Anatomy Introduction and Cells

8/3/2019 Anatomy Introduction and Cells

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Anatomy and Physiology Introduction

(Marieb 5th Edition)

Anatomy

To cut (tomy) and ana (apart).

Study of the shape and structure of the body & body parts and their relation to one another.

Studies of Anatomy

1. Gross Anatomy

Study oflarge, easily observable body structures.

Ex. Our own body; heart, bones

2. Microscopic Anatomy

Study ofvery small body structures seen through a microscope

Ex. Cells and tissues

Physiology

nature (Physio); study of (ology)

Study how the body and its parts work or function.

Studies of Physiology

1. Neurophysiology - workings of nervous system.2. Cardiac physiology workings of the heart.

Relationship of Anatomy and Physiology are always related

Structure determines what functions can occur; therefore if the structure changes, the function

must also change.

Ex. Lungs cant pump blood like the heart. But because the walls of their air sacs are very thin,

gaseous exchange happens.

Layers of Structural Organization

1. Chemical Level Atoms (tiny building blocks of matter) combine to form Molecules (Organic and Inorganic

Molecules)

2. Cellular Level

Cells, basic or smallest unit of life are made up of molecules

3. Tissue Level

Group of similar cells that has a common function.

4 Tissues: Epithelial, Connective, Smooth Muscle, and Nervous Tissue.

4. Organ Level

Different types of tissues that perform together with one or more common functions.

Ex. Stomach

5. Organ System Level

Group of Organswith a common function or set of functions.

Must have an Integration of Organ System for an organism to survive.

6. Organism Level (Highest Level)


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Human Organism is a complex of organ systems that are mutually dependent on one

another (11 Organ Systems)

The 11 Organ Systems

1. Integumentary Systema. Structure: Skin, hair, nails, sweat glands.b. Functions:

Receives stimuli (changes in the environment; temperature, pressure, and pain)

Protection against pathogens (disease causing microorganism from environment) andchemicals

Protection against injury on deeper tissues.

Regulates body temperature

Prevents water loss

Excretes salts and urea in perspiration

Synthesize Vitamin D (from UV Rays)

2. Skeletal System

a. Structure: 206 Bones, Cartilages, Joints, Ligamentsb. Functions:

Protects and support the body

Provides Framework to allow movement

Protects internal organs (skull protects the brain)

Produces RBCs(Hematopoiesis)within the cavities

Storage of minerals and fats (calcium deposits on the hard substance of bones)

3. Muscular System

a. Structure: Skeletal Muscle, Cardiac Muscle, and Smooth Muscleb. Functions:

To contract or shorten = Produce Body movements

Maintains posture and brings facial expression

Produces body heat

Protection (contain nerves)

4. Lymphatic / Circulatory / Immune System (Defense System)

a. Structure: Lymphatic Vessels, Lymph Nodes, Spleen, Tonsils, Thoracic Ductb. Functions:

Removes foreign substances from the blood and lymph

Combats diseases (Vitamin C boosts up immune system)

Regulates tissue fluid balance

Absorb fats from GI tract

Lymphatic Vessels returns fluid leaked from the blood and blood vessels for

continuous blood circulation.

Lymph Nodescleans blood; protects WBCs

5. Respiratory System

a. Structure: Nose, Lungs, Pharynx / Throat, Larynx / Voice Box, Trachea, Bronchial Tubes

b. Function: Gaseous exchange (Oxygen in; Carbon Dioxide out)


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6. Digestive System

a. Structure: Mouth / Oral Cavity, Esophagus, Stomach, SI, LI, Rectum, Liver, Pancreasb. Functions

Breakdown of food, absorption of nutrients and elimination of wastes through the anus

as feces or stool to reclaim water.

Liver produces bile that helps to break down fats

Pancreas delivers digestive enzymes to SI

7. Nervous System (Fast Acting Control System)

a. Structure: CNS (Brain and Spinal Cord), Nerves, Sensory Receptorb. Functions

Major regulatory system that responds to stimuli; reaction is direct to the organ

Sensory Receptors detects stimulus and sends info thru nerve impulses to CNS. CNS

responds by activating appropriate muscles and glands

8. Endocrine System (Major Metabolic System; Slow Acting System)a. Structure: Glands (Pituitary Gland, Pineal Gland, Thyroid Gland, Hypothalamus, Thymus Gland,

Adrenal Gland, Pancreas, Testis, Ovary

b. Functions:

Major regulatory system; secrete HORMONES to regulate target organs.

Growth and Sexual Development

Metabolism

Reproduction

Regulates Water and Minerals

9. Cardiovascular System

a. Structure: Heart, Blood Vessels, Bloodb. Functions

Transporting Fluid, Blood transports O2, nutrients, wastes, hormones

Blood Pump, Heart

Cleans Immune System

Regulates Body Temp

WBCs protects body from foreign invaders (bacteria, tumor, toxins)

10. Urinary Systema. Structure: Kidney, Ureter, Urinary Bladder, Urethra

b. Functions

Excretes Nitrogen wastes eliminated thru Urine.

Maintains Water and Salt Balance

Regulates Electrolyte and Acid Base balance (Blood Ph)

Production of RBCs

11. Reproductive System (Organ of Copulation)

a. Structures in Men: Seminal vesicles, prostate gland, vas deferens, penis, testis, scrotumb. Functions

Production of offspring


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Production of Male Sex Hormone(Testosterone)

Testis produces sperm cells

a. Structures in Women: Mammary glands (breasts), uterine tubes, ovary, uterus, vaginab. Functions:

Produce Oocytes(Largest Cell; Site of Fertilization)

Fetal Development(Uterus)

Production of Female Sex Hormone (Estrogen)

Life Processes of Humans to Sustain Life

Humans must maintain its boundaries, move, respond to stimuli, digest nutrients, carry

metabolism, reproduce it self and grow.

1. Movement

2. Responsiveness or Irritability

3. Digestion of Food

4. Excretion of Wastes

5. Metabolism sum of all chemical reactions in the bodya. Catabolism provides the energy needed to sustain life by breaking down food.

b. Anabolism uses the energy from catabolism to make various substances that formbody structures and enable them to function.

6. Reproduction

7. Growthand Development

8. Respiration and Circulation

9. Absorption

Interrelationship of Organ Systems

Integumentary System protects body from external environment. The GI and Respiratory System, in

contact with the external environment, take in nutrients and O2, which are transported by the blood

to all cells. Elimination of metabolic wastes is accomplished by Urinary and Respiratory System.

Environmental Factors for Maintenance of Life and Survival Needs

1. Food / Nutrients2. Water3. Oxygen releases energy from food for metabolic processes.4. Body Temperature and Heat

Product of Metabolic Reactions

Normal BT: 36.5 37.5 C

Both High and Low Temperature is dangerous

a. Temp Body proteins break down.

b. Temp Metabolic reactions becomes slower; results in Hypothermia5. Atmospheric Pressure or Levels of O2

Necessary for Breathing during Gaseous Exchange.

High Altitudes Places = O2

Homeostasis

Dynamic State of Equilibrium (bodys ability to maintain stable internal condition and respond

appropriately to stimulus)

Ex. Maintenance of V/S, Adequate Nutrients, and Wastes must not accumulate.

Homeostatic Imbalance


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Abnormal Condition,organs becomes less efficientand internal condition becomes less stable

Risk for Illness

Produce changes associated with aging.

Homeostatic Control Mechanisms

Used to maintain stable internal condition accomplished by Nervous and Endocrine System.

3 Elements of Components of Control System

Variable - factors that are regulated in Homeostasis (V/S, Blood Glucose Level, Electrolytes)

1. Stimuli environmental changes (temperature, pressure, pain); imbalance in variables.

2. Sensory Receptors detects and responds to stimuliINPUT: Info flows from receptor to the control center along Affarent Pathaway to 2nd Element.

3. Control Center CNS (Brain and Spinal Cord) analyzes the changes and receives informationand gives appropriate action by activating the 3rd element

OUPUT: Info flows from control center to 3rd element along Efferent Pathway to 3rd element

4. Effector response or feedback to stimulus.

Types of Response or Feedback

1. Negative Feedback (Most Common Feedback) Reduce or Stop initial stimulus.

Deviation (difference) from the set point to resist changes

Function: Regulates V/S, Blood Glucose Levels, Electrolytes

2. Positive Feedback(Rarer in the body) Original Disturbance from the original value.

Control infrequent events that occur explosively and dont require continuous adjustments.

Ex. Birth of Baby, Blood Clotting, Loss of Blood

Ex. Accident BP due to blood loss (detected by receptor) needed to BP to Heart Rate

(POSITIVE FEEDBACK CONSTANTLY BP)

Anatomical Positions (Standard Position)

1. Body is Erect and Standing Still

2. Face is facing forward

3. Arms are lying on the sides

4. Palms are facing forward

5. Thumb pointing outwardly

6. Feet is parallel

Directional Terms

Explains exactly where one body structure is related to another.

Regional Terms (Anterior and Posterior Body Regions)

Body Planes or Body Sections

A section or cutis made through the body or organ along an imaginary line (PLANE) to look at

internal structures.

1. Sagittal Section

Longitudinal Cut that separates left and right parts

Midsagittal or Median Planecut made at the middle of the body; left = right


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2. Frontal or Coronal Section

Lengthwise Cut that separates posterior and anterior parts

3. Transverse or Cross Section

Horizontal Cut that separates superior and inferiorparts

Body Cavities or Trunk Cavities

Lines and sets the organs.

1. Posterior / Dorsal Body Cavity Small and well protected by the bone

Continuous (No Separation)

a. Cranial Cavity space inside skull; protects the brain.b. Spinal Cavity protects spinal cord, which is protected by the vertebrae; extends from cranial

to the end of vertebral column.

2. Anterior / Ventral Body Cavity Larger and less protected

Separated (thoracic and abdomen is separated by the Diaphragm)

a. Thoracic Cavity

Contains and lungs; protected by the rib cage

b. Abdominopelvic Cavity

Contains Digestive, Urinary, and Reproductive organs.

a. Superior Abdominal Cavity (stomach, liver, intestines)b. Inferior Pelvic Cavity (reproductive organs, bladder, rectum)

Cells (Chapter 2)

Cell is the Basic Unit of Life

Composed of CHON(Protein is the major building material),small amounts of Na, K, Fe, and60% Water

Humans have 75 trillion cells and belong to Prokaryotic type.

Bathed in Extracelullar orInterstitial Fluid.

Different in size & shape (often reflects the function of the cell)

The 3 Main Regions of a Generalized Cell

1. Nucleus

2. Cytoplasm

3. Plasma or Cell Membrane

Nucleus Location:Often near center of the cellsurrounded by cytoplasm

Control Center of the Cell

Contains genetic material (DNA), a blueprint that carries instructions for protein synthesis.

Site of Ribosome and Messenger of RNA Synthesis

Directs cell activity and necessary for cell reproduction


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3 Parts of Nucleus

1. Nuclear Membrane or Envelope

Double barrier membranewithfluid filledspace within called Nucleoplasm

Where nucleoli and chromatin are suspended and nuclear pores penetrate.

Selectively Permeable because of its large pores.

2. Nucleoli / Nucleolus Ribosomal Subunit Assembly

Site of Ribosomal RNA Synthesis

3. Chromatin

When cell is not dividing, its DNA is combined with Protein and forms chromatin.

When cell is dividing to form 2 daughter cells,chromatin forms Chromosomes.

Plasma Membrane or Cell Membrane

Outermost component of cell; encloses cell and supports cell contents. Boundary between intracellular and extracellular substances.

Selective barrierto the movement of substances into and out of the cell.

Lipid Bilayer containing Proteins

1. Phospholipidsa. Polar Heads (Hydrophilic or Water Loving)

b. Non Polar Tails (Hydrophobic or Water Hating or Fearing)

c. Bimolecular Lipid Layer Containing Proteins (Glycoproteins or Sugar Proteins).

2. Cholesterol

Has Stabilizing effect and helps keep the membrane fluid.

Specializations of Plasma Membrane

Displayed by epithelial cells that form linings of hollow organs (ex. Small Intestine)

1. Microvilli

Location: Extensions of cell surface with many on each cell.

cells surface area for more absorption

2. Membrane Junctionsa. Tight Junctions

Impermeable; bind cells together to prevent substances go inside out the cell.

Ex. In SI, it prevents digestive enzymes to leak into bloodstream

b. Anchoring Junctions or Desmosomes

Prevent cells from being pulled apart or mechanical stress (ex. Skin Cells)


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3. Gap Junctions

Location: and between embryonic cells

Allow Communication; nutrients and ions can pass from one cell to another; neighboring

cells are connected by CONNEXONS.

Cytoplasm Location: Outside nucleus and inside plasma membrane.

Factory Area of Cell; Site of Most Cellular Activities

3 Major Elements of Cytoplasm

1. Cytosol

Intracellular fluid that suspends other elements and dissolved substances

2. Inclusions

Stored or Inactive materials of cytoplasm

Ex. Nutrients, Fat droplets, glycogen granules, melanin, mucus, crystals

3. Cytoplasmic Organelles Metabolic machinery of the cell; Little Organs

a. Mitochondria (Powerhouse of Cell)

Major Site of ATP Synthesis

Site of Aerobic Respiration

Abundant in: Liver and muscle cells

b. Ribosomes

Major Site of Protein Synthesis

Made up of Proteins and 1 variety of RNA called Ribosomal RNA.

c. Endoplasmic Reticulum (Network within the cell)

Network of channels that carries proteins from one part of cell to another.

2 Types:

1. Rough ER

Many Ribosomes; Site of Protein Synthesis

Abundant in: Pancreas

2. Smooth ER

Little Ribosomes; Site of Lipid / Cholesterol / Steroid Synthesis

Fat metabolism

Detoxification of drugs.

Abundant in: Liver, Male testes for the male hormone testosterone

d. Golgi Apparatus (Traffic Director)

Modifies protein structure and packages protein in secretory vesicles

e. Secretory Vesicles

Contains materials produced in the cell and formed by Golgi apparatus

Secreted by Exocytosis


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f. Lymosomes (Cells Demolition Site)

Lymosomal Enzymes digests damaged cells and foreign substances (contains WBC)

Homeostatic Imbalance (LYMOSOMAL RUPTURE) self digestion of cell; damaged

and deprived of 02; excessive amounts of Vitamin A is present.

g. Peroxisomes (Peroxide Bodies)

Oxidase enzymes detoxify Free Radicals (highly reactive chemicals that mix up protein and

nucleic acids)

h. Cytoskeleton (Cells Bones and Muscles)

For cellular support and motion.

Determines cells shape, supports other organelles, and for intracellular transport and

movement.

a. Intermediate Filaments

Helps form Demosomes

b. Microfilaments (Actin and Myosin) Involved in Cell Motility

Produce changes in cell shape

c. Microtubules

Determines the overall shape of cell

Distribution of organelles.

Supports cytoplasm

Assists in cell division

Forms component of cilia and flagella

i. Centriole

Location:Close to the Nucleus

Directs the formation ofMITOTIC SPINDLE during cell division

Form the bases of cilia and flagella

h. Cilia (Eyelashes)

Location: On the cell surface with many on each cell

Moves cell substances away

Ex. Ciliated Cells of Respiratory System moves mucus away from lungs.

i. Flagella

Location:On sperm cell with one per cell

Flagellum or Tail propels sperm cells.

Cell Diversity / Types of Cells


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1. CONNECT BODY PARTSa. Fibroblast

Shape:Elongated

Function:Makes the protein building blocks of fibers.

b. Erythrocyte (RBC)

Shape: concave disk

Function:Carries O2 into the blood.

2. COVER AND LINE BODY ORGANS

a. Epithelial Cell

Shape: Hexagonal (allows cells to pack together in sheets)

Function:Many intermediate filaments that resist tearing when epithelium is pulled

apart.

3. MOVE BODY ORGANS AND PARTS

a. Skeletal Muscle and Smooth Muscle Cell

Shape: Elongated

Function:Produce movement of bones and muscles; change size of internal organs.

4. STORES NUTRIENTS

a. Fat Cell

Shape: Huge Spherical

Produced by fat droplet in its cytoplasm

5. FIGHTS DISEASES

a. Macrophages (Phagocytic cell)

Has Pseudopods orLong Feet to reach infection sites

Has Lysosomes

6. GATHERS INFORMATION AND CONTROLS BODY FUNCTIONS

a. Nerve Cell or Neuron

Receives and transmits information to body structures (CNS).

7. REPRODUCTION

a. Oocytes (female egg cell; largest cell)

b. Sperm (male egg cell)

Shape: Long and Stream Lined built for swimming to the egg for fertilization

Its flagellum propels the sperm.

Various Types of Mixtures

1. Solution Homogeneous mixture of 2 or more components

Solvent + Solute

Ex. Air is a mixture of gases; alcohol is a mixture of alcohol and water

2. Solvent (Dissolving Medium)

Substances present in largest amount in a solution.

Ex. Water is the universal solvent of the body


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3. Solutes

Substances present in smaller amounts in a solution.

Ex. Rock of Salt

2 Types of Fluid

1. Intracellular Fluid (Inside the Cell)

Nuceloplasm and Cytosol

Includes small amounts of gases, nutrients, and saltsthat are dissolved in water.

2. Extracellular or Interstitial Fluid (Outside the Cell; Watery)

Bathes the cells.

Includes nutrients, hormones, neurotransmitters, salts, and waste products.


Cell is Damaged / Died = membrane is PERMEABLE to almost everything (Ex. Severe Burns)

Selectively Permeable Barrier that allows some substances to pass into cell while excluding others.

Transport System (Movement of Substances / Molecules across Plasma Membrane)

1. Passive Transport

Movement of substances across the membrane without ATP from the cell.

a. Diffusion

Movement of substances across membrane where they are MORE CONCENTRATED

(numerous)to a LESS CONCENTRATED (fewer) because of KINETIC ENERGY.

Speed of diffusion is affected b

1. Size of molecules (the smaller the faster)

2. Temperature (the warmer the faster) Molecules will move passively by diffusion if they :

1. Molecules are small enough to pass into membrane pores.

2. Molecules can be dissolved in the fat portion of membrane (Lipid Soluble) Types of Diffusion

1. Simple Diffusion

Unassisted diffusion of substances across the membrane.

Moves Lipid Soluble Substances (Fats, ADEK,O2, CD)

Moves Small Ions (Chloride Ions)

2. Facilitated Diffusion

Moves Large, Lipid Insoluble (GLUCOSE) substances w/c requires protein carrier.

b. Osmosis Diffusion of Water through a selectively permeable membrane.

Osmotic Pressure

Solute concentration of a solution

Determines whether cells lose or gain water.

Ability of Osmosis to lift a volume of water.

1. Hypertonic Solutions


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More solutes (and less water) than do cells.

Cells lose water by osmosis and burst or crenate.

2. Hypotonic Solutions

Fewer solutes (and more water) than do cells.

Cells swell and may rupture (lyse) as water rushes in by osmosis.

3. Isotonic Solutions Solute = Solvent

No changes in cell size and shape.

c. Filtration

Movement of substances across membrane from an area of High Hydrostatic Pressure to an

area of Lower Fluid Pressure exerted by blood. (Pressure Gradient)

Ex. Kidney Filtration

2. Active Transport

Movement of substances across membrane with the use of ATP from the cell.

Substances are large to pass into pores

Substances cant be dissolved in the fat portion of membrane (Lipid Insoluble)

Concentration: Lower to Higher

a. Solute Pumping

Movement of substances across membrane against a concentration gradient by protein carriers

called Solute Pumps

Transport of Amino Acids, Sugars, and Ions

Ex. Sodium Potassium Pump- move sodium ions out and potassium ions into the cell for

normal transmission of nerve impulses

b. Bulk Transport

Substances that cannot move across the membrane are transported with the use of ATP

OUT of or INTO cells.

1. Exocytosis (Out of the Cell)

Moves substances out of the cell (hormones, mucus, and eject wastes)

Secretory Vesicle fuses with membrane, ruptures, and eject its contents outside cell.

2. Endocytosis (Into the Cell)

Moves substances into the cell.

Uses ATP that engulfs extra cellular substances by enclosing them in secretory vesicles.

a. Phagocytosis (Cell Eating) Uptake of Solids

Ex. WBCs and Phagocytes act as scavengers to protect body from foreign invaders.

b. Pinocytosis / Bulk Phase Endocytosis (Cell Drinking)

Uptake of fluids or liquids

Ex. Cells for absorption (Cells that forms lining of SI and Kidney Tubule Cells)

Cell Life Cycle Phases (Interphase and Cell Division)


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Series of changes a cell goes through from the time it is formed until it divides.

1. Interphase or Metabolic Phase

Longest phase; cell grows and carries normal metabolic activities.

DNA Replication occurs at the end of this period.

DNA Replication DNA is composed of building blocks called NUCLEOTIDES, each consisting of Deoxyribose

Sugar, Phosphate Group, and Nitrogen containing base

DNA Replication begins as DNA HELIX COILS and SEPARATES into 2 NUCLEOTIDE

STRANDS. Each Nucleotide strand serves as TEMPLATE (set of instructions) for BUILDING

NEW NUCLEOTIDE STRAND. ***

Nucleotides join in a complementary way:

* Adenine (A) - Thymine (T)

*Guanine (G) - Cytosine (C)

The order of the Nucleotides on the template determines the order one the new strand .

Ex. TACTGC sequence on a template strand will bond to new nucleotides w/ order of ATGACG.

2. Cell Division Produce cells for growth and repair process

Events of Cell Division

1. Mitosis

Division of Nucleus that results the formation of 2 daughter nuclei with exactly the same

genes as mother nucleus.

Begins after the DNA Replication

Stages of Mitosis

1. Prophase

1st Chromatin coil and shorten andChromosomesappear.Each chromosome is made up of 2 strandscalledChromatid, held together by Centromere.

2ndCentrioles separate from each other and move toward opposite sides of the cell, directing formation

ofMitotic Spindle orSpindle Fibers which provides scaffolding for attachment and movement ofchromosomes during the end of mitosis.3rdNuclear envelope and nucleoli are broken down and disappeared4th Chromosomes attached to Mitotic Spindle by their centromeres.

2. Metaphase1stChromosomes gather and become aligned at the center of mitotic spindle.

3. Anaphase

1st Chromosomes begin to move toward opposite ends of the cell.2nd When chromosome movement ends Anaphase period is over.

4. Telophase

1stChromosomes at the opposite end of the cell uncurl to become chromatin again.2nd Mitotic Spindle spindle breaks down and disappears

3rd Nuclear envelope forms around each chromatin and nucleoli appear in each of the daughter nuclei.

2. Cytokinesis - Division of cytoplasm; begins during late anaphase and completes during Telophase.

Role of DNA in Protein Synthesis

DNA: in Nucleus; serves as the master blueprint for Protein Synthesis.


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GENE is a DNA segment that carries instructions for building 1 protein. Proteins are the key

substances for all aspects of cell life.

DNAs information is encoded in the sequence of bases in the nucleotide strands. Each

sequence of 3 bases (triplet) specifies one Amino Acid in the protein. (Example. A DNA sequence

of AAA specifies an amino acid called PHENYLALANINE, while CCT is GLYCINE.) Variations in

the arrangements of A, C, T, and G in each gene allow cells to make different kinds of protein)

Role of RNA in Protein Synthesis

RNA: In Cytoplasm

RNAacts as a messenger to achieve DNAs task of specifying the structure of Proteins to be built

at Ribosomes.

3 Varieties of RNA

a. Transfer RNA (tRNA)

Transports Amino Acids to Ribosomes

b. Ribosomal RNA (rRRNA)

Forms part of the Ribosomal structure and coordinates protein building process.

c. Messenger RNA (mRNA)

Carries instructions for Protein Synthesis from DNA gene to Ribosomes.

2 Major Phases of Protein Synthesis

1. Transcription

Transfer of info from DNAs based sequence into complementary base sequence of mRNA.

Site: Nucleus

Involves DNA and mRNA.

Each 3 base sequence specifying a particular Amino Acid is called TRIPLET. The

corresponding 3 base sequences on mRNA are called CODONS. The form is different but

the same information is conveyed. (If the partial sequence of DNA Triplets is AAT CGT

TCG, the related codons on mRNA would be UUA GCA AGC)

2. Translation

Nucleic acids (base sequence) are translated into proteins (amino acid sequence).

Site: Cytoplasm.

Involves 3 Varieties of RNA (tRNa, rRRNA, mRNA)

Events in Translation (see picture)


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BODY TISSUES

TissuesGroup of cells that is similar in structures and function.The 4 Primary Body Tissues

1. Epithelial Tissue orEpithelium (covering)

2. Connective Tissue (support)3. Nervous Tissue (control)

4. Muscle Tissue (movement)

Epithelial Tissue or Epithelium

Lining , covering, and glandular tissue of the body.

Acts as a boundary that separates us from the external environment.

Functions of Epithelial Tissue

1. Protection protects skin against pathogens and chemicals; lining of respiratory tract contains ciliathat sweeps dust and debris from lungs; lines digestive tract such as stomach and small intestine

2. Absorption absorbs nutrients from food.

3. Filtration filters kidney4. Secretion (Glandular Tissue) secrets perspiration and oil, digestive enzymes, mucus

Special Characteristics Epithelial Tissue

Fit closely together to form continuous sheets.

Has one free surface or edge called Apical Surface.

Lower surface rests on a basement membrane

Avascular (No Blood Supply)


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Regenerates themselves easily if well nourished.

Classification of Epithelial Tissue according to Cell Shape

1. Squamous Cells (thin and flattened)2. Cuboidal Cells (cube shape)

3. Columnar Cells (column shape)

Classification of Epithelial Tissue according to Cell Layers or Arrangement

1. Simple Epithelium

Single layer of Cellsresting on a basement membrane

Functions: Absorption, Secretion, and Filtration.

a. Simple Squamous Epithelium

Gaseous exchange in the Lungs.

Filtration occurs in the Kidneys

Forms Serous Membranes that lines Ventral Body Cavities (Thoracic and Abdominoplevic)

b. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

Common in glands and ducts(Salivary Glands and Pancreas)

Forms walls in Kidney Tubules

Covers surface of Ovaries

c. Simple Columnar Epithelium

Has Goblet Cells that secretes mucus to trap dust and debris

Forms Mucous Membranes that lines external cavities (entire digestive tract from stomach to

anus, respiratory, excretory, and reproductive tract)

d. Pseudostratified (Ciliated) Columnar Epithelium

Gives a pseudo or false impression that its stratified.

Lines Respiratory Tract (Has Goblet Cells; Cilia propels mucus away from lungs)

2. Stratified Epithelium Contains 2 or more cell layers; at the free edge

Function:Protection

o Stratified Squamous Epithelium (Most Common Stratified Epithelium)

Found in sites that receives abuse or frictionEx. Mouth, Throat, Esophagus, Epidermis

o Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

Found in Ducts of Large Glands

LinesMammary Glands, Sweat Glands, Salivary Glands, Pancreas

o Stratified Columnar Epithelia

Found in Ducts of Large Glands

Found in Vas Deferens, Parts of Male Urethra, Parts of Pharynx

o Transitional Epithelium / Highly Modified Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Lines Urinary System


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Has ability to slide past one another and change cell shape (Allowsuterine wall to stretch as

a greater volume of urine flows; allows more urine to be storedin the urinary bladder)

Glandular Epithelium

Gland consists of 1 or more cells that secrete a particular product called Secretion.

a. Endocrine Gland Ductless Gland; Ductless = Blood

Secrete Hormones (Thyroid Gland, Adrenal Gland, Pituitary Gland)

b. Exocrine Gland

Empty their secretions through their ducts in epithelial surface .

Ex. Sweat and oil glands, liver, and pancreas

Connective Tissues

* The most abundant of all Tissues.

Functions

1. Main Function: Connects Body Parts / Binds body tissues.2. Protection

3. Support

Common Characteristics of Connective Tissues

1. Variations in Blood Supply

Mostly Vascular except Tendons and Ligaments have a poor blood supply. Cartilages are

Avascular. All these structures heal slowly when injured

2. Extracellular Matrix

Non living substance found outside the cells that contains ground substance and fibers.

Because of this, connective tissues are able to withstand stretching and other abuses such asabrasions that no other tissue could endure.

Types of Connective Tissues

1. Bone or Osseous Tissue

Most hard connective tissue; protects and supports body organs (ex. Skull protects the brain)

Composed of bone cells sitting in cavities called Lacunae and surrounded by hard matrix

that contains Calcium Salts and Collagen Fibers.

2. Cartilage

Less hard and more flexible than bone.

a. Hyaline Cartilage

Most abundant type of cartilage and has abundant collagen fibers

Found in larynx (voice box), attaches ribs to the breastbone, and covers the ends of bones

where they form joints.

Ex. Skeleton of Fetus, but by time the baby is born most of this cartilage is replaced by bone.


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b. Fibrocartilage

Between vertebrae of the spinal column

c. Elastic Cartilage

Found where elasticity is desired; Supports External Ear

3. Dense Connective Tissue

Have collagen fibers as its main matrix.

b. Tendons attach skeletal muscles to bones

c. Ligaments connect bones to bones at jointsd. Epidermis

4. Loose Connective Tissue

Softer and has fewer fibers than all other tissues except blood.

a. Areolar Tissue

Universal Packaging Tissue; helps hold internal organs together in their proper

positions.

Act as a sponge when theres edema

Contains Phagoctyes

b. Adipose Tissue (Fat)

Forms subcutaneous tissue beneath the skin, where it insulates body and protects it from

temperature extremes.

Protects some organs individually (Kidneys, eye balls in their sockets, hips, breast)

c. Reticular Tissue

Consist of reticular fibers

Forms the stroma mattress

Supports Lymphocytes in Lymphoid Organs such as Lymph Nodes, Spleen and BoneMarrow.

5. Vascular Tissue or Blood

Consists of blood cells surrounding by a non living fluid matrix calledBLOOD PLASMA.

TRANSPORTING FLUID for nutrients, respiratory gases, wastes, etc

MUSCLE TISSUE

1. Skeletal Muscle

Location: Attached to bones or for some facial muscles to skin

Cell Shape and Appearance: Long, cylindrical, and multinucleate; With very obvious

Striations

Regulation of Contraction: Voluntarily (consciously)

Function: Movement


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2. Cardiac Muscle

Location: Heart

Function: Blood Pump

Cell Shape and Appearance: Branching chains of cells; Uninucleate; With Striations

Regulation of Contraction: Involuntary, Has a pacemaker; controlled by Nervous System

3. Smooth Muscle or Visceral Muscle

Location: Hollow Visceral Organs (Stomach, bladder, uterus, blood vessels)

Function: When they contract, the cavity of an organ becomes smaller (constricts) or

enlargen (dilates) so that substances are propelled through an organ. (Ex. Persistalis a wave

like motion that keeps food moving through the small intestine)

Cell Shape and Appearance: Fusiform or Spindle Shape, Uninucleate, No Striations

Regulation of Contraction: Involuntary controlled by Nervous System

Nervous TissueNeuron Cells

Receives and conduct nerve impulses from one part of the body to another

Major Functions: Irritability and Conductivity

Tissue Repair (Wound Healing)

Stimulates the ff:

a. Inflammation

Generalized body response that attempts to prevent further injury.

b. Immune Response

Extremely specific and mount a vigorous attack against recognized foreign invaders.

Tissue Repair or Wound Healing occurs in 2 Ways:

1. Regeneration

Replacement of destroyed tissue by the same kind of cells.

2. Fibrosis

Repair by dense (fibrous) connective tissue by the formation of scar tissue

Series of Events in Tissue Repair

1. Capillaries becomes permeable

Clotting proteins seeps into the injured area to form a clot which stops the loss of blood and holds

the edges of the wound to prevent bacteria from spreading. When clot is exposed to air, it dries

quickly and hardens, forming a SCAB

2. Granulation Tissue Forms

Pink tissue composed of new capillaries grows into the damaged area; fragile and bleed when scab

is picked from the wound; contains phagocytes that eventually dispose blood clot and connectivetissue cells (fibroblasts) that produce collagen fibers (scar tissue) to permanently bridge the

3. Surface Epithelium Regenerates

Granulation tissue detaches; final result is a fully regenerated surface epithelium that covers

underlying are of fibrosis (the scar)

Body Membranes

Functions


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Covers body surfaces

Lines Body Cavities

Forms protective (often) lubricating sheets around the organs

2 Major Body Membranes

1. Epithelial Membrane

2. Connective Membrane

Epithelial Membranes

1. Cutaneous Membrane

The Skin; Dry Membrane

Composed of keratinizing squamous epithelium (epidermis) underlain by dense fibrous

connective tissue.

Function: Protects and Covers Body Surfaces

2. Mucous Membrane

Composed ofepithelial tissue resting on areolar connective tissue calledLamina Propria.

Wet or Moist; Secretes protective lubricating mucus.

Function:Line body cavities open to the exterior (respiratory tract mucosa of mouth, mucosaof nasal cavity, mucosa of esophagus, mucosa of lung bronchi; digestive tract; urinary tract;

reproductive tract)

3. Serous Membranes

Composed ofsimple suamous epithelial tissue resting on areolar connective tissue.

Function:Lines body cavities closed to exterior.

2 Pairs of Serous Membranes:

a. Parietal Layer lines ventral cavities (abdominopelvic & thoracic); folds itself to formvisceral layer

b. Visceral Layer covers outside of the organs of ventral cavities* Separated by Serous Fluid secreted by both; allows organs to slide with each other w/o

friction.

Peritoneum

a. Parietal Peritonium lines abdominoplevic cavitgyb. Visceral Peritonium covers abdominopelvic cavity organs

Pleura

a. Parietal Pleura lines thorax

b. Visceral Pleura covers lungs

Pericardium covers the heart

Connective Tissue Membrane

1. Synovial Membranes

Composed ofareolar connective tissue and no epithelial tissues.

Function:Lines the joint cavities (ex. Bursae and Tendons)

Secretes Synovial Fluid that lubricates the end of bones during muscle activity.


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Integumentary System (Skin)

Integument = covering

Functions of the Skin1. Protects deeper tissues from

a. Mechanical Damage (bumps)

contains keratinthat toughens cells

contains pressure receptors that alerts Nervous System from possible damage

Skin should be intact.

b. Chemical Damage (acids and bases)

Contains keratin and pain receptors that alert Nervous System from possible damage.

c. Bacterial Damage (pathogens)

Has unbroken surface and acid mantle(Skin secretions are acidic thus inhibit bacteria).

Phagocytes ingest foreign invaders and pathogens.

d. Ultraviolet Radiation

Melanocytes cellsproduce Melaninfor protection against sunlight.e. Thermal (Heat or Cold) Damage

Contains heat / cold / pain receptors. (Cutaneous Sensory Receptors)

f. Desiccation (drying out)

Contains waterproofing substances (Lamena Granules)

2. Aids in Heat Loss or Heat Retention (Regulates Body Temperature)

Heat Loss by activating sweat glands; allowing blood to flush into skin capillaries.

Heat Retention not allowing blood flush into capillaries.

3. Aids in Excretion of Salts and Nitrogen Waste Materials (Urea and Uric Acid)

Contained in perspiration by sweat glands

4. Synthesizes Vitamin D

Modified Cholesterol molecules in skin converted to Vitamin D by sunlight.

Stimulates Calcium and Phosphate absorption.

Structures of the Skin

1. Epidermis

2. Dermis

Epidermis

The more superficial part of the skin is formed of Stratified Squamous Keratinizing Epithelium

and is Avascular. Composed ofKeratinocytes Cells which produces Keratin, a fibrous protein that makes epidermis

a tough protective layer.

Keratinization cells change shape and chemical composition

Epidermis is composed of 5 Layers called Strata

1. Stratum Corneum

Superficial or Outermost Layer of Epidermis is 20 to 30 layers thick. The dead cell

remnants, are filled with keratin, are referred to as Cornified or Horny Cells.


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Keratin allows the layer to be tough and protect deeper cells from external environment, water

loss, and biological, chemical, and physical assaults.

Cells are dead and flakes off and is replaced by Cell Division in Stratum Basale Cells.

Indeed, we have a NEW EPIDERMIS every 25 45 days.

2. Stratum Lucidum in thick skin and no hairs (palms of hand and soles of feet)

3. Stratum Granulosum4. Stratum Spinosum

5th Stratum Basale / Germinativum

Deepest Layer that lies closest to the dermis

Contains Epidermal Cells that receive adequate nutrients and oxygen (blood supply) from

dermis and undergo Mitosis (Cell Division). The daughter cells move away from dermis and

become part of Stratum Spinosum and Stratum Granulosum wherein they keratinized and

finally die, forming Stratum Lucidum, this layer occurs only where skin is thick and has no hair

(palms of the hand and soles of the feet). Because of Keratin and distance from the Dermis,

Stratum Lucidum and Superficial Epidermal Cells dooms because of inadequate nutrients and

oxygen.

Melanin

Skin Pigment that changes in color from yellow brown blackproduced by MelanocytesCells in Stratum Basale.

When skin is exposed to sunlight, Melanocytes are stimulated to produce more Melanin, and

tanning occurs.

Stratum Basale cells phagocytize (eat) the pigmentand as it accumulates within them, melanin

forms a protective pigment over the superficial side of their nuclei, that shields their genetic

material (DNA) from the damaging effects of the Sun.

Freckles and Moles are seen where melanin is concentrated in one spot.

Homeostatic Imbalance due to Overexposure to Sun

Depresses immune system (ex. Persons with Herpes Simplex or Cold Sore are more likely to have

an eruption after sunbathing)

Alters DNA Skin Cells and may lead to Cancer. Black people seldom have skin cancer.

Dermis

Helps to hold the body together.

Made of Dense (Fibrous) Connective Tissue and Varies in Thickness (ex. Thick on Palms of the

Hands and Soles of feet)

Abundant with Blood Supply that Maintains Homeostasis of Body Temperature.

a. When BT is , capillaries of dermis becomes dilated or swollen, with heated blood andbecomes reddened and warmed that allows body heat to radiate in surface.

b. If environment is cool and body heat must be conserved, the blood bypasses the dermis

capillaries temporarily, allowing internal BT to stay

2 Major Regions of Dermis

1. Papillary Layer

Upper dermal region that have fingerlike projections from its superior surface called Dermal

Papillae, whichcontains:

a. Capillaries that furnish nutrients to epidermis.

b. Pain Receptors (Free Nerve Endings)

c. Touch Receptors (soft touch) called MEISNERRS CORPUSCLES.

On the palms of the hands and soles of the feet, the papillae are arranged in definite patterns

that increase friction and enhance gripping ability of the fingers and feet.


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Ridges of fingertips are provided with sweat pores and leaves films of sweat called

FINGERPRINTS.

2. Reticular Layer

Deepest Skin Layer that contains blood vessels, sweat, oil glands, and DEEP PRESSURE

RECEPTORS called PACINIAN CORPUSCLES.

Contains Phagocytes

Contains Collagen Fibers for the toughness of dermis and helps skin hydrated.

Contains Elastic Fibers that give elasticity of the skin.

As we age, the number of collagen fibers and elastic fibers decreases and the subcutaneous

tissue loses fat. As a result the skin becomes less elastic and begins to sag and wrinkle.


Decubitus Ulcers or Bed Sores

Occur in bedridden patients who are not turned regularly or dragged or pulled across the bed repeatedly.

The weight of the body puts pressure on bony projections. Because this restricts blood supply and skin

becomes pale or blanched. The skin reddens when pressure is released, but if not, the cells die and smallcracks or breaks in the skin appear at compressed sites. Permanent damage to the superficial blood vessels

and tissue eventually results in degeneration and ulceration of theskin.

3 Pigments that Contributes to Skin Color

1. Amount and kind (yellow, reddish brown, and black) of Melanin in Epidermis.

People who produce a lot of melanin have brown toned skin.

In Caucasians (light toned skin), who have less melanin, the crimson color of Oxygen rich

hemoglobin in the dermal blood supply flushes gives skin a rosy glow.

2. Amount of Carotene (Orange yellow pigment found in carrots and other orange, deep yellow, or leafygreen vegetables)

3. Amount of Oxygen bound to Hemoglobin (pigment in RBC) in the dermal blood vessels.


1. Cyanosis Hemoglobin is poorly oxygenated, blood and skin becomes bluish (Caucasians)

Common during failure and severe breathing disorders .

In Black People, skin doesnt appear cyanotic because of melanin

Apparent in nail beds and mucous membranes.

2. Erythema or Redness

Reddened Skin signifies blushing, fever, hypertension, inflammation or allergy.

3. Pallor or Blanching

Signifies Emotional Stress, Anemia, Low BP, or Impaired blood flow into the area.

2. Jaundice or Yellow Cast

Abnormal Yellow Skin Tone that Signifies Liver Disorder which in excess bile pigments are

absorbed in the blood.

3. Bruises or Black & Blue Marks

Sites where blood has escaped from the circulation and clotted in tissue spaces.

HEMATOMASare clotted blood mass.

Signifies Vitamin C deficiency orHemophilia (Bleeders Disease)


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Appendages of the Skin

1. Cutaneous Glands

2. Hair

3. Hair Follicles4. Nails

Cutaneos Glands

Exocrine Glands that release their secretions to the skin surface via ducts.

1. Sebaceous (Oil) Glands

Found all over the skinexcept Palms of Hands and Soles of feet

Active when Male Sex Hormones (Progesterone) are produced in amounts (both sexes)

during adolescence

Produces SEBUM

a. Keeps the Skin Soft and Moistb. Prevents Hair Brittle

c. Contains chemicals that kill bacteria..


1. Whitehead when sebaceous gland becomes blocked by sebum.

2. Blackhead if the material oxidizes, dies, and darkens

3. Acneinfection of sebaceous glands accompanied by pimples.

4. Seborrhea cradle cap in infants; over activity of sebaceous glands. Begins on the scalp asPink, raised lesion that gradually form a yellow to brown crust that sloughs off as oily dandruff.

Careful washing to remove excessive oil.

2. Sweat Glands or Sudoriferous (Sudor = Sweat)

a. Eccrine Sweat Gland

Numerous and found all over the body. Produce SWEAT (water, salts, vitamin C, metabolic wastes (ammonia, urea, and uric

acid), and lactic acid that attracts mosquitos

Acidic from PH 4 6 that inhibits growth of bacteria

Bodys heat regulating system . They are supplied with nerve endings that cause them to

secrete sweat when temperature is high.

b. Apocrine Sweat Gland

Confined in Axillary and Genitals

Their ducts empty into hair follicles.

Secretions contain fatty acids and proteins and all the substances present in eccrine .

Produces Body Odor when bacteria lives on skin and uses its fats as a source for their

growth.

Functions during puberty under the influence of ANDROGENS.

Activated by nerve fibers during pain and stress and sexual foreplay.

Hair and Hair Follicles

Functions:

1. Guards head against bumps


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2. Shields eyes via eyelashes

3. Keeps out foreign substances out of Respiratory Tract via nose hairs

4. Provides insulation in cold weather

Hair

Produced by HAIR FOLLICLE.

Part of the hair enclosed in the follicle is ROOT

Part projecting from the surface of the scalp or skin is SHAFT. The Bulk of the Shaft is dead

material and entirely Protein.

Formed by the division of the Stratum Basale in the growth zone called HAIR BULB MATRIX

located at the inferior end of follicle.

Each hair consists of central core called MEDULLA surrounded by CORTEX which is enclosed

by CUTICLE.

The arrangement ofCUTICLE helps keep the hair apart and keep them from matting. It is the

most heavily Keratinized Region that provides strength and helps keep inner layers compact.

Because it is subject to abrasion, it tends to wear away at the tip of the shaft allowing keratin in

the inner hair regions to frizz out called SPLIT ENDS

Hair Pigment is made by MELANOCYTES in the Hair Bulb and varying types of Melanin

(Yellow, Rust, Brown, and Black) combine to produce all varieties of hair color.

Comes in variety of sizes and shapes.

a. If Hair shaft is oval, Hair is SMOOTH and SILKY and the person has WAVY HAIR.

b. If Hair Shaft is flat and Ribbonlike, Hair is CURLY or KINKY.c. If Hair Shaft is Round, Hair is Straight and Coarse.

Hair Follicles

1. Inner Epidermal Sheath composed of epithelial tissue and forms the hair.

2. Outer Dermal Sheath dermal connective tissue; supplies blood vessels to the epidermal portionand reinforces it. Its papilla provides the blood supply to the matrix in hair bulb.

Arrector Pilli Muscle small band of smooth muscle cells; when these muscles contract if we are

cold or frightened, this hair is pulled upright and produces GOOSEBUMPS.

Nails

Each nail has a FREE EDGE, BODY and ROOT

Borders of nails are overlapped by skin folds called NAIL FOLDS.

CUTICLE is the thick proximal nail fold.

Stratum Basale of the epidermis extends beneath the nail as the NAIL BED. Its thickened

proximal area is NAIL MATRIX which is responsible for NAIL GROWTH. As the nail cells are

produced by the nail matrix, they become keratinized and die.

Nails PINK in color because of the rich blood supply of the dermis.

LUNULA is the white crescent .

When the Oxygen is low, NAIL BED becomes CYANOTIC.

Homeostatic Imbalance (Allergies and Infections)3. Athletes Foot or Tinea Pedis

Itchy, red, and peeling condition between toes that results in fungal infection.

4. Boils and Carbuncles

Inflammation of Hair Follicles and Sebaceous Glands

Common on the Dorsal Neck

Caused by Bacterial Infection (often Staphylococcus Aureus)


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5. Cold Sores or Fever Blisters

Small fluid filled blisters that itch and sting caused by HERPES SIMPLEX infection.

The virus localizes in a cutaneous nerve when it remains dormant until activated by

emotional upset, fever, UV Radiation.

Occurs usually around the LIPS and Mucosa of the Mouth

5. Contact Dermatitis Itching, redness, and swelling of the skin, progressing to blistering caused by exposure of

skin to chemicals (ex. Poison Ivy)

6. Impetigo

Pink, water filled, raised lesions that develop a yellow crust and eventually rupture.

Commonly around the mouth and nose

Caused by Staph

Common in Elementary School Aged Children

7. Psoriasis

Chronic condition characterized by reduced epidermal lesions covered with dry, silvery

scales

Maybe disfiguring when severe. Cause is UNKNOWN but hereditary in some.

Attacks triggered by TRAUMA, INFECTION, HORMONAL CHANGES and STRESS.

BURNS

Tissue damage and cell death caused by:

a. Intense Heat

b. Electricity

c. UV Radiation (Sunburn)

d. Chemicals (Acids)

When skin is burned, 2 life threatening problems result:

c. Loss Of Body Fluids that contains proteins and electrolytes

d. Dehydration and Electrolyte Imbalance follows and can lead to Shutdown of Kidneys andCirculatory Shock (inadequate circulation of blood caused by Low Blood Volume)

To save the patient, lost fluids must be replaced ASAP.

The volume of fluid lost can be estimated by determining the how much body surface is burned

(extent of burns) using the RULE OF NINES. This method divcides the body in 11 areas, each

accounting 9% of the total body surface area surrounding face area, plus surrounding the

genitals 1%.

INFECTION is the most important threat and the LEADING CAUSE OF DEATH in burn

victims

Burned Skin is STERILE for 24 hours but after that, pathogens invade areas and multiply in the

destroyed skin

IMMUNE SYSTEM BECOMES DEPRESSED within 1 2 days after SEVERE burn injury

Burns are classified according to their severity (depth)

1. 1st degree burn

2. 2nd degree burn

3. 3rd degree burn

A. PARTIAL THICKNESS BURNS

1st Degree Burn


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Epidermis is damaged (area becomes RED and SWOLLEN)

Are not usually serious and generally heal 2 3 days without any special attention.

Ex. SUNBURN

2nd Degree Burns

Epidermis and Upper Region of Dermis is damaged. (area becomes RED,

PAINFUL, and with BLISTERS) Regeneration can occur because of the epithelial cells are present.

B. FULL THICKNESS BURNS

3rd Degree Burn

Destroy the entire thickness of the skin

Burned area appears BLANCHED (gray white) and BLACKNED

Since the nerve endings are destroyed it is NOT PAJNFUL

REGENERATION IS IMPOSSIBLE.

Treatment is SKIN GRAFTING to cover exposed tissues

In General, Burns are considered CRITICAL if:

1. 25% OF THE BODY HAS 2ND DEGREE BURNS2. Over 10% of the BODY HAS 3rd DEGREE BURN

3. 3Rd DEGREE BURNS on FACE, HANDS, or FEET.

Facial Burns are dangerous because of the possibility of burned Respiratory Passageways which can

swell and cause SUFFOCATION.

Joint Injuries are troublesome because the scar tissue that forms can severely limit JOINT

MOBILITY.

SKIN CANCER

Most skin tumors are BENIGN and doesnt spread (metastasize) to other body areas. (ex. WART, a

neoplasm)

Basal Cell Carcinoma

1. Least Malignant and Most Common Skin Cancer

2. Cells of the Stratum Basale altered so they cant form Keratin.

3. Cancer Lesions occurs most often on SUN EXPOSED AREAS of the FACE and appear as shiny,dome shaped nodules that later develop a central ulcer with a pearly beaded edge.

4. Slow Growing and Metastasis seldom occurs before noticed.

5. Full Cure is the rule in 99 percent of cases where the lesion is removed surgically.

Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Arises from the Stratum Spinosum

Lesions appear as scaly, reddened papule that gradually forms and shallow ulcer with a

firm raised border.

Appears on SCALP, EARS, DORSUM OF HANDS, and LOWER LIP. Grows rapidly and metastasize to adjacent Lymph Nodes if not removed.

SUN INDUCED

If caught early and removed surgically or by radiation, the chance of cure is high.

Malignant Melanoma

CANCER OF MELANOCYTES

Appears as spreading brown to black patch that metastasizes rapidly to surrounding lymph

node and blood vessels.


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ABCD RULE TO RECOGNIZE MELANOMA

a. ASSYMETRY 2 SIDES OF PIGMENTED MOLE DOESNT MATCH

b. BORDER IRREGULARITY BORDERS OF LESIONS ARE NOT SMOOTH BUT WITH

INDENTATIONS

c. COLOR DIFFERENT COLORS (BLACKS, BROWNS, TANS, AND SOMETIMESREDS)

d. DIAMETER SPOT LARGER THAN 6MM SIZE OF PENCIL ERASER.Treatmeant is wide surgical incision along with immunotherapy.

ALOPECIA Baldness or Thinning of Hair

MALE PATTERN BALDNESS men become obviously bald

CAUSES OF HAIR LOSS and GRAYING OF HAIR

1. Anxiety

3. Protein deficiency diet

4. Chemotherapy

5. Radiation

6. Excessive Vitamin A Intake

7. Ringworm

Baldness and Graying of Hair occurs with AGING.

Anatomy Introduction and Cells

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Transcript of Anatomy Introduction and Cells