations, the "delegates" are asked to address a seriesof questions concerning plans for future researchconducted cooperatively. When using papers fromdeveloping countries, students may also find it usefulto discuss the politics of research as well as therelative emphasis that should be placed on basicresearch and on the application of research to im-proving life situations. See, for example, the questionsraised by D. P. Warwick writing on the politics andethics of cross-cultural research in the first volumeof Triandis and Heron (p. 380). As in all role-playing exercises, it is important to discuss theexperience with the students. A number of thecollections of chapters, which are described underthe specific headings, are suitable as the basis foruse in such a simulation.

A second general technique could be used inany of several areas within psychology. Studentsread journal articles reporting research conductedin the United States (either assigned by the instructoror found by themselves in an area of interest). Thestudents then rewrite the articles as proposals forcross-cultural study. In one section of each proposalthe students must give reasons the problem for studywould be clarified by cross-national or cross-culturalstudy.

Organization of the BibliographyThe major sections are devoted to resources usefulin developmental psychology (many also appropriatefor educational psychology) and resources useful insocial/organizational psychology. Except for threebooks that are suggested as supplementary texts forstudent purchase, the sections describe supplemen-tary materials that would be used in the library.

This organization is not intended to excludethe possibility that some instructors may wish toconcentrate on theories, research, and practice ofpsychology in some particular region of the world(a kind of "area studies approach" to cross-nationalpsychology). Such an approach would require theuse of resources from other disciplines, such asanthropology and comparative political studies. Thefollowing resources in psychology might be usefulin such an approach. Psychology Around the World,

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a book edited by V. Sexton and H. Misiak andpublished by Brooks/Cole in 1976, describes thestatus of psychology in 40 countries on 6 continents.Psychology in Africa, a book by M. Wober publishedby the International African Institute (London) in1975, includes sections on research in developmental,cognitive, and perceptual processes. Descriptions ofpsychology and current research in Japan can befound in the 1966 and 1972 Annual Review ofPsychology and in the American Psychologist forNovember 1977, as well as in Japanese psychologyjournals available in English. Descriptions of psy-chology in Latin America can be found in the 1982Annual Review of Psychology and in a wider literatureavailable to those who read Spanish. Discussions ofEastern European psychology are in various sourcesincluding the somewhat dated 1964 Annual Reviewchapter on the Soviet Union; the 1980 AnnualReview chapter on the German Democratic Republic;Soviet Developmental Psychology: An Anthology, ed-ited by M. Cole and published in 1977 by M. E.Sharpe (White Plains); as well as translations of theworks of Luria and Vygotsky. Studies of psychologythat take advantage of the cultural variety andcollective living arrangements in Israel include thechapter by C. W. Greenbaum and S. Kugelmass inStudies in Cross-Cultural Psychology (Vol. 2) editedby N. Warren and published by Academic Press in1980.

Resources Useful in DevelopmentalPsychologySupplementary Text for Courses in Developmentalor Educational Psychology

Wagner, D. A., & Stevenson, H. W. (1982). Culturalperspectives on child development. San Francisco: W. H.Freeman.

This paperback text, consisting of 20 chapters of 20-30pages each, primarily by North American psychologists,would be an excellent supplementary text in a childpsychology course. Each chapter could be keyed to achapter of a developmental text. The book not onlyprovides material for judging the universality of develop-mental processes but also gives an international contextfor assessing the influence of culture on development andfor placing research findings from Western cultures inperspective. Most of the chapters include details aboutresearch in more than one non-Western culture (LatinAmerican and African countries are especially well rep-resented). The book is not a dry recitation of methodsand findings of cross-cultural research; it transmits a senseof excitement by including several challenges to previousresearch (especially Jahoda and McGurk's chapter on theperception of depth in two-dimensional pictures). Superand Harkness's chapter on affect in infancy and earlychildhood is an excellent starting point for discussion ofuniversals in the mother-child interaction. The chapterby Ciborowski and Price-Williams on animistic cognitions

provides some examples of interviews that undergraduatestudents could replicate with children in their own com-munities. The chapters on informal and formal educationand its influence on cognitive development (by Greenfieldand Lave and by Stevenson, respectively) not only sum-marize important recent cross-cultural research but alsoprovide a starting point for students to consider howinformal education and formal education serve separateand complementary functions in their own society and inother societies at various levels of development. The Popechapter, which raises the issue of the universality ofKohlberg's stages of moral development, could also beused to discuss problems with the notion that a higherstage of moral development is necessarily better. The bookalso contains excellent chapters on cognition, nutrition,Piagetian approaches, and personality development.

This book will serve many of the same functions asCross-Cultural Child Development by E. L. Werner, whichrecently went out of print. Werner's text, however, includeda chapter on peer-peer relations and another on problemsof parent-child relations in modernizing societies that arenot as well represented in the Wagner and Stevensonvolume.

Placing Cross-Cultural Research in ContextBronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human

development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.This book provides a framework for analyzing the waysin which different levels of a social and cultural systemhave an effect upon human development. Students whocan judge the presence or absence of ecological validity inlaboratory studies conducted in the United States canmore easily understand why cross-cultural studies of psy-chological processes are important. The book can providean important bridge between laboratory and field studies.Several of the chapters use cross-cultural examples toillustrate the importance of the exosystem and the macro-system to the understanding of human behavior. Studentscan be asked to think of other examples. The article byBronfenbrenner in the American Psychologist (1977, 32,513-531) contains many of the same ideas and may bemore accessible to undergraduates.

The Study of InfancyKay, M. A. (Ed.). (1982). Anthropology of human

birth. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis.Leiderman, P. H., Tulkin, S. R., & Rosenfeld, A.

(Eds.). (1977). Culture and infancy: Variations in thehuman experience. New York: Academic Press.

Super, C. M. (1980). Cross-cultural research on in-fancy. In H. C. Triandis & A, Heron (Eds.), Handbook ofcross-cultural psychology: Vol. 4. Developmental psychology(pp. 17-54). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Super, C. M., & Harkness, S. (1982). The infant'sniche in rural Kenya and metropolitan America. In L.Adler (Ed.), Cross-cultural research at issue (pp. 47-55).New York: Academic Press.

Cultural variations in infant behavior and parent-infantrelations are well summarized here. Students can givereports on the birth event and on early infancy from.material to be found in Kay's book on Malaya, Japan,China (both Taiwan and the People's Republic), Egypt,

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Nigeria, Benin, India, Indians in Mexico, St. Kitts, Ireland,and various American subcultures. They can make reportsbased on descriptive material and research summarizedin chapters in Leiderman et al.'s book concerning infancyin Uganda, Mexico, Zambia, Israel, Guatemala, Botswana,Kenya, and urban Great Britain, These reports could alsobe used as the basis of a simulation of an internationalmeeting described previously. In discussing such reportsit is important to draw attention to both the similaritiesand the differences of experiences of mothers and infantsin these cultures, lest the students remember only theexotic nature of some of the details of birth rituals.

The Universality ofPiaget's TheoryDasen, P. R. (Ed.). (1977). Piagelian psychology:

Cross-cultural contributions. New York; Gardner Press(Wiley).

Dasen, P. R. (1982). Cross-cultural aspects ofPiaget'stheory: The competence-performance model. In L. L.Adler (Ed.), Cross-cultural research at issue (pp. 163-170). New York: Academic Press.

Dasen, P. R., & Heron, A. (1980). Cross-culturaltests of Piaget's theory. In H. C. Triandis & A. Heron(Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology: Vol. 4.Developmental psychology (pp. 295-342). Boston: Allynand Bacon.

Edwards, C. P. (1981). The comparative study of thedevelopment of moral reasoning and judgment. In R. H.Munroe, R. L. Munroe, & B. B. Whiting (Eds.), Handbookof cross-cultural human development (pp. 501-530). NewYork: Garland STPM Press.

Greenfield, P. (1976). Cross-cultural research andPiagetian theory. In K. Riegel & J. A. Meacham (Eds.),The developing individual in a changing world. Hague:Mouton.

Discussing ways of giving an international dimension tothe presentation of Piaget's theory may appear to have acertain irony, because the major theoretical works havetheir basis in the study of Swiss children and have beenwritten in French. Dasen, who is at the University ofGeneva, has written several chapters in English examiningresearch testing Piaget's theory cross-culturally and hasedited a major collection of these studies. The set ofresources listed above could provide most of the materialfor one or two undergraduate class sessions to examineevidence for the universality of Piaget's theory. The follow-ing subtopics are suggested for summarizing cross-culturalresearch regarding the issue of universality: (a) the senso-rimotor stage; (b) conservation; (c) kinship concepts; (d)concrete operational functioning in adults; (e) formaloperations; (f) the role of schooling and of ecoculturaldemands in cognitive development in the Piagetian model;(g) training cross nationally; and (h) the special importanceof the competence-performance distinction in studies ofthe theory's application. Basic information on all of thesetopics is available in the listed resources; students shouldbe encouraged, however, to consult abstracts and journalsfor original research reports.

The Study of Child-Parent and Child-PeerRelations

Lambert, W., Hamers, J., & Smith, N. (1979), Childrearing values: A cross-national study. New York: Praeger.

Rohner, R. P, (1975). They love me, they love me not.New Haven, CT: HRAF Press.

Tapp, J. (1980). Studying personality development.In H. C. Triandis & A. Heron (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology: Vol. 4. Developmental psychology (pp.343-424). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

The Tapp chapter, an introduction to and an overview ofstudies of personality development and child-rearing cor-relates cross-culturally, also presents a framework foranalysis. Tapp includes in-depth studies of a single culture,some of which would fit under the almost abandoned"national character" model, and comparisons of anotherculture with the United States (such as that of the USSRby Bronfenbrenner in Two Worlds of Childhood, publishedby Russell Sage in 1970, and of England by Barker andSchoggens in Qualities of Community Life, published byJossey Bass in 1973).

The books listed above summarize extensive datacollections involving parents (primarily mothers) in severaldifferent societies, and they could be used in many waysin an undergraduate course. The Rohner book presentsdata from the Human Relations Area Files (101 cultures)to examine the universality of effects of parental rejectionupon children. Lambert, Hamers, and Smith report acollection of data on child-rearing values from working-and middle-class parents in 17 cultural groups. Studentscan develop their own hypotheses about parent socializationand child behavior and can test out those hypotheses usingthe data tables in the book or (when such tables are notavailable) suggest what additional measures or analysiswould be necessary. Students could also administer intheir own community the instruments used by Lambert,Hamers, and Smith and speculate about the sources ofthe differences they observe.

Morsbach, H, (1980). Major psychological factorsinfluencing Japanese interpersonal relations. In N. Warren(Ed.), Studies in cross-cultural psychology (Vol. 2, pp.317-342). London: Academic Press.

This is one of several possible sources to illustrate recentattempts to account for personality characteristics thatappear typical of a culture by using a combination ofobservations of mother-child interaction and other social-ization factors. I have listed this chapter because ofwidespread current interest in Japan. One could also findbooks in most libraries with titles beginning "Child Rearingin . . ." as the basis for student reports.

Seymour, S. (1981). Cooperation and competition. InR. H. Munroe, R. L. Munroe, & B. B. Whiting (Eds.),Handbook of cross-cultural human development (pp. 717-738). New York: Garland STPM Press.

Sutton-Smith, B., & Roberts, J. M. (1980). Play,games, and sports. In H. C. Triandis & A. Heron (Eds.),Handbook of cross-cultural psychology: Vol. 4. Develop-mental psychology (pp. 425-471). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

The area of children's play and peer relations is of specialinterest to undergraduate students. Play behavior is alsoeasy to observe. One can give undergraduates brief trainingin time-sampled or event-sampled observations and instructthem to find a public setting in which to observe childrenin leisure-time activity (a video arcade, a swimming pool


or beach, a carnival with games of skill, a shopping center,a playground, or a museum). Using the references suggestedin the two listed chapters, as well as finding others availableby scanning abstracts or recent journals, the student coulddraw up a format for observing children that could besuitable for use both in the local public setting chosen andin another culture (or cultures). After completing theobservation in his or her own community, the studentreports on that observation and then suggests what wouldbe expected if the observation had been conducted in adifferent cultural context. It is probably easiest if thebehaviors chosen for observation are some that would beexpected to differ in another cultural context. For example,if the setting were a competitive game, the student mighthypothesize that cooperative behavior would be morecommon in some other cultures. If the setting were onein which adults and children were participating in activitiestogether, the student might hypothesize that there wouldbe different kinds of interactions in another country.(Some recent descriptive material on childhood in theSoviet Union or in the People's Republic of China couldalso be used in making these comparisons.)

The Study of Adolescent Development

Kandel, D. B., & Lesser, G. S. (1972). Youth in twoworlds: United States and Denmark. San Francisco: JosseyBass.

Tallman, I., Marotz-Baden, R., & Pindas, P. (1983).Adolescent socialization in cross-cultural perspective. NewYork: Academic Press.

Young, H. B., & Ferguson, L. R. (1981). Puberty tomanhood in Italy and America. New York: AcademicPress.

Although there has been considerable recent interest inadolescent development (indexed by publications such asthe Handbook of Adolescent Psychology), the work haspaid little attention to cross-cultural study. That situationis ironic because so many aspects of adolescent developmentseem to be influenced by cultural factors. The three listedvolumes each represent a comparison of adolescents inanother culture with those in the United States.

The Kandel and Lesser volume is written at a levelsuitable for undergraduates, and either the book or anarticle referenced in it that reports part of the study mightbe assigned as a supplementary reading. Based on a studyof 14- to 18-year-olds in Denmark and the United States,it is an excellent context-setter for discussion of adolescentdevelopment. The authors conclude that Danish familiesare more democratic and Danish parents set fewer rulesthan families in the United States. An instructor couldstimulate an interesting discussion of that finding and ofother findings about relations with friends and attitudestoward secondary schooling.

The Young and Ferguson volume could also be usedas a supplement, but it relies somewhat more on psycho-logical tests with which undergraduates may be unfamiliarand upon tables that may be difficult for some students tointerpret. Some students from ethnic backgrounds willfind the volume intriguing because the adolescents studiedcurrently live in Boston, Rome, or Palermo, but all theirgrandparents had been residents of Southern Italy.

The volume by Tallman and his collaborators contains

the most extensive theoretical framework and is the mostuseful for helping students understand the dilemmas ofmodernizing societies. Data were collected from 11- to15-year-olds in Mexico and the United States using asimulation played by both parents and children regardinglife plans. Some classes will be intrigued by trying toreplicate the simulation; others will be interested in furtherexploratory analysis of the many detailed tables; still otherswill want to discuss the authors' conclusion that U.S.parents are stimulating narcissism and self-indulgenceamong their children, whereas Mexican parents are overlyconcerned with helping their children better themselvesusing material goods as the index of success.

Massey, J. A. (1976). Youth and politics in Japan,Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.

Torney, J. V., Oppenheim, A. N., & Farnen, R. F.(1975). Civic education in ten countries: An empiricalstudy. New York: Wiley.

These volumes report studies of the political socializationof young people. The first is an in-depth study of attitudestoward government and democracy in Japan. The seconddescribes research on the knowledge and attitudes con-cerning politics (including support for civil liberties andfor women's rights) among 14- and 17-year-olds in WesternEuropean countries and the United States. Both couldprovide material for lectures or special reports. Politicalvalues, especially cross-national differences in the meaningof democracy and related political institutions, are a topicof considerable interest to undergraduates.

A Collection of Chapters by Non-AmericanPsychologists Summarizing DevelopmentalResearch in Other Nations

Hartup, W., Ahammer, I. M., & Pick, H. L. (Eds.).(1982). Review of child development research (Vol. 6).Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

This recent and excellent collection of 20 chapters includesthe work of psychologists in 10 nations (primarily fromEastern and Western Europe). It presents many resourcesfor lecture preparation for courses in child psychology, forresearch for papers by junior or senior students, and forthe simulation exercise described.

The chapters written by Eastern Europeans are ofspecial interest. Lisina, a Soviet, describes research inwhich the child's "need for interaction with adults" and"need for interaction with peers" are described as the onlyroutes toward proper self-concept development. Students'attention can be drawn to the way in which the designand interpretation of research may be shaped by thepolitical and educational ideology of the country in whichit is conducted. Students can also consider the way Amer-ican researchers design and interpret their work based ona more individualistic perspective. Linhart, a Czech, de-scribes Eastern European approaches to the study of self-regulation and refers to Lenin in describing "developmentaldialectics" in which "learning plays the role of a formativeprocess which 'runs ahead of mental development,' beingoriented to changes in ... society" (p. 496). Venger, aSoviet, elaborates on the role of education and training inorganizing and directing the activity of children andforming their abilities in a purposeful way. Less stress is


placed on waiting for ontogenetic development to make achild ready for learning, and more stress is placed upontraining that shapes cognitive growth. These chapterscould provide a stimulus for comparing the assumptionsin other theories, such as Piaget's, concerning the role oftraining versus the role of development. (These chapterswould be as useful in an educational psychology course asin a developmental psychology course.)

This volume is not limited to the Eastern Europeanperspective, however. Two French psychologists, Mounoudand Hauert, review works from several French-speakingcountries. They compare Piaget's theory with that ofWallon (who also wrote in French during the 1940s onthe subject of infant intelligence). They include recentwork from their own laboratory concerning the role ofposture, muscle tone, and prehension patterns in earlyinfant development, as well as focusing on the importanceof proprioceptive and olfactory cues provided by theindividual who is caring for the child. The chapter isrelatively abstract in its theoretical discussion, but itpresents a way of integrating some of the material onmotor and perceptual development currently found inundergraduate developmental texts with theory about in-tellectual development during infancy.

A chapter by Serpell reviews recent studies of percep-tual development and intelligence in developing countries.This chapter could be a starting point for discussions inan undergraduate developmental psychology course onquestions such as the existence of a universally applicabledefinition of intelligence; whether the observation of self-managed activities by individuals native to the culturemight be more useful than standardized tests in measuringintelligence; and what the effects of play or work experienceare (in contrast to school experience) upon intellectualdevelopment.

Three chapters in the Hartup volume are by Germanauthors and summarize work on achievement motivation,cognitive development, and the effects of schooling. Heck-hausen's chapter could introduce a discussion of themeaning of achievement motivation in Western culturesfrom early in life and the ways school experience changesthat motivation. The chapter by Trudewind examines theecology of achievement behavior, including measures ofhome and school environment. Included in the Weinertand Treiber chapter are summaries of the InternationalAssociation for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement(IEA) studies of achievement conducted in 22 countries.These chapters could fit equally well into an educationalpsychology or a developmental psychology course (forrelatively advanced undergraduates) and could serve asthe starting point for discussions of multiple influences onschool achievement, which may be more obvious whenstudents view nations other than their own.

The Study of AgingCowgill, D. O., & Holmes, L. S. (Eds,). (1972). Aging

and modernization. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.Finley, G. E. (1982). Modernization and aging. In

T. M. Field, A. Huston, H. C. Quay, L. Troll, & G. E.Finley (Eds.), Review of human development (pp. 511-523). New York: Wiley.

Fry, C. (Ed.). (1980). Aging in culture and society.New York: Praeger.

Lyell, R. (1980). Middle age, old age: Short stones,poems, plays and essays on aging. New York: Harcourt.

Myerhoff, B. G., & Simic, A. (1978). Life's career-aging: Cultural variations on growing old. Beverly Hills:Sage.

Today's undergraduate has grown up in a youth-orientedculture that places value on self-reliance and progress.Cross-cultural studies of aging can promote examinationof these values. The introduction to this subject mightstress universalities and differences in treatment of andexpectations for older people, followed by reports organizedby theme or by country. The books listed above provideuseful introductory material, along with a wide range ofdescriptive chapters on aging in countries from manyareas throughout the world (Western European countriessuch as Norway and France; Eastern European countriessuch as Yugoslavia and the USSR; Asian countries suchas Japan and India; African countries such as Ethiopiaand Tanzania; and Latin American countries such asColombia and Mexico). The Myerhoff and Simic bookalso includes some comparisons involving American ethnicgroups—Polish Americans compared with Poles living inPoland. Topics that can be addressed using these materialsinclude (a) relation between the elderly and their families;(b) the role of traditions and rituals in shaping the livesof the elderly; (c) characteristics of groups and communitiesin which the elderly live; (d) value differences betweenyouth and the elderly, for example, dependency; and (e)the ways in which the process of modernization influenceslife for the elderly. Although these books of readings(primarily by anthropologists) are excellent sources, stu-dents should also be directed to psychology journal articleson related topics.

The Lyell collection of short fiction has several piecesthat depict aging in other societies—Israel, China, Russia,India, and Japan. The following novels also portray theexperience of the elderly in other cultures: Kawabata,Sound of the Mountain (Japan); Achebe, Arrow of God(Nigeria); Clavel, Fruits of Winter (France).

The Study of Policy as It Influences Childrenand Families

Kammerman, S. B., & Kahn, A. J. (Eds.). (1978).Family policy: Government and families in fourteen coun-tries. New York: Columbia University Press.

Many instructors include the study of government policyas it influences children and families as part of courses indevelopmental psychology. This volume, which reviewspolicy in Eastern and Western European countries, wouldbe an excellent way to add a comparative dimension tosuch study. The individual chapters provide material forstudent reports and for discussion of the values thatunderlie U.S. policy.

Resources Useful in Social andOrganizational PsychologySupplementary Text for Courses inSocial Psychology

Segall, M. H. (1979). Cross-cultural psychology: Hu-man behavior in global perspective. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.


This hardbound text (approximately 250 pages) couldeasily be keyed to most textbooks in social psychology.Six of the eight chapters deal with topics in such courses:for example, cultural differences in motives, beliefs, andvalues; change and modernization; and out-group valuesand stereotypes. The author has included examples ofexercises for student participation and has reviewed anextensive amount of research.

Differing Orientations to the Study ofSocial Psychology in Other Nations

Moscovici, S. (1972). Society and theory in socialpsychology. In J. Israel & H. Tajfel (Eds.), The context ofsocial psychology (pp, 17-68). London: Academic Press.

Strickland, L. H. (1979). Soviet and Western perspec-tives in social psychology. Oxford, England: PergamonPress.

Tajfel, H. (1981). Human groups and social categories.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.The contrast of North American social psychology withWestern European (Moscovici and Tajfel) and EasternEuropean approaches (Strickland) is highlighted in thesevolumes. The argument made by Moscovici and Tajfel(and by many other Europeans)—that American socialpsychology is not "social" at all because it retreats toexplanations at the individual level—is not one that theaverage undergraduate is likely to understand. Becausemany undergraduates define social psychology as "what isincluded in a text with that title," their instructors mustplace the subject in a broader context. One part of thatcontext is the view of critical theorists who criticize thepositivistic research tradition for its blindness to the effectsof political ideology. These theorists stress that researchabout social facts is unlike research about physical factsbecause its results can be used to protect the interests ofthose holding economic and political power.

Moscovici describes U.S. research as the "social psy-chology of the nice person" and cautions European psy-chologists against adopting social psychology as denned inthe United States because it has concentrated on problemsthat may not correspond with social problems in Europe.Tajfel presents similar arguments that social psychologyshould deal with the relation between individual andsociety. When, for example, does interindividual behaviorbecome intergroup behavior? In other words, when doesa negative relation between a white individual and a blackindividual become an issue of negative group relations?The instructor who has an able class interested in suchissues will find a wealth of materials, especially by British,German, and French social psychologists.

A set of positions that may be even more difficult forundergraduates to understand is the exemplification ofMarxist thinking in Soviet social psychology. The Stricklandbook contains papers primarily by Russians and by Ca-nadians and includes a fascinating description of theapproach taken in teaching social psychology in the USSR.A disadvantage of the volume is that the Russian papersare very short.

Universality in Social Structure and Morality inTheir Influence on Social Problems

Naroll, R. (1983). The moral order: An introductionto the human situation. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Naroll, an anthropologist, presents data from a worldwideset of cultures relating to understanding universal com-ponents of a moral and social order. In particular he isconcerned with the effects of "moralnets" or strong socialnetworks often found in societies with extended familystructure. He presents data demonstrating that the existenceof moralnets is related to lesser incidence or severity of10 social problems, including sex discrimination, childabuse, and alcoholism. A presentation of his method byan instructor could be followed by student exploration ofthe specific social problems Naroll discusses stressing thepoint of view of psychology. The entire volume could beused as a supplement in a course on social problems, andindividual sections could be used as they relate to specifictopics in social or developmental psychology.

Cross-Cultural Differences in Values

Klineberg, O., Zavalloni, M., Louis-Guerin, C., &BenBrika, J. (1979). Students, values, and politics: A cross-cultural comparison. New York: Macmillan.

Mann, L. (1980). Cross-cultural studies of smallgroups. In H. Triandis & R. W. Brislin (Eds.), Handbookof cross-cultural psychology: Vol. 5. Social psychology (pp.155-209). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Osgood, C. E., May, W. H., & Miron, M. S. (1975).Cross-cultural universal of affective meaning. Urbana:University of Illinois Press.

Stewart, E. C. (1979). American assumptions andvalues. In E. C. Smith & L. F. Luce (Eds.), Towardinternationalism: Readings in cross-cultural communica-tion. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

Triandis, H. (1972). The analysis of subjective culture.New York: Wiley.

Zavalloni, M. (1980). Values. In H. Triandis & R. W.Brislin (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology; Vol.5. Social psychology (pp. 73-120). Boston: Allyn andBacon.

Much of the content in undergraduate social psychologycourses deals with values and attitudes. The Zavallonichapter includes a detailed discussion of Kluckhohn'swork on values in other cultures. The chapter by Mannraises the issues of cross-cultural differences in groupconformity as well as of competition and cooperation insmall groups. The Stewart chapter describes some of thecommonly ascribed aspects of the U.S. value system,which can be compared with other value systems; theSmith and Luce book has additional chapters with someuseful material on other nations. This material can beused to discuss questions such as the role of individualism,competition, faith in social and technical progress, equality,respect for education, religious faith, and so on in theUnited States viewed in a comparative framework.

The book by Klineberg and his collaborators is anexcellent source for students to use in exploring thefindings of a cross-national data collection (the book hasextensive presentations of data) and even in replicatingsome of the research (they can use the questionnaire inthe book). Data were collected from approximately 10,000university students in 11 countries (both Western Europeanand developing societies). A variety of topics were included:domestic political orientations, views of the ideal society,nationalism, career and life goals, perceptions of university


education, the role of women, protest movements, morality,and religion. The books discussed in the previous sectionon adolescent development also have material related tothese topics.

The Osgood and Triandis books include extensivereports from a large study of subjective culture (e.g.,values, beliefs, attitudes, and roles) conducted in 25 coun-tries (including Eastern and Western European, Asian,Middle Eastern, and Latin American countries). Bothbooks have extensive material in tabular form availablefor student reports. The Triandis book makes some inter-esting cross-cultural comparisons of emotional experience(e.g., anger, courage, and freedom) that could serve as thebasis for student discussion.

The comparative study of values using these resourcescould lead into a study of ways of improving interculturalcommunication, a topic to which psychologists have de-voted extensive attention.

Supplementary Text for Courses in SocialPsychology Dealing with Cross-CulturalDifferences and Intercultural Communication

Samovar, L. A., & Porter, R. E. (Eds.). (1982).Intercultural communication: A reader (3rd ed.). Belmont,CA: Wadsworth.

This paperback selection of short readings from the fieldsof cultural anthropology, social psychology, sociology, andcommunication theory covers various topics: subjectiveculture viewed as a matter of shared perception; sex rolesin the Middle East; Japanese social experience; Americannondominant cultures; verbal and nonverbal interaction;and ways of improving intercultural communication. Eachsection is followed by a brief annotated bibliography,suggested additional readings, and discussion questions(some of which are general and others quite specific). Thebook would be useful as a supplement in courses in socialpsychology or in courses targeted on intercultural issues.

Intercultural Communication and TrainingBrislin, R. W. (1979). Orientation programs for cross-

cultural preparation. In A. J. Marsella, R. G. Tharp, &T, J. Ciborowski (Eds.), Perspectives on cross-culturalpsychology (pp. 287-306). New York: Academic Press.

Brislin, R. W. (1981). Cross-cultural encounters, NewYork: Pergamon.

Landis, D., & Brislin, R. (1983). Handbook of inter-cultural training (Vols. 1-3). New York: Pergamon.

Pedersen, P. (1979). Non-Western psychology: Thesearch for alternatives. In A. J. Marsella, R. G. Tharp, &T. J. Ciborowski (Eds.), Perspectives on cross-culturalpsychology (pp. 117-135). New York: Academic Press,

Brislin's chapter focuses on techniques used in programsdesigned to improve intercultural communication and oncontrasting training based on self-awareness, on informationor cognitive approaches, on attribution training, on be-havior modification, and on experiential learning. TheBrislin book presents both extensive background concerningindividual and group factors and suggestions concerningways of improving the quality of contact between individ-uals of different cultural groups. The "cultural assimilator,"a method used to acquaint Americans who are to live in

another culture with attributions made by individuals insocial situations in that culture, is described in each ofthe Brislin references and in a chapter by Albert in theLandis and Brislin handbook. This technique could beused in a class as an example of what is involved inintercultural training. The instructor would probably needto obtain more complete copies of a cultural assimilatorand instructions for its use (see listing in the Albertchapter).

A large variety of programs and techniques for inter-cultural training are described in the three-volume Landisand Brislin handbook. The contribution to the handbookby Pedersen and his chapter listed above are useful sourcesfor discussions about differences in concepts of personalityand how the underlying assumptions of counselors maystand in the way of communication between individualsfrom different cultural groups, especially in counselingsituations.

Simulation Game Useful for the Studyof Intercultural Communication

Shirts, G. (1979). Bafa Bafa. La Jolla, CA: Simile.

The purpose of this simulation is to give students theexperience of being a member of a culture based ondifferent value assumptions and to create a situation inwhich problems of intercultural communication and evenculture shock arise. In this game, which can be playedand discussed in about 90 minutes, a class of 12 to 35students is divided into two "cultures" that operate fromdifferent assumptions about social behavior. After spendinga few minutes "learning their own culture," a process ofvisiting between cultures begins, and students try to learnas much as they can by observation and interaction aboutthe other cultural group. This extremely interesting exercisecan be used to introduce many concepts relating to thecross-cultural study of psychology.

Stereotypes and General Problemsin Intergroup Relations

Brewer, M. B., & Campbell, D. T. (1976). Ethnocen-trism and intergroup attitudes: East African evidence. NewYork: Wiley.

Davidson, A. R., & Thomson, E. (1980). Cross-cultural studies of attitudes and beliefs. In H. Triandis &R, W. Brislin (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology:Vol. 5. Social psychology (pp. 25-71). Boston: Allyn andBacon.

Tajfel, H. (Ed.). (1982). Social identity and intergrouprelations. London: Academic Press.

The Davidson and Thomson chapter gives an excellentsummary of the acquisition of stereotypes and can serveas the starting point for discussion of the students' ownstereotypes about other racial or national groups. One wayof organizing such a discussion is to ask students to writea one- or two-page intercultural or interracial autobiog-raphy addressing questions such as the following: Whatwas your image of people from other cultures and racialgroups when you were five or six years old? When youwere an adolescent? Is this image different now? Whatinformation or experience formed or changed these atti-tudes? Do you remember ever feeling like a member of


an "out-group?" Can you think of any ways to changethose stereotypes or prejudices? The students then exchangetheir autobiographies in pairs and orally summarize them.Thus individual A's autobiography can be summarized byindividual B, while individual B's is summarized by A.This situation is more satisfactory than if each personpresents his or her own autobiography, as students willoften be hesitant to discuss their own negative feelings.The instructor summarizes and interprets the materialpresented to illustrate the pervasiveness of stereotypes andthe difficulty of modifying them. Any student who ishesitant to have his or her autobiography consideredshould have those feelings respected, but even in raciallymixed classes few students choose not to participate.

The Brewer and Campbell volume as well as theTajfel collection can be used to illustrate the extent towhich ethnocentrism and strong in-group feelings (basedon various characteristics of group membership, includingrace, religion, national origin, tribe, and language) shapeinteraction, The role of cognitive factors, personal contact,and shared cultural elements can be discussed using thesematerials.

Stereotypes and Problems in Intergroup Relations:The Special Case of New Migrant Groups

Coehlo, G. V., & Ahmed, P. I. (1980). Uprooting anddevelopment: Dilemmas of coping with modernization.New York: Plenum.

Emecheta, B. Second-class citizen. (1983). New York:Braziller. (paperback)

Matthews, E. (1982). Culture clash. Chicago: Inter-cultural Press.

Schonbach, P., et al. (1981). Education and intergroupattitudes. London, England: Academic Press.

Watson, J. L. (Ed.). (1977). Between two cultures:Migrants and minorities in Britain. Oxford: Blackwell.

U.S. undergraduates are likely to have little awareness ofthe number of workers and their families from SouthernEurope (especially Turkey, Italy, and Greece) who havemigrated to Northern Europe as "guest workers" and theextent to which British society now includes large numbersof migrants from former British colonies. Much of therenewed interest on the part of European social scientistsin intergroup attitudes results from the problems of edu-cation and social services that have resulted. This situationis therefore an excellent concrete illustration of the per-vasiveness outside the United States of negative intergroupattitudes that are not exclusively racial in character. TheSchonbach volume, which reports research on Germansecondary school students' attitudes toward Turkish andItalian migrant workers, is probably too complex forassignment to students, but it does suggest topics fordiscussion, for example, the role of socioeconomic condi-tions and personal contact in intergroup relations, as wellas home and school factors.

The Coehlo and Ahmed volume discusses mentalhealth issues and coping strategies in the adaptation ofimmigrant groups from Latin America, India, and Asiato the United States, as well as immigrants to Israel. Thisbook can serve as a resource for student projects orreports. The book by Matthews, a reconstructed diary ofan American family that served as sponsors to a Vietnamese

immigrant family, provides a first-hand account of someof the problems discussed in the Coehlo and Ahmedvolume.

Another source for student reports would be theWatson volume, which describes the history of migrationto Britain from Pakistan, India, the West Indies, WestAfrica, Turkey, Greece, Poland, and China. The materialpresented in the chapter on West Africa could be read inconjunction with the Emecheta book. Although classifiedas fiction, this book appears to have an autobiographicalbasis. The main character is a Nigerian woman whofollows her husband to London, has five children, andcopes with many problems associated with being "a second-class citizen"—both a migrant to England and a woman.The book raises issues of modernization and sex roles inAfrican cultures, problems of assimilation faced by mi-grants in a second culture, the meaning of children andfamily in African cultures, the role of social networks,and alternative views of morality. It raises the furtherquestions of how the experience of this character (or ofthose from the various groups discussed in the Watsonvolume) relates to the current experiences of immigrantsto the United States and the kinds of prejudice theyencounter. If the college or university is situated in or neara community where groups of recent immigrants live,students can use that topic for a paper based on observationsor interviews. If students have no such direct access, theycan use recent newspapers and magazine articles that havepresented extensive analysis of the problems of migrants.

The topic of American attitudes toward new immi-grants and toward immigration policy is an excellent onefor students to use as the focus for designing, administering,and analyzing an attitude survey for adults or otherstudents. Questions might include the following: Whatshould be the basis for immigration restrictions that wouldboth be fair and protect U.S. interests? Another questionis whether the following factors should be taken intoaccount in deciding whether a group or an individualwould be allowed to immigrate: ability to speak English,agreement not to take a job displacing American workers,possession of a needed occupational skill, proof of abilityto be financially independent for one year, residence in acountry practicing political repression, residence in acountry threatened by famine, residence in a countryfriendly to the U.S. government, and so on. This projectcan simultaneously give training in survey skills andexpose students to a current policy issue with internationalramifications.

Sex Differences and Sex-Role Stereotypes

Ember, D. A cross-cultural perspective on sex differ-ences. (1981). In R. H. Munroe, R. L. Munroe, & B. B.Whiting (Eds.). Handbook of cross-cultural human devel-opment (pp. 531-580). New York: Garland STPM Press.

Williams, J. E., & Best, D. L. (1982). Measuring sexstereotypes. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Two basic issues in the study of sex roles are the extentto which there are culturally universal differences betweenthe sexes and the extent to which these differences andother characteristics are reflected in beliefs about the sexes(sex-role stereotypes). The Ember chapter is a source forconsidering the universality of sex differences. A very


lively discussion could be stimulated in an undergraduateclass based on the criteria and framework Ember sets out.

The Williams and Best book is an excellent resourcefor reading by more able students and for exploration ofhypotheses using the extensive tables which the authorspresent. They have collected data (using an adjective checklist) from male and female university students in 28countries and from children in 24 countries. All majorareas of the world except the Middle East and EasternEurope are represented. The authors described both cross-cultural similarities and cross-cultural differences in sex-role stereotypes. Questions for discussion might includethe following. To what extent do stereotypes found in theWilliams and Best study match the sex differences describedby Ember? Are sex-role stereotypes more or less charac-teristic of societies with a Western European orientation(when compared with Asian, Latin American, or Africangroups)? What is the role of religion in forming sexstereotypes? Because many sex stereotypes appear in dif-ferent cultures, should we become less concerned abouttheir existence in the United States? If it is not possiblefor students to read the entire book, several articlesdescribing this project are available in the journals (andare referenced in this book).

Blumberg, R. L. (1976). Fairy tales and facts: Econ-omy, family, fertility, and the female. In I. Tinker &M. B. Bramsen (Eds.), Women and world development.Washington, DC: Overseas Development Council.

Schlegal, A. (Ed.). (1977). Sexual stratification: Across-cultural view. New York: Columbia University.

Tiffany, S. W. (1979). Women and society. Montreal:Eden Press.In considering the influences of culture on sex roles,instructors have many opportunities to broaden students'interests in developing world areas by considering women'sstatus. Blumberg presents and refutes 10 myths and ste-reotypes about women and development. Students coulduse other chapters in the Tinker and Bramsen volume, aswell as materials from the country-by-country presentationsin the Schlegal and the Tiffany books to suggest otherstereotypes and myths about women and the ways psycho-logical research might be used to evaluate those mythsand stereotypes. Other questions for discussion mightinclude the following. What evidence is there that mod-ernization improves the status of women? How could oneanswer a husband in a country where women's optionsare severely limited who argues that his wives are welltaken care of and would not want more equality? TheEmecheta book previously cited is also an excellent sourcefor this topic.

Achievement Motivation

Kornadt, H.-J., Eckensberger, L. H., & Emminghaus,W. B. (1980). Cross-cultural research on motivation andits contribution to a general theory of motivation. In H.Triandis & W. Lonner (Eds.), Handbook of cross-culturalpsychology: Vol. 3. Basic processes (pp. 223-321). Boston:Allyn and Bacon.

Maehr, M. L., & Nicholls, J. G. (1980). Culture andachievement motivation. In N, Warren (Ed.). Studies incross-cultural psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 221-267). London:Academic Press.

Achievement motivation, which is discussed in manysocial psychology courses, is of special interest in WestGermany. The chapter in the Triandis handbook waswritten by three West Germans. It presents McClelland'stheory relating need for achievement to entrepreneurialbehavior and economic development and considers therelation of this motive to child-rearing processes. Theauthors present evidence for a kind of universal achieve-ment motive; however, they argue that this motive shouldbe studied within the context of the subjective cultures ofdifferent nations (as suggested by Triandis).

The Maehr and Nicholls chapter presents a somewhatmore critical view of McClelland's theory; it argues thathis conceptualization was based on an individualisticAmerican model of achievement. In other countries, suchas Japan or Iran, views of success and motivation toachieve may be tied into the subjective culture in differentways. The authors also comment on the extent to whichschooling practices (which probably have a determinativeeffect on motivation to achieve, especially in developingcountries) have been ignored in favor of the study ofchild-rearing practices. They use cross-cultural evidenceto expand the conceptualization of achievement motivationand also discuss problems with the assumption that anytest (even a projective test) has cross-cultural validity.Students have their own ideas about why they are motivatedto study and to excel. Their own reflection on thosemotives and how they have been shaped can be stimulatedby the cross-cultural similarities and differences that Maehrand Nicholls present. These readings can also be integratedinto a study of traditional and modern attitudes in devel-oping nations. If some students in the class have takentheir primary and secondary education in another country,they can be asked to discuss the motivation differencesthat they have experienced.

Aggression

Goldstein, A., & Segall, M. (1983). Aggression inglobal perspective. Elmsford, NY: Pergamon,

Aggression and its sources are often considered in socialpsychology courses. This work includes a wide-rangingcollection of chapters reporting psychological and socio-logical research on that topic in Nigeria, Peru, Brazil, andHungary, as well as in several countries in Western Europeand Asia (including China). The volume illustrates theextent to which common factors predict aggressivenessacross nations and the widespread concern about thisproblem. Students might be asked to read recent U.S.research on aggression and then search this volume forcorroborating or conflicting information.

Work OrganizationsBass, B. M., & Burger, P. C. (1979). Assessment of

managers: An international comparison. New York: FreePress.

Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's consequences: Inter-national differences in work-related values. Beverly Hills,CA: Sage.

Tannenbaum, A. S., et al, (1977). Hierarchy in or-ganizations. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

Tannenbaum, A. S. (1980). Organizational psychology.In H. D. Triandis & R. W. Brislin (Eds.), Handbook of


cross-cultural psychology: Vol. 5. Social psychology (pp.281-334). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

These works are closely related to the previous topics ofvalue differences between countries and of achievementmotivation. The Bass and Burger book contains materialsfrom 12 countries (primarily in Western Europe, Japan,and Latin America); in addition to paper and pencilmeasures, it includes performance on organizational be-havior exercises. The Hofstede book contains detailedmaterial, suitable either for lecture preparation or forstudent reports, comparing values of managers in 40countries (covering every major area of the world). Thebook by Tannenbaum and his associates reports researchon organizational hierarchy in Yugoslavia, Israel (a kib-butz), Italy, Austria, and the United States. The Tannen-baum review chapter covers the area more broadly.

The concluding chapter of the Hofstede volume sum-marizes differences by world area in the way individualsare motivated and the preferred style of organizationalhierarchy. These summaries could be a starting point forconsidering the formation of work-related values and theways organizational design might be adjusted to them.

Work Organizations and Careers in Japan

Cole, R. (1979). Work, mobility, and participation: Acomparative study of American and Japanese industry.Berkeley: University of California Press.

Plath, D. (Ed.). (1983). Work and lifecourse in Japan.Albany: State University of New York Press.

These two books could be used very effectively togetherto consider contrasts between the United States and Japanin the social psychology of working life. The Cole booksuggests contrasts that can be illustrated from the casestudies of career development in various Japanese organi-zations presented in the Plath volume. This approach willgive students a more realistic sense of working life inJapan than data from the social sciences alone.

ConclusionThere is much recent cross-culturally relevant liter-ature in other areas of psychology, especially inperceptual, cognitive, and personality psychology.Several of the resources cited in the previous twosections could be used in these areas as well. Forexample, the Segall book, Cross-Cultuml Psychology,includes visual perception and cognition. The bookby Wagner and Stevenson, Cultural Perspectives onChild Development, has a number of relevant chap-ters.

In summary, a surprising amount of recentlypublished material is suitable for infusing an inter-national dimension into undergraduate psychologycourses. This bibliography is intended to provideuseful suggestions for resources both to individualswho regularly take a cross-cultural point of viewand to others who have not previously used inter-national materials in their undergraduate courses.


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