Ancient CarthageAncient Carthage was the Phoeniciancity-state ofCarthage. During the 7th to 3rd centuries BC, its sphereof inuence, the so-calledCarthaginianEmpire, ex-tended over much of the coast of North Africa as wellas substantial parts of coastal Iberia and the islands of thewestern Mediterranean.[1]The city, called Qart-adat (NewCity)[2]in thePhoenician language, was founded in 814 BC.[3][4] A de-pendency of the Phoenician state of Tyre at the time,Carthage gained independence around 650 BCand estab-lished its political hegemony over other Phoenician settle-ments throughout the western Mediterranean, this lastinguntil the end of the 3rd century BC. At the height of thecitys prominence, it was a major hub of trade with trad-ing stations extending throughout the region.For much of its history, Carthage was on hostile termswith the Greeks in Sicily and the Roman Republic, lead-ing to a series of armed conicts known as the Greek-Punic Wars and Punic Wars. The city also had to dealwiththepotentiallyhostileBerbers,[5]theindigenousinhabitants of the area where Carthage was built. In146 BC, after the third and nal Punic War, Carthagewas destroyed and then occupied by Roman forces.[6]Nearly all of the other Phoenician city-states and formerCarthaginian dependencies subsequently fell into Romanhands.1 History1.1 Extent of Phoenician settlementThePhoenicians establishednumerous colonial citiesalong the coasts of the Mediterranean[7] in order to pro-vide safe harbors for their merchant eets,[8] to maintain aPhoenician monopoly on an areas natural resources, andto conduct trade free of outside interference.[9] They werealso motivated to found these cities by a desire to satisfythe demand for trade goods or to escape the necessity ofpaying tribute[10] to the succession of empires that ruledTyre, Sidon, and Byblos, and by fear of complete Greekcolonization of that part of the Mediterranean suitable forcommerce.[11] The Phoenicians lacked the population ornecessity to establish large self-sustaining cities abroad,and most of their colonial cities had fewer than 1,000 in-habitants, but Carthage and a few others developed largerpopulations.[12]1.2 Carthaginian controlAlthough Strabos claim that the Tyrians founded threehundred colonies along the west African coast is clearlyexaggerated, colonies were established in Tunisia, Mo-rocco, Algeria, Iberia,[13] and to a much lesser extent,on the arid coast of Libya. The Phoenicians were ac-tive in Cyprus, Sardinia, Corsica, the Balearic Islands,Crete, and Sicily, as well as on the European mainlandat present-day Genoa in Italy and Marseille in present-day France.[14] The settlements at Crete and Sicily werein perpetual conict with the Greeks,[15] but the Phoeni-cians managed to control all of Sicily for a limited time.The entire area later came under the leadership and pro-tection of Carthage,[16] which in turn dispatched its owncolonists to found new cities[17] or to reinforce those thatdeclined with the loss of primacy of Tyre and Sidon.The rst colonies were settled on the two paths to Iberiasmineral wealth along the North African coast and onSicily, Sardinia and the Balearic Islands.[18] The centreof the Phoenician world was Tyre,[19] which served asits economic and political hub. The power of this citywaned following numerous sieges by Babylonia,[20][21]and then its later voluntary submission to the Per-sian king Cambyses and incorporation within the Per-sian empire.[22]Supremacy passed to Sidon, and thentoCarthage,[23]beforeTyreseventual destructionbyAlexander the Great in 332 BC.[24] Each colony paid trib-ute to either Tyre or Sidon, but neither city had actualcontrol of the colonies. This changed with the rise ofCarthage, since the Carthaginians appointed their ownmagistrates to rule the towns and Carthage retained muchdirect control over the colonies.[25] This policy resulted ina number of Iberian towns siding with the Romans duringthe Punic Wars.1.3 Treaty with RomeIn 509 BC, a treaty was signed between Carthage andRome[26] indicating a division of inuence and commer-cial activities.[27] This is the rst known source indicatingthat Carthage had gained control over Sicily and Sardinia.1.4 5th centuryBy the beginning of the 5th century BC, Carthage had be-come the commercial center of the West Mediterraneanregion,[28] a position it retained until overthrown by the12 1 HISTORYRoman Republic. The city had conquered most of theold Phoenician colonies (including Hadrumetum, Utica,Hippo Diarrhytus and Kerkouane), subjugated the Libyantribes (with the Numidian and Mauretanian kingdoms re-maining more or less independent), and taken control ofthe entire North African coast from modern Morocco tothe borders of Egypt (not including the Cyrenaica, whichwas eventually incorporated into Hellenistic Egypt).[29]Its inuence had also extended into the Mediterranean,takingcontrol over Sardinia, Malta, theBalearicIs-lands, and the western half of Sicily,[30] where coastalfortresses such as Motya or Lilybaeum secured its pos-sessions. Important colonies had also been establishedon the Iberian Peninsula.[31] Their cultural inuence inthe Iberian Peninsula is documented,[32] but the degree oftheir political inuence before the conquest by HamilcarBarca is disputed.[33]1.5 Sicilian WarsMain article: Sicilian Wars1.5.1 First Sicilian WarCarthages economic successes, and its dependence onshipping to conduct most of its trade, led to the cre-ation of a powerful Carthaginian navy.[34] This, coupledwith its success and growing hegemony, brought Carthageinto increasing conict with the Greeks of Syracuse, theother major power contending for control of the centralMediterranean.[35]The island of Sicily, lying at Carthages doorstep, becamethe arena on which this conict played out. From theirearliest days, both the Greeks and Phoenicians had beenattracted to the large island, establishing a large numberof colonies and trading posts along its coast;[36] battleshad been fought between these settlements for centuries.By 480 BC, Gelo, the tyrant leader of Greek Syracuse,backed in part by support from other Greek city-states,wasattemptingtounitetheislandunderhisrule.[37]This imminent threat could not be ignored, and Carthage possibly as part of an alliance with Persia, then en-gaged military force under the leadership of the gen-eral Hamilcar. Traditional accounts, including those ofHerodotus and Diodorus, give Hamilcars army a strengthof three hundred thousand men;though these are cer-tainlyexaggerated, it must nonethelesshavebeenofformidable strength.[38]En route to Sicily, however, Hamilcar suered losses(possibly severe) due to poor weather. Landing at Panor-mus (modern-day Palermo),[39] Hamilcar spent 3 days re-organizing his forces and repairing his battered eet. TheCarthaginians marched along the coast to Himera, andmade camp before engaging in the Battle of Himera.[40]Hamilcar was either killed during the battle or commit-ted suicide in shame.[41] As a result the nobility negotiatedpeace and replaced the old monarchy with a republic.[42]1.5.2 Second Sicilian WarBy 410 BC, Carthage had recovered after serious defeats.It had conquered much of modern day Tunisia, strength-ened and founded new colonies in North Africa; Hannothe Navigator had made his journey down the Africancoast,[43][44] and Himilco the Navigator had explored theEuropean Atlantic coast.[45]Expeditions were also ledinto Morocco and Senegal, as well as into the Atlantic.[46]In the same year, the Iberian colonies seceded, cuttingo Carthages major supply of silver and copper, whileHannibal Mago, the grandson of Hamilcar, began prepa-rations to reclaim Sicily.In 409 BC,[47] Hannibal Mago set out for Sicily with hisforce. He captured the smaller cities of Selinus (modernSelinunte) and Himera before returning triumphantly toCarthage with the spoils of war. But the primary enemy,Syracuse, remained untouched and, in 405 BC, HannibalMago led a second Carthaginian expedition to claim theentire island. This time, however, he met with erce re-sistance and ill-fortune. During the siege of Agrigentum,the Carthaginian forces were ravaged by plague, Hanni-bal Mago himself succumbing to it.[48] Although his suc-cessor, Himilco, successfully extended the campaign bybreaking a Greek siege - capturing the city of Gela and re-peatedly defeating the army of Dionysius, the new tyrantof Syracuse - he, too, was weakened by the plague andforced to sue for peace before returning to Carthage.In 398 BC, Dionysius had regained his strength and brokethe peace treaty, striking at the Carthaginian strongholdof Motya. Himilco responded decisively, leading an ex-pedition which not only reclaimed Motya, but also cap-tured Messina.[49] Finally, he laid siege to Syracuse it-self. The siege was close to a success throughout 397BC, but in 396 BC plague again ravaged the Carthaginianforces,[50] and they collapsed.The ghting in Sicily swung in favor of Carthage in 387BC. After winning a naval battle o the coast of Catania,Himilco laid siege to Syracuse with 50,000 Carthagini-ans, but yet another epidemic struck down thousandsof them. Dionysius then launched a counterattack byland and sea, and the Syracusans surprised the enemyeet while most of the crews were ashore, destroying allthe Carthaginian ships. At the same time, Dionysiussground forces stormed the besiegerslines and routedthe Carthaginians. Himilco and his chief ocers aban-doned their army and ed Sicily.[51]Himilco returnedto Carthage in disgrace and was very badly received; heeventually committed suicide[52] by starving himself.Sicily by this time had become an obsession for Carthage.Over the next fty years, Carthaginian and Greek forcesengaged in a constant series of skirmishes. By 340 BC,1.7 The Punic Wars 3Carthage had been pushed entirely into the southwest cor-ner of the island, and an uneasy peace reigned over theisland.1.5.3 Third Sicilian WarMediterranean sea nations in 323 BC.In 315 BC, Agathocles, the tyrant (administrating gover-nor) of Syracuse, seized the city of Messene (present-dayMessina). In 311 BC he invaded the last Carthaginianholdings on Sicily, breaking the terms of the currentpeace treaty,[11] and laid siege to Akragas.Hamilcar, grandsonofHannotheNavigator, ledtheCarthaginian response and met with tremendous success.By 310 BC, he controlled almost all of Sicily and hadlaid siege to Syracuse itself. In desperation, Agatho-cles secretly led an expedition of 14,000 men to themainland,[53] hoping to save his rule by leading a counter-strike against Carthage itself.In this, he was successful:Carthage was forced to recall Hamilcar and most of hisarmy from Sicily to face the new and unexpected threat.Although Agathocless army was eventually defeated in307 BC, Agathocles himself escaped back to Sicily andwas able to negotiate a peace which maintained Syracuseas a stronghold of Greek power in Sicily.1.6 Pyrrhic WarMain article: Pyrrhic WarBetween 280 and 275 BC, Pyrrhus of Epirus wagedtwo major campaigns in the western Mediterranean: oneagainst the emerging power of the Roman Republic insouthern Italy, the other against Carthage in Sicily.[54]Pyrrhus sent an advance guard to Tarentum under thecommandof Cineaus with3,000infantry. Pyrrhusmarched the main army across the Greek peninsula andengaged in battles with the Thessalians and the Athenianarmy. After his early success on the march Pyrrhus en-tered Tarentum to rejoin with his advance guard.In the midst of Pyrrhuss Italian campaigns, he receivedenvoys from the Sicilian cities of Agrigentum, Syracuse,Trireme mosaic from Carthage, Bardo Museum, Tunis.andLeontini, askingfor militaryaidtoremovetheCarthaginian dominance over that island.[55][56] Pyrrhusagreed, andfortiedtheSiciliancitieswithanarmyof20,000infantryand3,000cavalry[57]and20warelephants,[58]supported by some 200 ships. Initially,Pyrrhuss Sicilian campaign against Carthage was a suc-cess, pushing back the Carthaginian forces, and capturingthe city-fortress of Eryx, even though he was not able tocapture Lilybaeum.[59]Followingtheselosses, Carthagesuedforpeace, butPyrrhus refused unless Carthage was willing to renounceitsclaimsonSicilyentirely. AccordingtoPlutarch,Pyrrhus set his sights on conquering Carthage itself, andto this end, began outtting an expedition. However, hisruthless treatment of the Sicilian cities in his prepara-tions for this expedition, and his execution of two Sicilianrulers whom he claimed were plotting against him led tosuch a rise in animosity towards the Greeks, that Pyrrhuswithdrew from Sicily and returned to deal with events oc-curring in southern Italy.[60][61]Pyrrhuss campaigns inItaly were inconclusive, andPyrrhus eventually withdrew to Epirus. For Carthage,this meant a return to the status quo. For Rome, however,the failure of Pyrrhus to defend the colonies of MagnaGraecia meant that Rome absorbed them into its "sphereof inuence", bringing it closer to complete dominationof the Italian peninsula. Romes domination of Italy, andproof that Rome could pit its military strength success-fully against major international powers, would pave theway to the future Rome-Carthage conicts of the PunicWars.1.7 The Punic WarsFurther information: PunicWars, First PunicWar,Mercenary War, Second Punic War, and Third PunicWarWhen Agathocles died in 288 BC, a large company ofItalian mercenaries who had previously been held in hisservice found themselves suddenly without employment.4 1 HISTORYCarthage electrum coin, c. 250 BC. British Museum.Carthaginian dependencies and protectorates through the PunicWars.Rather than leave Sicily, they seized the city of Messana.Naming themselves Mamertines (or sons of Mars), theybecame a law unto themselves, terrorizing the surround-ing countryside.[62]The Mamertines became a growing threat to Carthageand Syracuse alike. In 265 BC, Hiero II, former gen-eral of Pyrrhus and the new tyrant of Syracuse, took ac-tion against them.[63] Faced with a vastly superior force,the Mamertines divided into two factions, one advocat-ing surrender to Carthage, the other preferring to seekaid from Rome. While the Roman Senate debated thebest course of action, the Carthaginians eagerly agreed tosend a garrison to Messana. A Carthaginian garrison wasadmitted to the city, and a Carthaginian eet sailed intothe Messanan harbor. However, soon afterwards they be-gan negotiating with Hiero. Alarmed, the Mamertinessent another embassy to Rome asking them to expel theCarthaginians.Hieros intervention had placed Carthages military forcesdirectly across the narrow channel of water that sepa-rated Sicily from Italy. Moreover, the presence of theCarthaginian eet gave them eective control over thischannel, the Strait of Messina, and demonstrated a clearand present danger to nearby Rome and her interests.As a result, the Roman Assembly, although reluctant toally with a band of mercenaries, sent an expeditionaryforce to return control of Messana to the Mamertines.The Roman attack on the Carthaginian forces at Messanatriggered the rst of the Punic Wars.[64] Over the courseof the next century, these three major conicts betweenRome and Carthage would determine the course of West-ern civilization.The wars included a Carthaginian inva-sion led by Hannibal Barca, which nearly prevented therise of the Roman Empire.In256-255BCtheRomans, underthecommandofMarcus Atilius Regulus, landed in Africa and after suer-ing some initial defeats the Carthaginian forces eventuallyrepelled the Roman invasion.[63]Shortly after the First Punic War, Carthage faced a ma-jor mercenary revolt which changed the internal polit-ical landscape of Carthage (bringing the Barcid familyto prominence),[65] and aected Carthages internationalstanding, as Rome used the events of the war to base aclaim by which it seized Sardinia and Corsica.TheSecondPunicWar lastedfrom218to202BCandinvolvedcombatants inthewesternandeasternMediterranean, with the participation of the Berbers onCarthages side.[66] The war is marked by Hannibal's sur-prising overland journey[67] and his costly crossing of theAlps, followed by his reinforcement by Gaulish allies andcrushing victories over Roman armies in the battle of theTrebia and the giant ambush at Trasimene. Against hisskill on the battleeld the Romans deployed the Fabianstrategy. But because of the increasing unpopularity ofthis approach, the Romans resorted to a further majoreld battle.[66] The result was the crushing Roman defeatat Cannae.[68]In consequence many Roman allies went over toCarthage, prolonging the war in Italy for over a decade,during which more Roman armies were destroyed on thebattleeld. Despite these setbacks, the Roman forceswere more capable in siegecraft[49] than the Carthagini-ans and recaptured all the major cities that had joinedthe enemy, as well as defeating a Carthaginian attempttoreinforceHannibal at thebattleof theMetaurus.In the meantime in Iberia, which served as the mainsource of manpower for the Carthaginian army, a sec-ond Roman expedition under Publius Cornelius ScipioAfricanus Major took New Carthage by assault[69] andendedCarthaginianruleover IberiainthebattleofIlipa.[70]The nalshowdown was the battle of Zama2.2 Economy 5in Africa between Scipio Africanus and Hannibal,re-sulting in the latters defeat and the imposition of harshpeace conditions on Carthage, which ceased to be a ma-jor power and became a Roman client-state.[71]The Third Punic War (149 BC to 146 BC) was the thirdand last of the Punic Wars. The war was a much smallerengagement than the two previous Punic Wars and pri-marily consisted of a single main action, the Battle ofCarthage, but resulted in the complete destruction ofthe city of Carthage,[72] the annexation of all remain-ing Carthaginian territory by Rome,[73]and the deathor enslavement of thousands of Carthaginians.[74][75]TheThirdPunicWar endedCarthages independentexistence.[76]2 Culture2.1 LanguageCarthaginians spoke Punic, a variety of Phoenician,[77]which was a Semitic language originating in theCarthaginians original homeland of Phoenicia (present-day Lebanon).[78]2.2 EconomyCarthaginian portCarthaginian commerce extended by sea throughout theMediterranean and perhaps into the Atlantic as far as theCanary Islands, and by land across the Sahara desert.AccordingtoAristotle, theCarthaginians andothershad treaties of commerce to regulate their exports andimports.[79][80]The empire of Carthage depended heavily on its tradewith Tartessos[81]and with other cities of the Iberianpeninsula,[33] from which it obtained vast quantities ofsilver, lead, copper and even more importantly tinore,[82] which was essential for the manufacture of bronzeobjects by the civilizations of antiquity. Carthaginiantrade-relations with the Iberians, and the naval might thatenforced Carthages monopoly on this trade and and theAtlantic tin trade,[83] made it the sole signicant brokerof tin and maker of bronze in its day. Maintaining thismonopoly was one of the major sources of power andprosperity for Carthage; Carthaginian merchants stroveto keep the location of the tin mines secret.[84] In addi-tion to its role as the sole signicant distributor of tin,Carthages central location in the Mediterranean and con-trol of the waters between Sicily and Tunisia allowed itto control the eastern peoples supply of tin. Carthagewas also the Mediterraneans largest producer of silver,mined in Iberia[85] and on the North African coast; af-ter the tin monopoly, this was one of its most protabletrades. One mine in Iberia provided Hannibal with 300Roman pounds (3.75 talents) of silver a day.[86][87]Carthages economy began as an extension of that of itsparent city, Tyre.[88] Its massive merchant eet traversedthe trade routes mapped out by Tyre, and Carthage in-herited from Tyre the trade in the extremely valuable dyeTyrian purple.[89] No evidence of purple dye manufac-ture has been found at Carthage, but mounds of shells ofthe murex marine snails from which it derived have beenfound in excavations of the Punic town which archaeolo-gists call Kerkouane, at Dar Essa on Cap Bon.[90] Sim-ilar mounds of murex have also been found at Djerba[91]on the Gulf of Gabes[72] in Tunisia. Strabo mentions thepurple dye-works of Djerba[92] as well as those of the an-cient city of Zouchis.[93][94][95] The purple dye becameone of the most highly valued commodities in the ancientMediterranean,[96] being worth fteen to twenty times itsweight in gold. In Roman society, where adult males worethe toga as a national garment, the use of the toga prae-texta, decorated with a stripe of Tyrian purple about twoto three inches in width along its border, was reserved formagistrates and high priests.Broad purple stripes (latusclavus) were reserved for the togas of the senatorial class,while the equestrian class had the right to wear narrowstripes (angustus clavus).[97][98]Carthageproducednelyembroideredsilks,[99]dyedtextiles of cotton, linen,[100] and wool, artistic and func-tionalpottery, faience, incense, and perfumes.[101]Itsartisans worked expertly with ivory,[102] glassware, andwood,[103] as well as with alabaster, bronze, brass, lead,gold, silver, and precious stones to create a wide arrayof goods, including mirrors, furniture[104] and cabinetry,beds, bedding, and pillows,[105]jewelry, arms, imple-ments, and household items.[106] It traded in salted At-lantic sh and sh sauce (garum),[71] and brokered themanufactured, agricultural, and natural products[107] ofalmost every Mediterranean people.[108]In addition to manufacturing, Carthage practised highlyadvanced and productive agriculture,[109]using ironploughs, irrigation,[110] and crop rotation. After the Sec-ond Punic War, Hannibal promoted agriculture[111]tohelp restore Carthages economy and pay the war indem-nity to Rome (10,000 talents or 800,000 Roman pounds6 2 CULTUREPunic pendant in the form of a bearded head, 4th3rd centuryBC.of silver),[112][113] and he was largely successful. WhenRome conquered and destroyed Carthage in 146 BC, theRoman Senate decreed that Mago's famous treatise onagriculture be translated into Latin.[114]Circumstantial evidencesuggeststhat Carthagedevel-opedviticultureandwineproductionbeforethe4thcenturyBC,[115]andevenexporteditswineswidely,as indicatedbydistinctive cigar-shapedCarthaginianamphorae found at archaeological sites around thewesternMediterranean,[116]althoughthe contents ofthese vessels have not been conclusively analysed.Carthagealsoshippedquantities of raisinwine, thepassum of antiquity.[117] Fruits including gs, pears, andpomegranates, as well as nuts, grain, grapes, dates, andolives were grown in the extensive hinterland,[118] whileolive oil was processed and exported all over the Mediter-ranean. Carthage also raised ne horses,[119] the ancestorof todays Barb horses.Carthages merchant ships, which surpassed in numbereven those of the cities of the Levant, visited every majorport of the Mediterranean, as well as Britain and the At-lantic coast of Africa.[120] These ships were able to carryover 100 tons of goods.[121]Carthage also sent caravans into the interior of Africaand Persia. It traded its manufactured and agriculturalgoods to the coastal and interior peoples of Africa forsalt, gold, timber, ivory, ebony, apes, peacocks, skins,and hides.[122] Its merchants invented the practice of saleby auction and used it to trade with the African tribes.In other ports, they tried to establish permanent ware-houses or sell their goods in open-air markets. They ob-tained amber from Scandinavia, and from the Celtiberi-ans, Gauls, and Celts they got amber, tin, silver, andfurs. Sardinia and Corsica produced gold and silver forCarthage, and Phoenician settlements on islands such asMalta and the Balearic Islands produced commoditiesthat would be sent back to Carthage for large-scale distri-bution. The city supplied poorer civilizations with sim-ple products such as pottery, metallic objects, and or-namentations, often displacing the local manufacturing,but brought its best works to wealthier ones such as theGreeks and Etruscans. Carthage traded in almost ev-ery commodity wanted by the ancient world, includingspices from Arabia, Africa and India, and slaves (the em-pire of Carthage temporarily held a portion of Europeand sent conquered white warriors into Northern Africanslavery).[123]Herodotus wrote an account about 430 BC ofCarthaginian trade on the Atlantic coast of Morocco.[124]The Punic explorer and suete of Carthage called Hannothe Navigator led an expedition to recolonise the Atlanticcoast ofMorocco[125]that mayhaveventuredasfardown the coast of Africa as Senegal and perhaps evenbeyond. The Greek version of the Periplus of Hannodescribes his voyage. Although it is not known just howfar his eet sailed on the African coastline,this shortreport, dating probably from the 5th or 6th century BC,identiesdistinguishinggeographic featuressuch asacoastal volcano and an encounter with hairy hominids.Archaeological nds show evidence of all kinds of ex-changes, from the vast quantities of tin needed for abronze-based metals civilization to all manner of textiles,ceramics and ne metalwork. Before and in between thewars, Carthaginian merchants were in every port in theMediterranean,[126] trading in harbours with warehousesor from ships beached on the coast.The Etruscan language is imperfectly deciphered, butbilingual inscriptions found in archaeological excavationsat the sites of Etruscan cities indicate the Phoenicians hadtrading relations with the Etruscans for centuries.[127] Thediscovery in 1964 at Pyrgi in Italy of a shrine to Astarte,a popular Phoenician deity, containing three gold tabletswith inscriptions in Etruscan and Phoenician, gives tangi-ble proof of the Phoenician presence in the Italian penin-sula at the end of the 6th century BC,[128] long beforethe rise of Rome. These inscriptions imply a politicaland commercial alliance between Carthage[129] and theEtruscan ruler of Caere that would corroborate Aristo-tles statement that the Etruscans and Carthaginians wereso close as to form almost one people.[130] The Etruscancity-states were, at times, both commercial partners ofCarthage and military allies.[131]7Punic district of Carthage2.3 GovernmentThe government of Carthage changed dramatically afterthe total rout of the Carthaginian forces at the battle ofHimera on Sicily in 483 BC.[132] The Magonid clan wascompelled to compromise and allow representative andeven some democratic institutions. Carthage remainedto a great extent an oligarchal republic, which relied on asystemof checks and balances and ensured a formof pub-lic accountability.At the head of the Carthaginian statewere now two annually elected, not hereditary, Suets[133](thus rendered in Latin by Livy 30.7.5, attested inPunic inscriptions as SPM /uftim/, meaning judgesand obviously related to the Biblical Hebrew ruler titleShophet "Judge"),[134] similar to modern day executivepresidents. Greek and Roman authors more commonlyreferred to them as kings. SP /ut/ might origi-nally have been the title of the citys governor, installedby the mother city of Tyre. A list of the hereditary suf-fetes/"kings can be found here.In the historically attested period, the two Suets wereelected annually from among the most wealthy and inu-ential families and ruled collegially, similarly to Romanconsuls (and equated with these by Livy). This practicemight have descended from the plutocratic oligarchiesthat limited the Suets power in the rst Phoeniciancities.[135] A range of more junior ocials and specialcommissioners oversaw dierent aspects of governmen-tal business such as public works, tax-collecting, and theadministration of the state treasury.[133][136]The aristocratic families were represented in a supremecouncil (Roman sources speak of a Carthaginian"Senate", and Greek ones of a council of Elders" or agerousia), which had a wide range of powers; however,it is not known whether the Suets were elected by thiscouncil or by an assembly of the people. Suets appearto have exercised judicial and executive power, but notmilitary, as generals were chosen by the administration.The nal supervision of the Treasury and Foreign Aairsseems to have come under the Council of Elders.[133]There was a body known as the Tribunal of the HundredandFour, whichAristotlecomparedtotheSpartanephors. Thesewerejudgeswhoactedasakindofhigher constitutional court and oversaw the actions ofgenerals,[135]who could sometimes be sentenced tocrucixion, as well as other ocials. Panels of specialcommissioners, called pentarchies, were appointed fromthe Tribunal of One Hundred and Four: they appear tohave dealt with a variety of aairs of state.[133]Although the citys administration was rmly controlledby oligarchs,[137] democratic elements were to be foundas well: Carthage had elected legislators, trade unionsand town meetings in the form of a Popular Assem-bly. Aristotle reported in his Politics that unless the Suf-fets and the Council reached a unanimous decision, theCarthaginian popular assembly had the decisive vote unlike the situation in Greek states with similar constitu-tions such as Sparta and Crete. Polybius, in his Historybook 6, also stated that at the time of the Punic Wars, theCarthaginian public held more sway over the governmentthan the people of Rome held over theirs (a developmenthe regarded as evidence of decline).[138] This may havebeen due to the inuence of the Barcid faction.[139]Eratosthenes, head of the Library of Alexandria, notedthat the Greeks had been wrong to describe allnon-Greeks as barbarians, since the Carthaginians as wellas the Romans had a constitution. Aristotle also knewand discussed the Carthaginian constitution in his Politics(Book II, Chapter 11).[140] During the period between theend of the First Punic War and the end of the SecondPunic War, members of the Barcid family dominated inCarthaginian politics.[141] They were given control of theCarthaginian military and all the Carthaginian territoriesoutside of Africa.3 ReligionMain article: Religion in CarthageCarthaginian religion was based on Phoenician religion(derivedfromthe faiths of the Levant), a formofpolytheism. Many of the gods the Carthaginians wor-shiped were localized and are nowknown only under theirlocal names. Carthage also had Jewish communities [142](which still exist; see Tunisian Jews and Algerian Jews).3.1 PantheonThe supreme divine couple was that of Tanit and Ba'alHammon.[143]The goddess Astarte[144]seems to havebeen popular in early times.[145] At the height of its cos-mopolitan era, Carthage seems to have hosted a large ar-ray of divinities from the neighbouring civilizations ofGreece, Egypt and the Etruscan city-states.A pantheon8 3 RELIGIONCarthaginian coins from c. 310290 BC showing the wreathedhead of Tanitwas presided over by the father of the gods, but a goddesswas the principal gure in the Phoenician pantheon.3.2 Caste of priests and acolytesSurviving Punic texts are detailed enough to give a por-trait of a very well organized caste of temple priests andacolytes performing dierent types of functions, for a va-riety of prices. Priests were clean shaven, unlike most ofthe population.[146] In the rst centuries of the city rit-ual celebrations included rhythmic dancing, derived fromPhoenician traditions.3.3 Punic stelaeStelae on the TophetCippi and stelae of limestone are characteristic monu-ments of Punic art and religion,[147] found throughout thewestern Phoenician world in unbroken continuity, bothhistorically and geographically. Most of them were setup over urns containing cremated human remains, placedwithin open-air sanctuaries. Such sanctuaries constitutestriking relics of Punic civilization.3.4 Child sacrice questionCarthage under the Phoenicians was accused by its ad-versariesofchildsacrice. Plutarch(20:14,46)al-leges thepractice,[148]as doTertullian(Apolog.9:23),[149] Orosius, Philo and Diodorus Siculus.[150] How-ever, Herodotos and Polybius do not. Skeptics contendthat if Carthages critics were aware of such a practice,however limited, they would have been horried by it andexaggerated its extent due to their polemical treatment ofthe Carthaginians.[151] The Hebrew Bible also mentionschild sacrice practiced by the Canaanites, ancestors ofthe Carthaginians. The Greek and Roman critics, accord-ing to Charles Picard, objected not to the killing of chil-dren but to the religious nature of it. As in both ancientGreece and Rome, inconvenient children were commonlykilled by exposure to the elements.[152]Modern archaeology in formerly Punic areas has discov-ered a number of large cemeteries for children and in-fants, representing a civic and religious institution forworship and sacrice called the Tophet by archaeolo-gists. These cemeteries may have been used as gravesfor stillborn infants or children who died very early.[153]Modern archeological excavations have been interpretedby some archeologists[154] as conrming Plutarchs re-ports of Carthaginian child sacrice.[155] An estimated20,000 urns were deposited between 400 BC and 200BC,[156] in the tophet discovered in the Salammb neigh-bourhood of present-day Carthage with the practice con-tinuing until the early years of the Christian period. Theurns contained the charred bones of newborns and insome cases the bones of fetuses and two-year-olds. Thereis a clear correlation between the frequency of cremationand the well-being of the city. In bad times (war, poorharvests) cremations became more frequent, but it is notknown why. One explanation for this correlation is theclaim that the Carthaginians prayed for divine interven-tion (via child sacrice); however, bad times would natu-rally lead to increased child mortality, and consequently,more child burials (via cremation).Accounts of child sacrice in Carthage report that begin-ning at the founding of Carthage in about 814 BC, moth-ers and fathers buried their children who had been sacri-ced to Ba`al Hammon and Tanit in the tophet.[157] Thepractice was apparently distasteful even to Carthaginians,and they began to buy children for the purpose of sacri-ce or even to raise servant children instead of oeringup their own. However, Carthages priests demanded theyouth in times of crisis or calamity like war, drought orfamine. Special ceremonies during extreme crisis saw upto 200 children of the most auent and powerful familiesslain and tossed into the burning pyre.[158]Skeptics maintain that the bodies of children found inCarthaginian and Phoenician cemeteries were merely thecremated remains of children who died naturally. SergioRibichini has argued that the tophet was a child necrop-olis designed to receive the remains of infants who had9died prematurely of sickness or other natural causes, andwho for this reason were oered to specic deities andburied in a place dierent from the one reserved for theordinary dead.[159]The few Carthaginian texts whichhave survived make absolutely no mention of child sacri-ce, though most of them pertain to matters entirely un-related to religion, such as the practice of agriculture.4 See alsoCarthaginian IberiaHistory of CarthagePunic WarsHistory of Tunisia5 References[1] Glenn Markoe (2000). Phoenicians. University of Cali-fornia Press. p. 55. ISBN978-0-520-22614-2. 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Retrieved 12 February 2013.[159] Moscati 2001, p. 141156 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses6.1 Text AncientCarthageSource: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Carthage?oldid=675225194Contributors: Paul Barlow, Nurg, AlanLiefting, Mike Rosoft, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Dbachmann, Ardric47, Patsw, Dejvid, Firsfron, Tabletop, Lapsed Pacist, Magis-ter Mathematicae, Cuchullain, SMC, Ground Zero, Hairy Dude, RussBot, Zaroblue05, Thane, Deucalionite, Arthur Rubin, Fram, 4shiz-zal, Guinness man, SmackBot, Kintetsubualo, Srnec, Peter Isotalo, Hmains, Chris the speller, Hibernian, Ralhazzaa~enwiki, Ahanta,Volker89, Eastlaw, JohnCD, Besieged, Hebrides, Doug Weller, Wandalstouring, SeNeKa, Ufwuct, CharlotteWebb, Nick Number, Binary-bits, BokicaK, Widefox, Fayenatic london, Bjenks, JAnDbot, Skomorokh, TAnthony, Magioladitis, WolfmanSF, Gun Powder Ma, Cody6,R'n'B, Hans Dunkelberg, Pajfarmor, Trebligoniqua, Juliancolton, The Jackal God, Bonadea, RjCan, DarknessBot, SteveStrummer, Jer-merc, Michaeldsuarez, PericlesofAthens, Bellatores, Javierfv1212, IdreamofJeanie, Dcattell, Natyrox, Gr8opinionater, ClueBot, Marselan,Excirial, Dre123, BOTarate, Kallahan, Acabashi, Duncan, Amaihmaa69, Addbot, Lt.Specht, Contributor777, Swarm, Yobot, Fenrir-of-the-Shadows, Angel ivanov angelov, AnomieBOT, Spotsupon, Materialscientist, GBfan, Quebec99, Madalibi, Xqbot, I Feel Tired, Lenin96,Husar de la Princesa~enwiki, , LucienBOT, Winterst, Pinethicket, Neozoen, VAP+VYK, Caius Magnus, Kgrad, Lotje, Rjwilmsi-Bot, Mackay 86, Skamecrazy123, Playboy09, Wikipelli, Italia2006, Bahudhara, Greyshark09, Senjuto, Chewings72, Zeta1127,89thLegion,ClueBot NG, Boris51, Jack Greenmaven, Everest700, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, HMSSolent, JMvanDijk, BG19bot, Xhavnak, Davidiad,Carlstak, TheJJJunk, EuroCarGT, Dexbot, Hmainsbot1, Frosty, Mhenderson5, MAXIMUSGAIUSLUCIUS, Lawnaut, Tentinator, YiFei-Bot, N0n3up, Walid128, Dhaouadi bizerte, Gunduu, Caribou41, For12for11aa, , Tounsimentounes and Anonymous: 1046.2 Images File:Blank.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Blank.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Origi-nal artist: ? File:CarthageElectrumCoin250BCE.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/CarthageElectrumCoin250BCE.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: PHGCOM(self-made, photographed at the BritishMuseum) Original artist: ? File:CarthageMap.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/CarthageMap.png License: Public domain Con-tributors: ? Original artist: ? File:Carthage_EL_shekel_2250013.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Carthage_EL_shekel_2250013.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: http://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=156634 Original artist: CNG File:Carthaginianempire.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Carthaginianempire.PNG License:Public domain Contributors: Own work (Original text: I created this work entirely by myself.) 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